CHAPTER 2

Literature review
This area is divided into 7 sections. Section 2.1 is about the introduction of discourse; how
discourse is formed. Section 2.2 deals with the overview of discourse analysis. Section 2.3 sheds
light on the detailed summary of Critical Discourse Analysis and the approaches it contains.
Section 2.4 deals with the autobiography and its functions in our society. Moreover, it also tells
about the previous literature on autobiography in Pakistan and discusses Reham Khan as an
autobiography. Section 2.5 deals with the construction of identity and the role it plays in self-
narration. Section 2.6 deals with the construal of ideology in an autobiography and how ‘self’
and ‘other’ play role in building identity and ideology.
2.1 Discourse formation

The sentence is known as one of the most significant and noteworthy in the positional scale
language as syntactic investigation of language is limited to sentence examination. In the above
sentence, space is not created in the examination through a sentence. The requirement of
sentence disclosure is increasing day by day in the research language. Various scholars
considered discource essential as it is mentioned in the above sentence (Stubbs 1983, Schiffrin
19871, T. Onadeko 2000). The structuralists and formalists are worried about The etymological
highlights of all-inclusive language-phonology, linguistic structure and semantics, which do
exclude associated sentences or expressions. Associated sentences are the structure squares of
discourse. Schiffrin (1994) states that consistent with the meaning of discourse as language "over
the sentence," numerous contemporary auxiliary analysis of discourse see the sentence as the
unit of which discourse is contained. (pg. 25)
Etymologists who thought that it was hard to give a succinct meaning of discourse did not think
that it's hard to concur that discourse is language past sentence. It is alluded to as language utilize
bigger than sentence. Associated sentences in a normally happening expression assume a
significant job in the development of discourse. Discourse isn't only a blend of sentences; it must
happen in a specific setting brought together and pass on a social significance. It is conceivable
to join sentences together without firm solidarity. Such amalgam of sentences can't allude as
discourse it doesn't have the highlights that discourse is relied upon to have. Crystal (1992)
clarifies that Discourse is a persistent stretch of (particularly communicated in) language bigger
than a sentence, regularly comprising an intelligible unit, for example, a lesson, contention, joke,
or account. (pg. 25) His clarification approves that discourse isn't shaped by any incoherent
stretch of sentences, however planned language in a social setting. Discourse is found in all
fields of realizing where language is utilized for intelligent purposes, for example, law, science,
medication, training, style, designing, sport, legislative issues, media and that's only the tip of the
iceberg. Just like many other eminent researchers, Crystal limits the function of discourse to only
communicate in the language. We should, along these lines, realize that discourse can either be
spoken or composed. Egbe (1996) underpins the view when he alludes to "discourse and content"
as "associated discourse and persistent composition separately, and contextualizes both as "a
stretch of common language that is longer than the sentence," which is discourse.
In another position, discourse is seen from the social capacity of language as language being
used. Schiffrin (1994)) gives a complete significance of discourse when she clarifies discourse as
"a specific unit of language (over the sentence), and a specific centre (on language use)”. The
clarification covers the two points of view of researchers on discourse as a section of language
past sentence and as language being used. The two points of view are formalist and practical
ways to deal with discourse.
Discourse is both basic and utilitarian in nature and the best way to deal with discourse is to
elucidate it from both basic and useful points of view to indicate how language is utilized in
social setting, and what it is utilized to do.
2.2 Discourse Analysis
Discourse examination is the investigation of what we people do with language and how
we do it. We don't utilize language just to give each other data. We people likewise use
language to think, plan, and dream; to design and refashion our characters; to security
with, or show regard towards others; to express feelings; to work together or control; to
complete activities, tasks, and activism of every single diverse sort; to frame and keep up
(or break separated) social connections; and to change the world in manners of all shapes
and sizes. Discourse examination is a major field comprised of a wide range of
moderately little gatherings, each doing discourse investigation in their own specific
manner; each utilizing their very own wording and protecting their very own
speculations of language, correspondence, and society. It tends to be difficult to know
whether these various methodologies differ or simply use words in an unexpected way.
Notwithstanding when it is clear they dissent, it is difficult to tell how to mediate the
contradiction crosswise over phrased, disciplinary, and hypothetical contrasts.
It is nothing unexpected that the expressions "discourse" and "discourse investigation"
have various implications for researchers in various fields. For some, especially
etymologists, "discourse" has for the most part been characterized as anything "past the
sentence" (Schiffrin, Tannen,& Hamilton, 2001). For other people like Fasold (1990)
asserts that the investigation of discourse is the analysis of language use. (p. 65)
So bounteous are meanings of discourse that numerous phonetics books regarding the
matter are currently open with a review of definitions. In their accumulation of great
papers in discourse examination, for instance, (Jaworski and Coupland 1999, p. 1–3)
incorporate ten definitions from a wide scope of sources. They all, in any case, fall into
the three principle classifications are as follws:
1. anything past the sentence,
2. language use, and
3. a more extensive scope of social practice that incorporates nonlinguistic and vague
occurrences of language.
(Snape and Spencer, 2003) states that discourse investigation starts from the order of
humanism and is about looking at the manner in which learning is delivered inside
various discourses and the performances, phonetic styles and logical gadgets utilized
specifically accounts (p. 200).
(Jankowicz, 2005) addresses the discourse that discourse analysis is of specific
significance when tuning in to individual’s very own accounts of a circumstance – the
true to life approach (p.229).
Nielson and Norreklit (2009) assert that Discourse Analysis is a social practice which
builds social personalities, social relations and the learning and importance frameworks
of the social world. Both reflect and deliver the thoughts and suppositions identifying
with the manners by which individual personalities, social relations, and information
frameworks are established through social practice (p. 204).
At the end of the day, discourse investigation considers the to be of discourse as a sort of
two-way reflect: it both reflects and adds to the social world, its information frameworks
and its social connections.

