Engineering Mechanics I

Fluid Mechanics
1-2 Unit and Dimension
1-3 Density and specific gravity specific volume
1-4 Viscosity

FIG 1
FIG 2
Surface tension

FIG 3

As shown in Fig., a dewdrop appearing on a plant leaf is spherical in shape. This

is also because of the tendency to shrink due to surface tension. Consequently
its internal pressure is higher than its peripheral pressure
FIG 4
 T
T

T
T
Whenever a fine tube is pushed through the free surface of a liquid, the liquid rises
up or falls in the tube as shown in Fig owing to the relation between the surface
tension and the adhesive force between the liquid and the solid. This phenomenon is
called capillarity. As shown, d is the diameter of the tube, θ the contact angle of the
liquid to the wall, ρ the density of liquid, and h the mean height of the liquid
surface. The following equation is obtained owing to the balance between the
adhesive force of liquid stuck to the wall, trying to pull the liquid up the tube by the
surface tension, and the weight of liquid in the tube:

FIG 5
Example: A 0.6-mm-diameter glass tube is inserted into water at 20C in a cup. Determine
the capillary rise of water in the tube

T
Compressibility

As shown in Fig. assume that fluid of volume V

at pressure p decreased its volume by ΔV due to
the further increase in pressure by Δp. In this
case, since the cubic dilatation of the fluid is
ΔV/V, the bulk modulus K is expressed by the
following equation:

FIG 6
5

6
In gauge pressure, a pressure under 1
atmospheric pressure is expressed as a
negative pressure. This relation is shown in
Fig.7.Most gauges are constructed to
indicate the gauge pressure.

FIG 7
 FIG 8

FIG 8
 In general, in a fluid at rest the pressure varies according to the depth. Consider a minute
column in the fluid as shown in Fig. 9 Assume that the sectional area is dA and the
pressure acting upward on the bottom surface is p and the pressure acting downward on
the upper surface (dz above the bottom surface) is p + (dp/dz)dz. Then, from the balance
of forces acting on the column, the following equation is obtained:

--------1

FIG 8
 --------2

When the base point is set at zo below the upper surface of liquid as shown in Fig. 10,
and po is the pressure acting on that surface, then p = po when z = zo, so

Substituting this equation into eqn2

--------3

EX: What is the water pressure on the sea

bottom at a depth of 6m? The specific gravity
FIG 9 of sea water is assumed to be 1.03.
 A device which measures the fluid pressure by the height of a liquid column is
called a manometer. For example, in the case of measuring the pressure of liquid
flowing inside a pipe, the pressure p can be obtained by measuring the height of
liquid H coming upwards into a manometer made to stand upright as shown in Fig.
10(a). When po is the atmospheric pressure and p is the density, the following
equation is obtained:
--------4
When the pressure p is large, this is inconvenient because H is too high. So a U-tube
manometer, as shown in Fig. 10(b), containing a high-density liquid such as mercury
is used. In this case, when the density is ρ’,

--------5

In the case of measuring the air pressure, ρ’ >> ρ, so ρgH in eqn (5) may be omitted. In
the case of measuring the pressure difference between two pipes in both of which a
liquid of density ρ flows, a differential manometer as
 When the pressure p
is large

FIG 10

FIG 11

where the differential

pressure of the liquid is
when the differential
small
pressure is large
Shown in Fig. 11 is used. In the case of Fig. 11(a), where the differential pressure of
the liquid is small, measurements are made by filling the upper section of the meter
with a liquid whose density is less than that of the liquid to be measured, or with a
gas. Thus

Figure 11(b) shows the case when the differential pressure is large. This time, a
liquid column of a larger density than the measuring fluid is used.

A U-tube manometer as shown in Fig. 11 is inconvenient for measuring fluctuating

pressure, because it is necessary to read both the right and left water levels
simultaneously to measure the different pressure. For measuring the differential
pressure, if the sectional area of one tube is made large enough, as shown in Fig. 12,
the water column of height H could be measured by just reading the liquid surface
level in the other tube because the surface fluctuation of liquid in the tank can be
ignored.
FIG 12

FIG 13
To measure a minute pressure, a glass tube inclined at an appropriate angle as shown
in Fig. 13 is used as an inclined manometer. When the angle of inclination is a and the
movement of the liquid surface level is L, the differential pressure His as shown in the
following equation:

Elastic-type pressure gauge

An elastic-type pressure gauge is a type of pressure gauge which measures the
pressure by balancing the pressure of the fluid with the force of deformation of an
elastic solid. The Bourdon tube (invented by Eugene Bourdon, 1808-84) (Fig. 14), the
diaphragm (Fig. 15), the bellows, etc., are widely employed for this type of pressure
gauge.
Of these, the Bourdon tube pressure gauge (Bourdon gauge) of Fig. 14 is the most
widely used in industry.
FIG 14 FIG 15
(applied piezoresistance effect), etc. These types
of pressure gauge are useful for measuring
fluctuating pressures. Two examples of pressure
gauges utilizing the wire strain gauge are shown in
Fig. 16.

