vibration

Article
Accelerometer Based Method for Tire Load and Slip
Angle Estimation
Kanwar Bharat Singh 1, * and Saied Taheri 2
1 Tire Intelligence, The Goodyear Tire & Rubber Company, Colmar-Berg L-7750, Luxembourg
2 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA; staheri@vt.edu
* Correspondence: kanwar-bharat_singh@goodyear.com




Received: 9 February 2019; Accepted: 24 April 2019; Published: 28 April 2019


Abstract: Tire mounted sensors are emerging as a promising technology, capable of providing
information about important tire states. This paper presents a survey of the state-of-the-art in the field
of smart tire technology, with a special focus on the different signal processing techniques proposed
by researchers to estimate the tire load and slip angle using tire mounted accelerometers. Next, details
about the research activities undertaken as part of this study to develop a smart tire are presented.
Finally, novel algorithms for estimating the tire load and slip angle are presented. Experimental
results demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed algorithms.

Keywords: smart tire system; signal processing; tire load; tire slip angle; accelerometer

1. Introduction
The application of sensor technology in tires has been extensively studied over the last decade by
many researchers [1–6]. The stimulus for the research and application of sensor technology in tires was
the Bridgestone/Firestone recall of 14.4 million tires in 2000 [7]. Because of the recalls, US legislators
included tire pressure monitoring (TPMS) as part of its TREAD Act [8–10]. Thereafter, European
countries (via United Nations regulation UNECE-R64) adopted the TPMS legislation for new models
beginning in November 2012, and for all vehicles beginning in November 2014. South Korea has
adopted a similar TPMS legislation to that of Europe. Likewise, countries such as Japan, China and
India are in the process of investigating TPMS technology as well.
Although classical TPMS sensors are mounted on the valve stem inside the wheel, there is a great
level of interest in placing the sensor directly on the tire. A tire mounted sensor will not only fulfill
the basis TPMS functionalities, i.e., measure cavity air pressure and temperature, but also presents
opportunities to sense key attributes related to the tire contact patch. This would be achieved through
the inclusion of an additional sensing element (e.g., an accelerometer) and advanced digital signal
processing (DSP) algorithms. Running sophisticated DSP algorithms requires advanced low power
microchips. The Internet of things (IoT) digital revolution is resulting in an exponential growth in the
computing power of embedded microchips thus giving great impetus to the development of smart tire
technology. Large-scale usage of IoT sensors across several industries is driving the economies of scale.
The availability of a low-cost sensing solution becomes more critical in the case of tires, knowing they
are largely a commoditized product.
Throughout this paper, the term smart tire technology explicitly refers to a configuration wherein
the sensor is mounted on the tire inner liner.
The smart tire is expected to have capabilities to monitor in real-time the tire forces, road surface
conditions, tire slip conditions, temperature, pressure and the tire tread depth (Figure 1). Being
able to leverage a plethora of information, a smart tire is expected to stimulate the development of

Vibration 2019, 2, 174–186; doi:10.3390/vibration2020011 www.mdpi.com/journal/vibration

Vibration 2019, 2 175

advanced traction, braking and stability control systems for improving the vehicle safety and
the advanced
advanced traction,
traction,
performance braking
braking
[11–14]. and
and stabilitycontrol
stability controlsystems
systemsfor
forimproving
improving the
the vehicle
vehicle safety
safety and
and
performance [11–14].
performance [11–14].

Figure 1. Smart tire system sensor output.