2.2.1 Where does discourse analysis fit?

Discourse analysis is an investigative system instead of a hypothesis, and its prominence has
emerged from the developing enthusiasm, beginning late in the only remaining century, in
subjective research and methods for breaking down the information it produces. There are
various comparative strategies, for instance,
● content analysis, which investigates discoourse as per key factors,
● narrative analysis, which takes a gander at the examples individuals find in their lives and
circumstances, and
● conversational analysis, which takes a gander at the structure of exchange
Machin and Mayr (2012) are of the view that Discourse Analysis is the feeling of being crirical.
In this way, the objective of CDA is to basically look at content critically.
2.2.2 Functions of Discourse Analysis

There are a few capacities that language can be utilized to perform in social setting
particularly interactional conversational communication. Jakobson (1960) proposes six
elements of language which Hymes (1962) likewise underpins. Stubbs having watched
these capacities, expands on Jakobson's and Hymes' commitments by making his own
recommendation on elements of language as expressive or emotive, mandate or conative,
lovely, contact or phatic, metalinguistic, referential and relevant capacities. (Stubbs, 1995, p.
46)
Halliday (1970) has likewise proposed three-wide works he accepts language ought to
execute as ideational, relational and printed capacities. These capacities can be performed
by language in various sorts of discourse. Writings can be taken from different kinds of
discourse, for example, family (cooperation among relatives), homeroom (collaboration
among educator and understudies), emergency clinic (communication among specialist and
patient), advertise (association among vendor and purchaser), political (discussion among
political on-screen characters on political issues), religious (connection among cleric and
assemblage), lawful (discussion on legitimate issues either between the judge and the
denounced or among attorney and his customer). In every one of these fields of human
activity, the capacity that language is utilized to perform can be arranged in any of the
capacities given above, or on occasion a discourse can play out a portion of this capacity
whenever broke down.

Discourse examination bargains principally at two levels: micro level and macro level,
joining both semantics and social components. It is already mentioned in detail that
discourse practices are seen mostly in the informative occasions. As per Chilton and
Schauffner (2002), these informative occasions are portrayals of specific convictions, belief
systems, characters and legislative issues. language use isn't sans significance or with no
reason, open occasions has certain underlining importance in themselves which they
needed to pass on to the recipient verifiably or unequivocally in this way, as portrays by
Wodak and Cilla (2006) open occasions or correspondence is something more perplexing
than moving a basic message from sender to collector it should be broke down and
deciphered altogether to get the total message. Discourse investigation can be managed at
three fundamental ideal models, right off the bat the semantic worldview which incorporates
language being used, besides social worldview which centers social rehearses which
incorporates non-phonetic cases of language, thirdly the coordinated worldview which
incorporates semantic, non-linguistic features highlights alongside ideological and social
presumptions that develop a process under scrutiny (Ekaterina, 2012).

Fitch (2005) accepts that discourse investigation does not have an unbending arrangement
of standards and system for the examination of the content. Discourse investigation has a
few techniques for investigation of content and discourse examination is regularly
considered as a general strategy for the elucidation of a content. Various investigators utilize
various systems for elucidation of a content contingent upon the idea of the content, some
keep an eye on etymological part of the content (printed or verbal, for example, linguistic
parts of the content, residual draw their sources from conversational examination. Another
significant part of discourse examination is a basic discourse examination (CDA) which
consolidates numerous things, for example, phonetic investigation, ideological criticism and
cognitive psychology.

2.3 Critical Discourse Analysis

According to (Widdoson, 2000), Critical Discourse Analysis is the revealing of
unrevealed philosophies in writings. It uncovers the fundamental ideological preferences
and in this manner the activity of intensity in writings. This exploration venture
endeavours to fundamentally break down the connection between language, belief
system, and society. As Van Dijk (1993) puts it that basic discourse examiners need to
get, uncover, and oppose social imbalance. The establishments of CDA have been laid by
basic language specialists and scholar, and since the 1980s – because of crafted by the
British sociolinguist Norman Fairclough – has increased a great deal of consideration.

Fairclough characterizes CDA as pursues:

By basic discourse analysis, I mean discourse investigation which expects to

methodically investigate regularly murky connections of causality and assurance between
the discourse practices, occasions and messages, and more

extensive social and social structures, relations and procedures. Purpose of it to inquire
about to research how such practices, occasions and messages emerge out of and are
ideologically moulded by relations of intensity and battles over power, and to investigate
how the murkiness of these connections among discourse and society is itself a factor
verifying force and authority." (Fairclough, 1995, p. 132-3)

As indicated by Wodak (2001), the terms Critical Linguistics (CL) and Critical Discourse
Analysis (CDA) are regularly utilized conversely. Truth be told, as of late it appears that
the term CDA is liked and is utilized to indicate the hypothesis once distinguished as CL.
CDA respects 'language as social practise' (Fairclough and Wodak, 1997), and takes
thought of the setting of the language used to be essential (Wodak, 2001). Moreover, she
additionally says that CDA takes a specific enthusiasm for the connection between
language and power. Wodak proceeds to state that CDA expects to examine basically
social disparity as it is communicated, flagged, established, legitimized, etc by language
use (or in discourse).

2.3.1 History of CDA; the start of a ‘scientific peer group’

Wodak (2001) discourses about the start of CDA as a system of researchers developed in
the mid-1990s, after a little symposium in Amsterdam, in January 1991. By some
coincidence and through the help of the University of Amsterdam, Teun van Dijk,
Norman Fairclough, Gunther Kress, Theo van Leeuwen and Ruth Wodak went through
two days together and had the awesome chance to discourse about hypotheses and
techniques for discourse examination and explicitly CDA. The gathering made it feasible
for everybody to go up against one another with the unmistakable and various
methodologies, which still mark the various methodologies today (see the papers in this
book and related writing). In this procedure of gathering arrangement, contrasts and
equivalence were uncovered; contrasts towards different hypotheses and strategies in
discourse investigation (see Titscher et al., 2000), and equality in an automatic way
which could outline the varying hypothetical methodologies of the different memoirs and
schools of the particular researchers.

Obviously, the beginning of this CDA system is likewise set apart by the dispatch of Van
Dijk's journal Discourse and Society (1990) just as through a few books, as Language and
Power by Norman Fairclough (1989), Language, Power and Ideology by Ruth Wodak
(1989) or Teun van Dijk's first book on bigotry, Prejudice in Discourse (1984). Be that as
it may, the Amsterdam meeting decided an institutional start, an endeavour both to begin
a trade program (ERASMUS for a long time) and various joint tasks and coordinated
efforts between the various researchers and methodologies just as an extraordinary issue
of Discourse and Society (1993), which brought the previously mentioned methodologies
together. From that point forward, much has changed, the plan just as the researchers
included. New diaries have been propelled, different reviews have been composed, and
these days CDA is a built-up worldview in phonetics. (Wodak, 2001).

2.3.2 Different Directions in CDA:

Among the scholars whose works have profoundly contributed to the development of
CDA are Teun. vanDijk, Ruth Wodak and Norman Fairclough.