FIG 16
Problem
1-Obtain the pressure difference p , - p2 in Figs (a) and (b).
 whenever water is allowed to flow at a
low velocity by opening the tap a little, the
water flows out smoothly with its surface in
the laminar state. But as the tap is gradually
opened to let the water velocity increase,
the flow becomes turbulent and opaque
with a rough surface. As shown in Fig below
 In steady flow, the mass flow per unit time passing through each section does not
change, even if the pipe diameter changes. This is the law of conservation of mass.
For the pipe shown in Fig. whose diameter decreases between sections 1 and 2,
which have cross-sectional areas A1 , and A2 respectively, and at which the mean
velocities are v1 and v2 and the densities ρ1 and ρ 2 Respectively,
 It is clear from eqn. above that the flow velocity is inversely proportional to the
cross-sectional area of the pipe. When the diameter of the pipe is reduced, the flow
velocity increases

Example: Find the flow velocities vI, v2 and v3

in the conduit shown in Fig. The flow rate Q is
800L/min and the diameters d1,d2 and d3, at
sections1,2 and 3 are 50,60 and 100mm
respectively.
Bernoulli's equation
Consider a roller-coaster running with
great excitement in an amusement park Fig.
The speed of the roller-coaster decreases
when it is at the top of the steep slope, and
it increases towards the bottom. This is
because the potential energy increases and
kinetic energy decreases at the top, and the
opposite occurs at the bottom. However,
ignoring frictional losses, the sum of the two
forms of energy is constant at any height.
This is a manifestation of the principle of
conservation of energy for a solid.
Figures (a) and (b) show the relationship
between the potential energy of water (its
level) and its kinetic energy (the speed at which
it gushes out of the pipe). A fluid can attain
large kinetic energy when it is under pressure
as shown in Fig. (c). A water hydraulic or oil
hydraulic press machine is powered by the
forces and energy due to such pressure.
In fluids, these three forms of energy are exchangeable and, again ignoring frictional
losses, the total energy is constant. This is an expression of the law of conservation of
energy applied to a fluid. Bernoulli's equation is given as:

between arbitrary points, and therefore at all points, along a streamline. Dividing each
term in eqn. 1by g,

Multiplying each term of eqn 1by ρ,

1
(1) represent the kinetic energy, energy due to pressure and potential energy respectively,
per unit mass. The terms of eqn (2) represent energy per unit weight, and they have the
units of length (m) so they are commonly termed heads.

The units of the terms of eqn (3) are kg/(s2m) expressing energy per unit volume.
Thus, eqns (1) to (3) express the law of conservation of energy in that the sum of
the kinetic energy, energy due to pressure and potential energy (ie. the total
energy) is always constant. This is Bernoulli's equation. If the streamline is
horizontal, then the term ρgh can be omitted giving the following:

where ρv2/2 is called the dynamic pressure,

ps the static pressure, and pt the total
pressure or stagnation pressure. Static
pressure ps can be detected, as shown in Fig.,
by punching a small hole vertically in the
solid wall face parallel to the flow.
 As Bernoulli's theorem applies to a flow
line, it is also applicable to the flow in a
pipe line as shown in Fig. Assume the
pipe line is horizontal, and z1 = z2 in eqn
(2). The following relative equation is
obtained:
 Venturi tube
As shown in Fig. a device where the flow rate in a pipe line is measured by narrowing a
part of the tube is called a Venturi tube. In the narrowed part of the tube, the flow
velocity increases. By measuring the resultant decreasing pressure, the flow rate in the
pipe line can be measured.

Assuming that the pipe line is horizontal,

From the continuity equation

In the case where the flowing fluid is a gas, pl - p2 is measured by a U-tube. However,
since there is some loss of energy between sections A, and A, in actual cases, the above
equation is amended as follows:
C is called the coefficient of discharge.

Pitot tube
Pitot, who was engaged in research work, hit upon an idea one day for a
very simple measuring device of flow rate. It was a device where the
lower end of a glass tube is bent by 90" and supported against the flow.
The flow velocity was to be measured by measuring the increased height
of the water level. It is said that, as soon as he had hit upon this idea, he
rushed to the River Seine carrying a glass tube with a bent end. The device
incorporating that idea is shown in Fig. This device is called a Pitot tube,
and it is widely used even nowadays.
 Let pA and vA respectively be the static pressure and the velocity at position
A of the undisturbed upstream flow. At opening B of the Pitot tube, the
flow is stopped, making the velocity zero and the pressure pB. B is called the
stagnation point. Apply Bernoulli's equation between A and B,and

or

In a parallel flow, the static pressure pA is the same on the streamline adjacent to A and is
detected by hole C normal to the flow. Thus, since pc = pA, eqn (1) becomes:

And, since (pB - pc)/pg = H, the following equation is obtained:

3
Flow through a small hole I: the case where water level does not change As
shown in Fig. we study here the case where water is discharging from a small hole on the
side of a water tank. Such a hole is called an orifice. As shown in the figure, the spouting
flow contracts to have its smallest section B a small distance from the hole. Here, it is
conceived that the flow lines are almost parallel so that the pressures are uniform from
the periphery to the centre of the flow. This part of the flow is called the vena contracta.
Assume that fluid particle A on the water surface has flowed down to section B. Then,
from Bernoulli's theorem,

Assuming that the water tank is large and

the water level does not change,at point A,
vA = 0 and zA = H, while at point B, zB = 0. If
pA is the atmospheric pressure, then

Equation aboveis called Torricelli's theorem

C is called the coefficient of discharge. For a small hole with a sharp edge, C is approximately
0.60.

Flow through a small hole 2: the case where water level changes The
theoretical flow velocity is

Assume that dQ of water flows out in time

dt with the water level falling by dH (Fig.).
Then
Problem

1-In the case shown in Fig., water at a flow rate of Q =

0.2m3/s is supplied to the cylindrical water tank of diameter
1 m discharging through a round pipe of length 4 m and
diameter 15 cm. How deep will the water in the tank be?

Ans: H = 2.53m

2-As shown in Fig., if water flows out of the

tank of head 50cm
through the throttle, obtain the pressure at
the throat.
Ans:-7.49 mH,O