Figure 1. Smart
Figure 1. Smarttire
tiresystem
systemsensor
sensoroutput.
output.
There have been several architectures proposed in the past few years pertaining to smart tires
There have been several architectures proposed in the past few years pertaining to smart tires
(Figurehave
There 2): been several architectures proposed in the past few years pertaining to smart tires
(Figure 2):
(Figure 2):
(i) The APOLLO program—Developed a 3-in-l intelligent tire [15];
(i) The APOLLO
(i) (ii)
The The
APOLLO program—Developed
FRICTI@Nprogram—Developed a 3-in-l
program—On-board intelligent
a 3-in-l fortire
intelligent
system [15];
tire [15];and estimating tire-road friction
measuring
(ii) The FRICTI@N
FRICTI@N program—On-board system for measuringestimating
(ii) The [16]; program—On-board system for measuring and tire-road
and estimating friction
tire-road [16];
friction
(iii) Contact [16];area
(iii) information
Contact sensing (CAIS)
area information sensingsystem
(CAIS)being
systemdeveloped by Bridgestone
being developed [17];
by Bridgestone [17];
(iii)
(iv) Cyber Contact
(iv)Tire area
beingTire
Cyber information
developed sensing (CAIS)
by Pirelli by
being developed Tires system being
[18];Tires [18];
Pirelli developed by Bridgestone [17];
(iv) (v)
Cyber
(v) Intelligent Tiresystem
tire being
Intelligent developed
tirebeing
system by Pirelli
being
developed Tires by
developed [18];
by Continental Continental
AG [19]; AG [19];
(v) Intelligent
(vi) Intelligent tire
(vi) Intelligent
tire systemsystem
tirebeingbeing
system developed
being developed
developed by
by Hyundai Continental
by Hyundai
Motor Co, AG [19];Co,Corp,
Motor
Mando Mando andCorp, and Corechips
Corechips [20];
(vi) Intelligent
[20]; tire system
(vii) Goodyear Dunlop’s chip-in-tire [21].being developed by Hyundai Motor Co, Mando Corp, and Corechips
[20];Goodyear Dunlop’s chip-in-tire [21].
(vii)
(vii) Goodyear Dunlop’s chip-in-tire [21].

Figure
Figure 2. Smart
2. Smart tire system—products
tire system—products and concepts.
and concepts.
Figure 2. Smart tire system—products and concepts.
The value
The key key value proposition
proposition for theforusage
the usage of smart
of smart tires tires in vehicles
in vehicles is theispotential
the potential
theythey
offeroffer
in in
The key
improving
improving value proposition
performance
performance for
of vehicle
of vehicle thecontrol
control usage of smart
systems.
systems. tires
This This
would in be
vehicles
would ofbe ofiseven
even the more
more potential they
relevance
relevance offer
in theincase
theincase
improving performance
of autonomous
of autonomous vehicles of
vehiclesvehicle
(AVs),(AVs), control systems.
considering
considering their their This
high high would
safetysafety be of even more
requirements.
requirements. relevance in the case
of autonomous
This This
paper vehicles
paper
first first (AVs),
presents
presents considering theiroverview
a comprehensive
a comprehensive high safety
overview requirements.
of theofstate-of-the-art
the state-of-the-art infield
in the the field of smart
of smart
This
tire paperand
technology
tire technology firstthereafter
presents
and a comprehensive
thereafter presents
presents details of overview
detailstheofwork
the workof the state-of-the-art
undertaken
undertaken at theatCenterin the
the Center field of smart
for Tire
for Tire Research
Research
tire technology
(CenTiRe)
(CenTiRe) toand thereafter
develop
to develop presents
a smart
a smart tire. tire. details of the work undertaken at the Center for Tire Research
(CenTiRe)
The mainto main
The develop a smart
contributions
contributions oftire.
thisof paper
this paper
are asare as follows:
follows:
The •main contributions of this paper are as follows:
Literature review of the different signal processing techniques used by researchers to extract
• Literature
• Literaturereview
meaningful of the
review different
of the signal
different
information from processing
signal
tireprocessing
mounted techniques
sensors,used
techniques used bybyresearchers
from to
researchers
specifically toextract
tire extract
mounted
meaningful information
meaningful from
information
accelerometers. tire mounted
from tire sensors,
mounted specifically
sensors, from tire mounted
specifically from accelerometers.
tire mounted
accelerometers.
• Details about research activities undertaken as part of this study to develop a smart tire.
• Details about research activities undertaken as part of this study to develop a smart tire.
Vibration 2019, 2 176

• Details about research activities undertaken as part of this study to develop a smart tire.
• Novel algorithms for estimating the tire load and slip angle.

2. Literature Review
There are several signal processing algorithms proposed in literature for estimating the tire load
and slip angle. Table 1 presents a summary of the different techniques proposed by researchers.