A) Norman Fairclough: Discourse as Social Practice

Norman Fairclough is one of the best and main factor in the ear of CDA and he is the
British sociolinguist. In his vantage-point CDA is a system for investigating social and
social alterations that could be used in testing the power and control of a world-class
bundle on different people. Fairclough acknowledges that our language, which shapes our
social characters and affiliations, learning systems, and feelings, is furthermore formed
by them hence. Like Kress and Van Leeuwen, he puts together his assessments with
respect to Halliday's principal valuable language structure. In Language and Power
(1989), he calls his methodology Critical Language Study and ponders the chief purpose
of his philosophy as modifying the gigantic lack of regard in association with the
centrality of language in making, keeping up and developing the social relations of force.
This first target will, as a rule, be the theoretical bit of Fairclough's approach. The second
one which is bringing issues to light to the inquiry that how language can impact the
predominance of one gathering of individuals over the others could be considered as
thereasonable part of his methodology. He accepts that mindfulness is the initial move
towards liberation. To arrive at the last objective Fairclough has put an incredible
accentuation on raising the degree of individuals' awareness, for he accept that in
discourse, the subjects don't, carefully, recognize what they are doing, and they are
unconscious of the potential social effect of what they do or express.

Text and Discourse

Fairclough thinks about language as a type of social practice. These lines of reasoning
suggest some different ideas. To begin with, language is a piece of the general public and
not by one way or another outer to it. Second, language is a social procedure. Third,
language is a socially moulded procedure, adapted the other (non-etymological) portions
of society (Fairclough, 1989, p. 22). The noteworthy point in Fairclough's view is that
every single etymological marvel is social, however it isn't accurate the other path round.

For example, when we are discussing the political words, for example, majority rule
government, dominion, or fear-based oppression we utilize etymological components,
however this is just a piece of the entire governmental issues. Along these lines the
connection among language and society doesn't watch a balanced correspondence; rather,
the general public is the entire and language is a piece of it.

The second inferred idea – for example language is a social procedure – is important just
when we accept discourse as not the same as content, as Fairclough. Fairclough's idea of
content is actually the equivalent as Halliday's, and this term covers both composed
discourse and spoken discourse. For him content is an item, not a procedure. Fairclough
utilizes the term discourse to allude to the total procedure of social connection. Content is
simply a division of this procedure since he considers three components for, In this
methodology of CDA, there are three logical concentrations in examining any
informative occasion (communication). They are content (for example a news report),
discourse practice(for example the procedure of generation and utilization), and
sociocultural practice (example social furthermore, social structures which offer ascent to
the informative occasion) (Fairclough, 1995b, p. 57; Chuliaraki& Fairclough, 1999, p.
113).

Fairclough's framework for analyzing a communicative event

A) Text:

The principal scientific focal point of Fairclough's three-section model is content.

Investigation of content includes phonetic examination as far as jargon, language
structure, semantics, the sound framework, and attachment association over the
sentence level (Fairclough, 1995, p. 57).

The phonetic examination is connected to content's lexical-linguistic and semantic

properties, two viewpoints that have shared effect on one another (pp. 57-58).
Following SFL, Fairclough likewise sees content from a multifunctional point of view.
As indicated by Fairclough, any sentence in content is analyzable regarding the
explanation of these capacities, which he has relabeled portrayals, relations, and
personalities:
•Particular portrayals and recontextualizations of social practice (ideational capacity) -
maybe conveying specific belief systems.
• Specific developments of author and peruser characters (for instance, in the wording
of what is featured - regardless of whether status and job parts of personality, or
individual and character parts of personality)
• Specific development of the connection among essayist and peruser (as, for occasion,
formal or casual, close or inaccessible). (Fairclough, 1995b, p. 58) As per Fairclough
(1995), phonetic examination is worried about existences just as nonattendances in
writings that could incorporate "portrayals, classifications of member, developments of
member personality or member relations" (p. 58).

B) Discourse practice:
 As indicated by Fairclough (1995, p. 58-59), this measurement has two aspects:
institutional process (for example article methodology), and discourse forms (changes
the content experience underway and utilization). For Fairclough, "discourse practice
straddles the division among society and culture from one perspective, and discourse,
language and content on the other" (p. 60).

C) Sociocultural practice:
For Fairclough (1995, p. 62), investigation in this measurement relates to three parts of
the sociocultural setting of an open occasion: monetary (for example economy of the
media), political (for example power and philosophy of the media), and social (for
example issues of qualities). As indicated by Fairclough, one doesn't need to complete
examination at all levels however any level that may "be pertinent to understanding the
specific occasion" (p. 62).

Intertextuality and intertextual analysis

In this diagnostic structure, while there is phonetic examination at the content level,
there is additionally semantic investigation at the discourse practice level that
Fairclough calls "intertextual investigation" (1995, p. 61). As indicated by Fairclough
(1995), Intertextual investigation centers around the fringe among content and
discourse practice in the scientific structure. Intertextual examination is taking a gander
at content from the viewpoint of discourse work on, taking a gander at the hints of the
discourse practice in the content. (p. 16) As indicated by Fairclough (1995), "semantic
examination is elucidating in nature, while intertextual examination is progressively
interpretative" (p. 16). Fairclough (1992, p. 84) characterizes intertextuality as,
"essentially the property writings have of being loaded with grabs of different writings,
which might be expressly outlined or converged in, and which the content may
acclimatize, repudiate, incidentally reverberation, etc."

B) Ruth Wodak: Discourse- historical approach to CDA

Ruth Wodak and his partners at Vienna University have worked inside the sociological model for
their CDA thinks about. This model depends on Bernstein's convention in sociolinguistics and
Frankfurt School, particularly JurgenHabermas. In view of this model, Wodak has had a few
examinations on the institutional relations and discourse boundaries in courts, school, also,
clinics. As of late he has begun to take a shot at sexism, hostile to Semitism, and bigotry.
Actually, the significant objective of him and his associates is to incorporated research. They
have offered rules to abstain from utilizing chauvinist language and some different rules for
proper patient-specialist correspondence. Hostile to Semitism considers after the Second World
War, made Wodak and his partners to picked "authentic methodology" to CDA. The particular
component of this methodology is that it endeavors to utilize all the foundation data in dissecting
various layers of a spoken or composed content.
Wodak (2001, p. 69-70) has advanced a few highlights for the recorded way to deal with CDA as
pursues:
1. This methodology is interdisciplinary. Like other basic etymologists, Wodak recognizes the
multifaceted nature of the connection among language and society. Therefore he accepts that
CDA is interdisciplinary in nature.
2. This interdisciplinary nature could be seen both in principle and practice. He joins
argumentation hypothesis and discourse with Halliday's Functional Linguistics.
3. This methodology is issue situated as opposed to underlining some uncommon language
issues.
4. Technique and hypothesis are picked through variance.
5. In this methodology the investigator is consistently progressing among hypothesis and exact
date.
6. Authentic setting will go under scrutiny and will be fused into the investigation of discourse
and messages.