Table 1. State-of-the-art literature review—analysis of tire accelerometer data.

Estimated State Signal Used Underlying Physics Reference

Use an empirical model between tire contact patch
[22–25]
length and tire load
Use an empirical model correlating the radial
[26]
acceleration amplitude to the tire load
Use an empirical model to describe the shape of the
radial acceleration signal—Vertical load is treated
[27]
as an unknown parameter and is estimated used an
EKF observer
Use Principal Component Analysis, to describe
smart tire signal variance by means of a few linear
[28]
projections. Projections are correlated linearly with
Tire vertical force Radial acceleration the contact forces
Use a model between tire contact patch length, tire
load and the tire operation conditions (toe) for a
[29]
respective tire type and/or respective physical
properties of the tire
Assess the real-time
applicability of a tire vertical force estimator on a
[30]
standard platform used for rapid control
prototyping on vehicles
Use a model correlating the tire ground contact
time to tire load, where the contact time is extracted [31]
from the differential acceleration waveform
Monitor change in the footprint length at the
Radial acceleration centerline and shoulder positions to estimate the [32]
tire slip angle
Tire slip angle Correlate lateral acceleration amplitude with the
[33]
tire slip angle
Lateral acceleration
Extract lateral deformation from the acceleration
[34]
signal and correlate that with the tire slip angle

In view of the above literature review, the following conclusions can be drawn:

• Among the three axes, the radial acceleration signal has been exploited the most by researchers.
• Most of these applications require data to be sampled at high rates. For instance, for tire-road
friction sensing, the sensor signal needs to be sampled at 5–10 kHz.
• Both time and frequency domain signal processing techniques have been extensively used.
• Current tire pressure monitoring (TPMS) chips available in production vehicles cannot support
such complex signal processing algorithms. Hence, an application specific IC would to be required.
• Since these sensor systems are expected to survive the tire service life, they would require
a power source capable of supporting the high sampling rate data processing and high frequency
data transmission.
Vibration 2019, 2 177

3. Development of a Smart Tire System

Based on their proven reliability for tire application, it was decided to use the tri-axial micro
electro mechanical systems (MEMS) accelerometers in this study (Table 2). These sensors offer the
advantage of their small dimension, low weight, high reliability, robustness and reliable performance
even in harsh and hostile environments.

Table2.2.Tri-axial
Table Tri-axialaccelerometer
accelerometercharacteristics
characteristics[35].
[35].

Accelerometer Characteristics
Accelerometer Characteristics
Range Range ±5000 g
± 5000 g
Sensitivity Sensitivity 1 mv/g 1 mv/g
Frequency response
Frequency response 1.2–10 kHz 1.2–10 kHz
Resonance frequency frequency
Resonance 30 kHz 30 kHz
Mass 3.0 g
Mass 3.0 g
Dimensions 17.7 × 9.02 × 9.14 mm
Dimensions 17.7 × 9.02 × 9.14 mm

The
Thesmart
smarttire
tirewas
wasdeveloped
developedby byplacing
placingthethetri-axial
tri-axialaccelerometer
accelerometeron onthe
theinner
innerliner
linerofofaatire
tire
(Figure 3a). The accelerometer was placed on the centerline of the tire footprint. The
(Figure 3a). The accelerometer was placed on the centerline of the tire footprint. The accelerometer accelerometer
wires
wireswere
wereconnected
connectedtotoa aslip
slipring
ringplaced
placedatatthe
thewheel
wheelcenter.
center.Figure
Figure3b3bshows
showsthe
thefinal
finalassembly
assemblyofof
the
theinstrumented
instrumented tiretire
withwith
the slip
the ring.
slip Wires from the
ring. Wires slip the
from ring slip
werering
connected to the data acquisition
were connected to the data
system. Extensive on-road tests were conducted using the in-house mobile
acquisition system. Extensive on-road tests were conducted using the in-house mobile tire tire test rig showntest in
rig
Figure
shown3c. in Figure 3c.