Discourse and Text

Tuen A. van Dijk and the Socio Cognitive Approach

van Dijk is a main figure in this field. He wants to utilize the term of basic discourse thinks about
(CDS) rather than basic discourse examination as he saw this term of CDS more thorough than
CDA and he expounded this term as a general term which proposes a basic methodology which
yields the basic examination as well as requirements the basic hypothesis just as basic
applications and this consolidation of various speculations make it progressively far reaching
(van Dijk, 2002). He further adds to the significance by portraying progressively about CDS that
it is a type of basic research which uses assortment of techniques and systems from discourse
thinks about and from different trains, for example, sociologies, brain research and humanities
(van Dijk, 2002). It's a multidisciplinary approach which takes its technique from all other
related fields to satisfy the motivation behind examination, as van Dijk, (2002) clarifies that
basic discourse contemplates researchers are worried about practices occurring in the general
public, for the most part social in nature, by people and gatherings as CDS researchers are keen
on the manners in which discourse imitate social mastery in the general public that how one
gathering exercise its capacity on the other gathering and how this control is opposed
accordingly. Examination of the social marvel requires comprehension of the setting and for the
investigation of the setting CDS needs a strategy or a hypothesis, a perplexing connection
between the content and the discussion (van Dijk, 2002) further; he gives the essential purpose of
his methodology as
1. The point of basic discourse studies is to give the arrangement of genuine social issues by
understanding their actual nature; particularly those emerge because of a few social clash either
in content or discourse for instance power maltreatment by an overwhelming gathering of the
general public and coming about imbalance.
2. The investigation of some social marvel ought to be led from regularizing stance, it ought to
be as per universal human rights, which permit evaluation of such misuse and diverse rambling
practices and look for rules for functional inclusion and encounter against illicit mastery.
3. The investigation particularly thinks about the premiums of the casualties of desultory
shameful acts and disparity.
Tuen A van Dijk varies somewhat from others in his methodology as he puts accentuation on
insight to an a lot bigger degree than others, alongside other significant issues, for example,
predominance. vanDijk primary zones of research are broad communications and parliamentary
discussions, which incorporates issues, for example, control misuse, social mastery prejudice and
xenophobia. He additionally encircled discourse perception society triangle and found a cozy
connection between them as he officially portrayed the idea of discourse as an informative
occasion includeing extra semantic highlights. As per van Dijk (2001) perception is the missing
connection in basic discourse thinks about; he gave this missing connection, as comprehension as
indicated by him relates both degree of an individual, individual and social. Comprehension
moreover incorporates convictions, objectives, developments and feelings; alongside it
additionally incorporates mental structures, procedures of cooperation and portrayals. The
second significant thing in his approach is society and as indicated by him society incorporates
all the significant intriguers' vital for investigation, for example, eye to eye communications
between the people and other all around characterized structures, for example, political
structures, gatherings and their relations and other theoretical marvel of society. The total
comprehension of this group of three is critical to do a far reaching discourse examination of a
specific marvel and these fundamentals need nitty gritty examination as minor investigation of
content and discourse won't give the possibility of specific discourse van Dijk (2001) attests that
after the mix of every one of these components one may effectively reach in the portrayal,
clarification and comprehension of the social issues. Social comprehensions are established in
the brains of individual as it may be the marvel of intensity, belief system or character, these
thoughts are social as these are socially recognized and shared qualities among people and
gatherings and structure their social association and cooperation on an entire Indeed, "belief
systems are the principal social discernments that mirror the essential points, interests and
estimations of gatherings" (van Dijk, 1993 p. 258).
Setting has indispensable significance in van Dijk psychological model, and he bargains this idea
of setting at two levels, in particular worldwide and nearby. He characterizes the distinction
between nearby also, worldwide setting. Nearby setting arrangements with the sociolinguistic
parts of convenience hypothesis that what we state in which way to whom and it likewise
depends upon to whom we are discourseing, when and where, and what is the motivation behind
this discussion. Worldwide setting bargains at more extensive level which incorporates the
social, social, political and verifiable degree of the setting in which the occasion happens (van
Dijk 2001).
Despite the fact that CDA manages ideas like power, strength, disparity and numerous other
issues, especially it centers various gatherings, associations and organizations and itemized
examination is required for the total comprehension of these social groupings and social points of
view shared by these gatherings. As indicated by van Dijk (2001) most significant thing is the
information which incorporates individual, gathering and social learning , the second thing of
significance is frame of mind which is gathering of socially imparted insights and third yet, the
most significant is philosophy that how a gathering is spoken to socially. Social marvel is spoken
to being used of language by various speakers and van Dijk (2001) proposes a few phonetic
markers to get the implications in the language these pointers incorporates pressure and
inflection example of discourse, word request, lexical decisions and intelligibility. Disclaimer is
one of the significant procedures of language clients which incorporate neighborhood and lexical
significance just as implications of the words and structure of the relational words. Subject
decision is likewise of fundamental significance and furthermore a significant marker which
incorporates the worldwide importance of the content and semantic macrostructures.
Expository figures, syntactic structures, schematic association, implication, turn takings and
delays are likewise the phonetic markers. The most significant subject of CDA considers is
ideological driven discourses, individuals will in general separate themselves based on specific
belief system particularly in a manner they speak to their captivated conclusions by shaping in-
bunches named as (us) and out gatherings named as (them).This should be possible frequently by
comparing the positive portrayal of self and negative portrayals of others and this separation
should be possible at numerous levels as delineated by van Dijk (2001) that journalists or
speakers may concentrate on beneficial things by featuring the positive properties with the
assistance of positive lexical things in depiction of their selves, by giving insight regarding great
activities and minimal about terrible activities, by utilizing interesting expression like
exaggeration and representations, making verifiable certain negative properties, or by featuring
negative deeds trough distinctive strztigies like nominalization and making sentences aloof. This
type of discourse capable the essayists to express as well as to institute control and accomplish
its wanted objectives of either some psychological development or social portrayal, along these
lines thusly this entire procedure impact and control the psyche.
This polarization, us versus them marvel, needs specific technique to be broke down
furthermore, Meyer (2001) explains those purposes of significance and he gave outline of those
focuses which is depicted beneath.
For investigation of the macrostructure semantics, themes and large scale suggestions are
considered. Neighborhood implications are likewise considered to search for understood and
circuitousimplications which may incorporate ramifications, references, exclusions, polarizations
and presuppositions. Certain formal structures are additionally broke down alongside the
investigation of nearby and worldwide structures and arrangements. Investigation of the setting
is of center significance in any content or in any circumstance. Investigation of the etymology
highlights, for example, exaggeration, litotes and so on.
2.4 What is an autobiography?
In self-portrayal, a teller is socially showing a language that discusses and develops personality
and which is, at the same time, making and displaying a feeling of self. Be that as it may, this
feeling of self for open utilization may reproduce a specific adaptation of identitywhich is
socially unmistakable and socially approved. In self-portrayal memory turns into a key specialist
in the forming and recounting the story. (Kehily, 1995)

Additionally, Volosinov (1973) affirms that the speaker is the owner or proprietor of the word at
the purpose of articulation, not the client, or the vehicle for a lot of subjective signs, as in a
structuralist etymological investigation. Volosinov's examination of the social idea of language
reaches out to zones that would somehow or another be named the 'mental'. He characterizes
'internal discourse' as 'expression still during the time spent age' (Volosinov, 1973, p. 87)
Eakin (1985) contends that personal composing includes not just reviewing the past, be that as it
may, the very demonstration of reproducing the past trying to find and concoct oneself:
".... venturing once more into the past not simply to recover yet to rehash the mental cadence s of
character arrangement… .. an indispensable and frequently conclusive stage in the dramatization
of self defnition." (Eakin, 1985, p. 226).
Barthes (1977) claims that the story structure has a comprehensiveness of structure and advance.
It very well may be found in all ages, societies and artistic sorts, 'it is essentially there, similar to
life itself' ( p. 79). It is the point of structuralism to build up an investigation which can offer
shape to the interminability of expressions (paroles) by portraying the language (langue) which
creates them. Barthes contends for the improvement of an examination of story which would be
deductive and accept semantics as its model.
Barthes(1977) contends that underneath each account there is a rationale which gives it structure
and makes it classicable. Bruner contends that account welcomes the peruser's exhibition or
making of a content and through the procedure of execution the peruser makes the content their
own. Along these lines story can beseen as a method for knowing the world and oneself, a
method for characterizing demeanors and sorting out involvement.
Radway (1984) takes up a comparative position in Reading the Romance, by drawing on the
connections perusers make, utilizing their very own insight into sentiment account to arrange and
check their own social universes. Story and self-portrayal, at that point, is more than the result of
the individual essayist or speaker; it is an exceptionally developed exhibition, drawing on a
scope of semantic, abstract and social collections, uncommonly chose for a specific group of
spectators.
2.4.1 The two functions of autobiography
According to Bryam (2010), an important part of the language in our life is in the improvement
of our mental and social parts. It also has a pivotal share in building our identities. Every person
has a specific point of view towards language. So, analyzing language is a subjective approach.
Language plays different significant roles in our daily life. For example, in developing
judgments, shaping our ideologies or assessment of various aspects of life, language fulfils all
needs. Through analyzing any text or discourse, we can understand the ideology of writer or
speaker which further helps in comprehension of identity construction of author or orator. It
means that language not only shapes the whole world of speaker or writer but also reflects the
ideology which further reflects the viewpoint of a specific person. Post (2009) asserts that by
analyzing linguistic features and applying various linguistic trope in text, we can expose the
hidden ideologies from the text. This feature of language is crucial in any domain whether it’s
political, social or religious domain. It helps to put all these domains into practice. Rudyk (2007)
introduced a term in the study of language when there comes a clash of interest known as
“Language Manipulation”. Van Dijk (2007) explains it as it refers to the forceful practice in
which a person by the use of language exercise power on people or impose an ideology on them
against their interest or wish. The main instrument in this “Language Manipulation” is ideology.
The main channel of language to understand identity is ideology so by the use of this ideology,
power is exercised on others which leads to inequality. In this regard, while describing functions
of language, Wodak (2001) asserts that though the language itself has no power contains in it but
language can be used to impose power, overthrow it and can challenge the power. It is the cause
of power differentiation in the construction of social hierarchy. 
Volosinov (1973) sheds light on further functions of language in depth. According to him,
another function of language is the structure of signs it contains. A sign is an important part of
communication. He emphasized that human utterances are the cause of communication. He
analyzed human utterances during social acts which lead to speech acts. He believes that speech
acts have a special significance. These enable the speaker and listener to assume each other even
if a speaker spoke in the absence of the listener or vice versa. So, we can say that language
creates a relationship between listener, speaker and the world around them.

1.2 Self-narration and identity-construction

Various eminent researchers like Deborrah Schiffrin (1996), De Fins (2003) and
Georgakopoulou (2007) thought narrative as a significant tool for the expression of identity.
Narratives are a source of presenting the authors in real life by providing them with a platform.
narratives and identity construction are directly linked to each other. That’s why analysis of the
construction of the identity of the author ‘in the book ‘Reham Khan’ is the chief area of interest
of this dissertation.
Memory plays an important part in the self-narration while unfolding the tales of the past. In
self-narration, memory plays the role of fixing the events of the past. Memory causes huge lapses
and clears the ideas. Memory is always in an active process, continuously working on the
construction and reconstruction of events, thoughts, and experiences. Self-narration and language
are directly proportional to each other. While writing an autobiography or memoir, a writer is
writing the story of self by using a language that gives a sense of his/her self and shows creates
and displays the identity of the author. This identity is not only presented socially but also
endorsed socially.
An autobiography or memoir is about the life or specific part of the life of the author specifically.
The story revolves around the life of the author and sheds light not only on all events of life but
also on all elements of the personality of author i.e. social, political, traditional or religious. An
autobiography is not only about ‘self’ but also its reflections on life, thoughts, place, and value in
the world. One main function of autobiography is that a person presents himself/herself
according to the colours of his/her own choice. Not only this, he can also share personal feelings
or thinking about other people too as per one’s own desire. Thus, it leads to the making of an in-
group or out-group. Another function of autobiography is that it enables the author to collect,
recollect, gather, share the personal feelings, beliefs, thoughts, images and ideas, opinions about
events of past and hopes of future. Way of self-representation is an art and a significant module
in an autobiography. This self-representation leads to the construction of identity of author which
later helps to understand the ideologies of the author hidden in the book.

2.5 Identity Construction

Bruner (2001) while discourseing about elements of collection of memoirs affirms that a life
account serves a double work. From one viewpoint, it is a demonstration of "entrenchment", to
utilize Nelson Goodman's term. In other words, we wish to introduce ourselves to other people
(and to ourselves) as average or trademark or "culture affirming" somehow or another. In other
words, our purposeful states and activities are fathomable in the light of the "society brain
science" that is inborn in our culture.The object of story, at that point, is to demystify deviations.
Account takes care of no issues. It basically finds them so as to make them conceivable. It does
as such by conjuring the play of mental states and of activities that come to pass when
individuals interface with one another and relate these to what can for the most part be required
to occur.