(a) (c)

(b)

Figure3.3.Smart
Figure Smarttire
tireapplication:
application:(a)
(a)Sensor
Sensormounted
mountedon onthe
thetire
tirefootprint
footprintcenterline;
centerline;(b)
(b)instrumented
instrumented
tire assembly with a high-speed slip ring; (c) mobile tire test
tire assembly with a high-speed slip ring; (c) mobile tire test rig.rig.

ItItisisnoteworthy
noteworthytotomention
mentionthat
thatthe
thetri-axial
tri-axialaccelerometer
accelerometerwas wasenclosed
enclosedininlatex
latex(rubber)
(rubber)and
and
the latex part was glued to the inner liner. This formed a stronger bond with the tire
the latex part was glued to the inner liner. This formed a stronger bond with the tire and reduced theand reduced the
chances
chancesofof the accelerometer
the accelerometercoming loose
coming when
loose the tire
when the is rotated
tire eveneven
is rotated at high
at speeds. In addition,
high speeds. duct
In addition,
tape (in combination with cyanoacrylate adhesive) was used to secure the wires
duct tape (in combination with cyanoacrylate adhesive) was used to secure the wires of the of the accelerometers
inside the tire. This
accelerometers prevented
inside theThis
the tire. wires from pulling
prevented the on the from
wires accelerometer
pulling on andtheyanking it out while
accelerometer and
the tire was rotating.
yanking it out while the tire was rotating.
AnAnexample
exampleofofthe
themeasured
measuredacceleration
accelerationsignal
signal(unfiltered)
(unfiltered)for forone
onewheel
wheelturn
turnisisshown
showninin
Figure 4. These measurements were done on a 17-inch SUV tire (size:
Figure 4. These measurements were done on a 17-inch SUV tire (size: P245/65R17). P245/65R17).
Vibration 2019, 2 178

(a) X axis (b) Y axis (c) Z axis

Figure 4.
Figure 4. Signal for one
one wheel
wheel turn
turn from
from aa tire
tire attached
attached tri-axial
tri-axial accelerometer.
accelerometer.

Sharp
Sharp peaks
peaks inin the
the circumferential
circumferential and and radial
radial acceleration
acceleration signals
signals areare indicators
indicators ofof the
theleading
leading
and
and trailing
trailingedges
edgesof ofthe
the tire
tirefootprint.
footprint. More
More explanations
explanations about
about the
the measurement
measurement setup setup and
and the
the raw
raw
acceleration
accelerationsignals
signalsrecorded
recordedcan canbebefound
foundin inour
ourprior
priorpublication
publication[36].
[36].
The
The tire load and
and slip
slipangle
angleestimation
estimationwere
were treated
treated as as
thethe
leadlead applications
applications for this
for this study.
study. The
The motivation for considering these tire states
motivation for considering these tire states is twofold: is twofold:
• First, with information about individual tire loads from the tire mounted sensors, the vehicle
• First, with information about individual tire loads from the tire mounted sensors, the vehicle
inertial parameters, namely, vehicle mass, yaw moment of inertia and axle distances from
inertial parameters, namely, vehicle mass, yaw moment of inertia and axle distances from the
the vehicle center of gravity, can be precisely estimated, thus making the vehicle controller
vehicle center of gravity, can be precisely estimated, thus making the vehicle controller robust
robust against variations in vehicle model parameters.
against variations in vehicle model parameters.
• Second, it is well known in literature that the vehicle sideslip angle can significantly reduce
• Second, it is well known in literature that the vehicle sideslip angle can significantly reduce the
the risk of accidents through the effective design and implementation of advanced chassis
risk of accidents through the effective design and implementation of advanced chassis control
control systems. However, in production vehicles, the sideslip angle is difficult to measure
systems. However, in production vehicles, the sideslip angle is difficult to measure within the
within the desired accuracy level because of high costs and other associated impracticalities.
desired accuracy level because of high costs and other associated impracticalities. Having a direct
Having a direct measurement of the tire slip angle from a smart tire would enable the design
measurement of the tire slip angle from a smart tire would enable the design of novel control
of novel control systems using the tire slip angle as a feedback signal instead of the vehicle
systems using the tire slip angle as a feedback signal instead of the vehicle sideslip angle.
sideslip angle.
Specificdetails
Specific detailsofofthe
thesignal
signalprocessing
processing algorithms
algorithms developed
developed as part
as part of this
of this study
study are given
are given in
in the
the subsequent subsections.
subsequent subsections.