Kehily (2001) is of the view that the investigation of story, subsequently, seems, by all accounts,
to be not only one sub-discipline among others, one that is especially useful for our
comprehension of the turns and turns of human character. There is a more profound,
philosophical point about the connection among story and personality. The general thought of
human character — maybe we can even say, the very probability of human personality — is
attached to the extremely idea of account and narrativity. In their examination, Freeman and
Brockmeier guarantee that one's character, to the extent that it is attached to the interpretive
evaluation of one's close to home past as it happens in self-portraying story, is indivisible from
regulating thoughts of what a life is, or should be, in the event that it is lived well. They call
these thoughts originations of the "great life", attracting consideration regarding the way that the
account development of identity not just has a mental, social, and stylish measurement, yet
additionally a moral one.
In self-portrayal, memory turns into a key operator in the forming and recounting the story.
Regularly observed as a specific procedure, memory is equipped for immense breaches and
practically visionary breakthrough moments Memory oftentimes assumes the job of occasions
before. Be that as it may, this 'fixing' can be viewed as an impermanent state, since memory is a
functioning procedure, continually working and modifying individual encounters. (Kehily 2001)
Various recollections can be activated by various settings, as the accompanying statement is
called attention to by Hollway, (1989, p. 39):
Individuals' records are constantly unexpected: upon accessible time and discourses (the systems
of truth which administer the manner in which one's reasoning can go), upon the connections
inside which the records are delivered and upon setting… ..I know from giving close
consideration to myself giving records in a wide range of settings, that I have a supply of
prepared accounts to draw on which fit specific circumstances and which reveal to me the same
old thing except if the individual I am conversing with encourages me to create something new.
In self-portrayal a teller is socially showing a language that discusses and builds character and
which is, all the while, making and introducing a feeling of self. In any case, this feeling of self
for open utilization may reproduce a specific rendition of personality which is socially
unmistakable and socially approved.
Conventional types of self-portraying composing have been tested, independently and by and
large, by individuals who have been minimized by predominant structures. Sentiments of
torment, vulnerability and disappointment were recognized and composed about. Linear
movement was supplanted by the joining of strains and inconsistencies.
Kehily (2001) is of the view that an examination which is entirely phonetic in center and stresses
all inclusiveness of story has the impact of sectioning out the numerous other 'levels' which
shape accounts and type of self-portrayal. A key factor in forming everything being equal, and
language, by and large, is social. Volosinov (1973) accentuates the significance of the social in
all types of correspondence. For Volosinov, to consider language as an arrangement of signs
would be to break down the generation of signs inside the recorded and social milieu. Volosinov
sees language as a social wonder with genuine material lists, where the sign moves toward
becoming a generation inside correspondence. His examination of the unpredictable types of
human articulations places extraordinary accentuation on the social demonstration of
discourseing and the social setting of all correspondence. All discourse demonstrations, he
contends, are routed to another’s word or to another audience; even without someone else, a
speaker will expect the presence of an audience. Along these lines language turns into the result
of the equal connection between the speaker and audience and their social world:
Every single word communicates the 'one' in connection to the 'next'. I give myself Identity
development verbal shape from another's perspective, at last, from the perspective of the network
to which I have a place. A word is a scaffold toss n down between myself and another. In the
event that one part of the bargain relies upon me, at that point, the other relies upon my recipient.
A word is an area shared by both addresser and recipient. (Volosinov, 1973, p. 86). Weeks
(1987) contends that, at last, character is and ought to involve decision, a positive demonstration
fit for opening up regions of potential and inventiveness. Be that as it may, the chronicled
development of personality development can be believed to create the contrary impact to confine
and control. Weeks reasons that the
self-production of personality is an important move and can be a constructive one: "Personality
likely could be an authentic fiction, a controlling legend, a constraining weight. In any case, it is
simultaneously an important methods for weaving our way through a peril strewn world and a
mind boggling web of social relations. Without, it appears, the potential outcomes of sexual
decision are not expanded however reduced." (Weeks, 1987, p. 49)

2.5.2 Types of Identity

There are two types of Identity. One is personal identity and the other one is collective identity.
As recognized by Baggioni&Kasbarian (1996) individual personality gives the feeling of an
individual at the equivalent time or how his personality is constant in various conditions. When
we are conversing with a companion or visiting a specialist, we will, as a rule, be arranging our
own way of life as people yet when we discourse from some political discussion or speaking to a
specific gathering, we will serve the social personality marvel and part of the social network we
partake in. Baggioni&Kasbarian named this procedure as 'distinguishing proof', which gives
more accentuation on aggregate character as opposed to on close to home and group personality
all the more usually known as 'social character' and as per Byram (2006) social personalities are
the apparatuses to express ID with a specific social gathering as in Duszak's words that person's
self idea originated from the learning "that piece of a person's self-idea originated from learning
of his/her participation in a social gathering, alongside passionate essentialness clung to it"
(Duszak 2002 ). De Fina depicts social ways of life as these are the type of classes through which
individuals separate their selves from others, for example, race, sex or any political alliance (law-
based or liberal and so forth), then again close to home personalities are built which incorporate
individual attributes, for example, good or physical possessions that different and recognize one
individual from the other. For instance an individual might be a 'specialist', a cricket sweetheart,
a lawmaker, a Pakistani and so forth contingent on the individual with what number of
gatherings he recognized himself. This component of bunch distinguishing proof can likewise be
followed in Kroskrity's (1999) definition that personality can be characterized as the
etymological development of a part in at least one than one social gathering or on the other hand
classifications. This procedure of recognizable proof is additionally called procedure of
individuation, isolating oneself from other based on specific intrigue and by a procedure of
individuation individuals characterize themselves as having a place with specific elements
(Castells 2001).This idea of self distinguishing proof from others leads us to a basic wonder of
'otherness' as Tajfel&Forgas put it: "We are what we are on the grounds that they are not what
we are" (Tajfel & Forgas, 1981, p. 124). Thus, as per Versluys, (2000) the idea of character
utilized in sociologies is simply the wonder of depicting furthermore, assets with the others, its
reflect individuals need of distinguishing proof, mirroring their perspectives and thoughts and as
per tough, Lawrence and Grant (1999), Mumby and Clair (1999) discourse can build social
character by characterizing various gatherings, their interests, their feeling and positions in the
general public and their association with other individuals.
In the wake of taking a gander at the individual and social idea of character, how about we view
another side as it has numerous layers and specialists settled upon the assortment of personality
in light of the fact that it is anything but a fixed term which stays steady in all conditions or a
solid term to which an individual do or don't relate as Duszak (2002) communicates it properly,
personality rather comprises a continuum of 'groupness' to 'outgroups' in which each individual
can take on various positions. The thought of variety of character is calm equivocal and involves
extraordinary enthusiasm for various creators and scientists as each individual has an ability to
join a few situations simultaneously as communicated above; individual has a few jobs to
perform in a general public. thus does the character changes as indicated by it. Social personality
turns into an interpretive model or an edge work for social activity in general public for an
individual or a gathering.Social personality, as indicated by van Dijk (1997b additionally fills in
as a system for the aggregate gathering interests of people in the diverse social activities by
demonstrating what individuals are thinking about specific issues, what are their good, moral or
political positions. Individuals who are playing out any social movement through content and
discourse, as an individual or as gathering part of various social classes, are making and showing
their social characters in a discourse. Be that as it may, these classifications of social ID are not
fixed on the grounds that character is a troublesome wonder and this social development is the
result of complex and opposing types of discourses (Garsten and Gray 1997, Hardy et al 1999).
Therefore social personality might be considered as incoherent, unclear and exposed to constant
multiplication through political, social and verbose procedures (Hardy et al 1999).

2.5.3 Language and Identity

Although there are different ways of construction of identity. Identity-formation is not just a term
with certain features but it is a whole process. This process of identity construction is understood
by the use of language. Language of particular text is analyzed by applying rhetorical tropes and
linguistic features. Kroskrity (1999) states that identity is “linguistic construction of group
membership” (Kroskrity, 1999, p.111). Language helps in not only understand the construction
of identity of a specific person but also aids to recognize the hidden ideologies in the text. It
makes explicit the implicit ideologies. Social identities are only recognizable in the situation
when one tries to understand according to the context. (West and Fenstermaker, 1995)
Anna de Fina (2010) further fortifies this connection among language and character by
expressing that the most significant are the images of any framework which are required for the
articulation and arrangement of personalities. This relationship isn't new to the field however it
has roots in 1960 when it turned into the focal inquiry of sociolinguistics investigate as William
Labov (1966 and 1972a) exemplified the manner by which certain classifications ofgender, class
and age utilize various methods for elocution. He appeared, for example, that the propensity for
dropping the 'r' sound in words like 'fourth' or 'floor' related with social class, so the individuals
having a place with the lower classes were undeniably bound to drop their 'rs' than individuals
who had a place with upper classes.This is one such case of separating oneself from other based
on articulation and especially of language use. It isn't continuously the case that individuals
utilize various lingos or accents to contrast themselves from others however it may likewise be
for some congruity purposes as depicted by Anna De Fina(2010) in discourse and character) that
individuals utilize some various accents and extraordinary impersonations styles for a few
distinct reasons which may incorporate characters related with them it is possible that they fake
or reject these personalities.
Personality is developed trough language and this reveals insight into the built idea of
personality. In discourse contemplates character development procedure is affected for the most
part by our culture, our religion, and things occurring in our environment and conditions we face,
so distinguish is the result of desultory practice in the general public by utilization of language.
As per Hall (2005) character is new developing item as opposed to an old idea which relies upon
semantic highlights and different assets for its recognizable proof, it is currently a social item and
social wonder.
2.5.4 How place identity is build?
Proshansky et al. (1983) displayed place-identity of life as a 'potpourri of recollections,
originations, translations, thoughts and related emotions about specific physical settings just as
sorts of settings' (p. 60). As a particular substructure of oneself, they contemplated, place-
character may capacity to guarantee individual personalities, render activities or exercises
coherent, express tastes and inclinations and intercede eåorts to change conditions.
Korpela (1989) inclines toward a smaller meaning of spot character: as a mental structure that
emerges out of people's endeavours to manage their surroundings. Through practices of
ecological utilization, he contends, we can make and support a rational feeling of self and
uncover ourselves to other people. At the core of this mental structure is a feeling of having a
place, for 'place-belongingness isn't just a single part of spot character, yet a fundamental reason
for it. Around this centre, the social, social and organic definitions and insights of spot which
become some portion of the individual's place-personality are constructed' (Korpela, 1989, p.
246).
In this origination, human on-screen characters are given a role as innovative clients of their
surroundings, specialists who can fitting physical settings so as to make, here, a space of
connection and rootedness, a space of being. The personalization of residences is referred to
model. By this training, 'home' places are sorted out and spoke to in manners that help people to
keep up self-soundness and confidence, to acknowledge self-regulation standards. The
significance of having a place with procedures of self-definition has been noted by researchers
working in other research conventions, affirming Korpela's case that it is a focal component of
spot character. Rowles (1983) recognized between three faculties of 'insideness', communicating
various parts of his respondents' affinity with their environment. 'Physical insideness' assigned
their 'body mindfulness ' of their condition, communicated as a sort of unsaid learning of the
physical subtleties of spot (for example realizing how to discover one's direction). 'Social
insideness' assigned their feeling of association with a neighbourhood network, an
acknowledgement of their 'coordination inside the social texture' (p. 302) (for example of
knowing others and being known). At last, 'autobiographic insideness' assigned their quirky
feeling of rootedness. Regularly implicit and underestimated, personal incidences appeared to
emerge out of people's exchanges inside a spot after some time.
Rowels (1983) advocated some significant alternations in the hometown. The main thing to be
noted was the development of sense of belongingness which was created due to the memories,
events and many other significant things i.e. relation with others which help them to create sense
of belongingness with their hometown.
Dixon (2000) found that an issue influencing numerous definitions of spot character confirms to
shifting degrees by crafted by Proshansky, Korpela, and Rowles is their propensity to underscore
the individualistic elements of spot personality.
Crafted by Bonaiuto, Breakwell, and Cano (1996) and Devine Wright and Lyons (1997) has as
of late organized these gathering based elements of recognizable proof with spots and will fill in
as a scaffold to the present examination's very own verbose methodology. Their work is
important in that it has indicated a truly social comprehension of spot personality by
demonstrating how places may wind up huge and challenged fields of aggregate being and
having a place.
Bonnes and Secchiaroli (1995, p. 179) note that orientating the ecological brain science of spot
with this point of view, it winds up conceivable to mull over the territory of "place
correspondence and category'', so as to examine what for this situation would be named "place
discourse''.
2.6 Construal of Ideology in an Autobiography
2.6.1 Ideology
Ideology is social development, comprising of shared qualities inside a gathering of individuals.
All the more explicitly, they are the socially shared portrayals of gatherings and "are the
establishments of gathering demeanours and different convictions" (van Dijk, 2006, p. 138). All
things considered, philosophies impact the manners in which that where people experience the
world and produce ideological discourse (in the same place.). Along these lines, discourse
mirrors those ideological qualities held by those gatherings who make it. In the U.S., these
gatherings are regularly put in either the two noteworthy ideological groups Republican and
Democrat. All things being equal, these gatherings involve numerous ideological gatherings, for
example, traditionalist, moderate, dynamic, etc, that cover certain key qualities, yet not all. These
gatherings are recognized by their disparities, regularly underlining their legitimately restricting
perspectives on issues, for example, firearm rights, social welfare, global relations, etc, and hold
contrasting perspectives about the real world and the future pushing ahead. This reality features
the contrastive quality natural in ideological qualities and how they express varying ideological
social gatherings (van Dijk, 2006, 117). All things considered, the contentious idea of political
discourse is by all accounts acknowledgement of the ideological battle between various
gatherings. In the situations where a belief system or ideological worth wins and ends up
acknowledged by every single ideological gathering inside a culture, it stops to be ideological
and winds up general social learning.
A few investigations have characterized ‘ideology’ and discussed its real ideas. In that
capacity,Firstly, ideology is a belief system and these beliefs can be judged. Secondly, this belief
system is shared socially. They serve to characterize social personality. Thirdly, philosophies are
theoretical primary convictions that capacity to control and compose other socially shared
convictions and determine what social qualities are important to the gathering (on the same
page.). For each gathering,'qualities might be relied upon to establish the fundamental evaluative
criteria for the conclusions that characterize ideological frameworks. (van Dijk, 1993, p. 248)
One significant part of ideologies is that there are varying degrees of "ability" about the belief
system and not all individuals from gatherings are similarly ready to verbalize the gathering
belief systems (Van Dijk, 2006, p. 119). This is job is filled by "specialists, pioneers, and other
'ideologues' who educate, clarify, instil and unequivocally replicate the gathering belief systems".
In that capacity, the capacity to express, clarify and replicate belief system gives the "specialists"
impressive power in the understanding and reinterpretation of philosophy and may have
suggestion on the development of political discourses, where a pioneer can impart unmediated
ideological messages straightforwardly to general society. This can take into account the vital
ideological association of messages that assembling a particular reality for the group of
spectators.
2.6.2 ‘Self’ and ‘other’ in making ideology
Ideology performs numerous social capacities as that of keeping up and controlling force in the
general public, serving social insight of gathering part and it additionally assumes its real job in
recognizing one gathering from other by shaping in gatherings and out gatherings, hence
ideologies are sorted out based on social clashes, social relations, obstruction and control in the
general public and this may set up polarization of in-gatherings and out-gatherings. (Abrams &
Hogg, 1990)
One such route regular to political discourse is that of the "polarization characterizing in-
gathering and out-gathering" or us versus them (Van Dijk, 2006, p. 248-249). This social
cleavage is noticeable all through governmental issues and is usually coded in the pronouns "us"
and "them" or possessives like "our nation" or "their kin". Ideological political discourse is
commonly sorted out by positive self-portrayal and negative other-portrayal (van Dijk, 2006, p.
126). Van Dijk (2006) distinguishes a few classifications arranging the interests of a gathering
that are utilized to self evaluate and self-characterize: personality/enrollment, errands/exercises,
objectives, standards/values, position (in connection to different gatherings), and access to assets
(or scarcity in that department) (Van Dijk, 1993, p. 250).
Ideologies might be communicated through a technique of accentuation and de-accentuation that
makes a positive self-portrayal and negative other-portrayal. Notwithstanding the pronouns "we"
and "they", this methodology might be acknowledged through decisions in importance and
structure. In the development of significance, point, neighbourhood implications or lexis might
be chosen to feature negative or positive characteristics of us or them.
There are a few different ways of building personality, huge numbers of them utilize this
polarization of us versus them to develop what their identity is, to demonstrate what their
interests are, and to expound by whom they are ideologically accommodated. Numerous
scientists have just flown in the field to carry a few distinct approaches to reach this development
of gathering polarization. In this segment I will take a gander at the related inquires about that
how does this marvel help in developing the character of an individual or a gathering. The
positive self-portrayal and negative other portrayal is the principal property of philosophy as
individuals have a place with specific gatherings and they have their gathering philosophies as
van Dijk clarifies "most belief systems are socio-intellectual portrayals of the fundamental
evaluative and self-serving convictions of gathering individuals about social battle and gathering
clashes" (1998 p. 68). Gathering belief systems see for the most part who is a piece of them and
who is not based on positive self-portrayal and negative different portrayals subsequently bunch
individuals are spoken to emphatically and other are spoken to contrarily as this division is
utilized by Healy, Damien in his thesis study "“Ideologies and us versus
them…”(2011). He utilized fundamental utilitarian punctuation technique to look this portrayal
of gathering belief system dependent on positive self-portrayal and negative other portrayals.
Wodak (2001) suggests five “linguistic or rhetorical means” which she calls
“discourse analytical tools”. It is given as follow:

Strategy Objectives Devices

Membership categorization
devices, metaphors,
Construction of in-groups an
Referential/Nomination metonymies, Synecdoche,
out-groups discursively
verbs and nouns to show the
processes
Stereotypical
attributions of negative or
Attribute positive or
positive traits
negative traits to the socially
Predication explicit comparisons,
constructed groups, actors or
Collocations, evocation,
processes
illusions, presuppositions
and other rhetorical devices
Justification of the attributed Topoi or fallacies are used
Argumentation
positive or negative qualities for justification purpose.
 Quotation of
Expressing the speaker’s events and utterances,
Perspectivation, framing or
point of view and discourse markers, particles,
discourse representation
involvement in the text direct or indirect free
speech, prosody and others.
Verbs of saying and feeling,
Recognize the epistemic or
hyperbole, litotes, questions
Intensification, mitigation mitigated status of an
instead of assertions and
utterance
other

These five discursive strategies of Wodak explain the whole Discourse-Historical approach and
is a significant addition in Critical Discourse Studies. These show that Wodak’s approach is an
interdisciplinary approach because it texts with many other numerous works of identity-
construction, genres, inequality, power, domination and feminism. Wodak herself calls this
interdisciplinary approach a “differentiated examination” (Wodak, 2001, p. 71).
3.5 Conclusion
In this section of methodology, at first, I gave overall view of methodology of the thesis. Then
research design is discussed along with research data and reasons and criterion for selecting this
specific research data is discussed. Afterwards, research questions of the thesis are discussed.
The whole thesis is based on these research questions amongst which the main area of interest of
thesis is the question about identity-construction of the thesis. Furthermore, analytical framework
of the methodology is discussed in-depth. All elements, functions and working of Discourse-
Historical Approach of Ruth Wodak’s model along with construction of identity of author by
construction of pronouns, formation of in-group and out-group are discussed. Strategies used in
the methodology are also given i.e. polarization strategy, recontextualization technique by ven
Leeuwen, and the dichotomy of us vs. them.