4.
4. Algorithm
Algorithm Details
Details

4.1.
4.1. Tire
Tire Load
Load Estimation
Estimation
AA common
common approach
approachproposed
proposedin inliterature
literaturetotoestimate
estimatethethetire
tireload
loadis
is to
to exploit
exploit the
the relationship
relationship
between
betweentire
tireload
loadandandthe
thetire contact
tire contact patch
patchlength. A parametric
length. A parametric study waswas
study conducted to quantify
conducted the
to quantify
influence of tire load and other relevant parameters on the tire contact patch length.
the influence of tire load and other relevant parameters on the tire contact patch length. The patch The patch length
was extracted
length from thefrom
was extracted tangential acceleration
the tangential signal by identifying
acceleration the leadingthe
signal by identifying andleading
trailingand
edgetrailing
of the
tire
edgeusing a peak
of the detection
tire using algorithm.
a peak detection More details regarding
algorithm. the regarding
More details patch lengththeextraction algorithm
patch length can
extraction
be found in a previous publication by the authors [13].
algorithm can be found in a previous publication by the authors [13].
As
As shown
shown in in Figure
Figure 5,
5, the
the tire
tire load
load and
and inflation
inflation pressure
pressurewerewereseen
seento
tohave
haveaa significant
significantimpact
impact
on the patch length of the
on the patch length of the tire.tire.
• Higher load results in a longer contact patch length
• Higher inflation pressure results in shorter contact patch length
Vibration 2019, 2 179

• Higher load results in a longer contact patch length

• Higher inflation pressure results in shorter contact patch length
These results are in-line with results previously published in literature.
These results are in-line with results previously published in literature.

Figure
Figure 5. 5. Impact
Impact ofof load
load and
and inflation
inflation onon
thethe tire
tire contact
contact patch
patch length.
length. Tire
Tire Size:
Size: P245/65R17.
P245/65R17.
Figure 5. Impact of load and inflation on the tire contact patch length. Tire Size: P245/65R17.
These
Whatresults are so
was not in-line with results
unexpected and previously publishedininthe
in fact not captured literature.
published literature is the strong
What
correlationwas
What was not
seennot so
betweenunexpected and
the tire wear
so unexpected in fact
state
and in not
fact(i.e.,captured
not remaining in the
captured intread published
depth) and
the published literature
the tireiscontact
literature isthe
thestrong
patch
strong
correlation
correlation seen
length (Figure between
seen 6). thethe
Lowering
between tirethe
wear
tire statestate
tread
wear (i.e., (i.e.,
depth remaining
results intread
remaining depth)depth)
a decrease
tread and theand
in the tirethe
tire contact
tire patch
circumference
contact length
(i.e.,
patcha
(Figure
length 6).
shrinkage Lowering
of the
(Figure the
6).tire tread and
radius)
Lowering depth results
the consequently
tread in a results
depth decrease inina in
a decrease the tirecontact
the
decrease circumference
patch
in the (i.e., a shrinkage
tirelength.
circumference of a
(i.e.,
the tire radius) and consequently a decrease in the contact patch length.
shrinkage of the tire radius) and consequently a decrease in the contact patch length.

Figure 6. Impact of remaining tread depth on the tire contact patch length. Tire Size: P245/65R17.
Figure6.6.Impact
Figure Impactofofremaining
remainingtread
treaddepth
depthononthe
thetire
tirecontact
contactpatch
patch length.Tire
length. Tire Size:P245/65R17.
Size: P245/65R17.
This poses an issue for the load estimation model. The load model will need to have knowledge
of the
This tire
This wearanan
poses
poses state,
issue which
issue forthe
for byload
the itself presents several
loadestimation
estimation model.
model. technical
Theload
The loadchallenges
modelwill
model considering
will needtotohave
need havethe complexity
knowledge
knowledge
of
ofofthetypical
the tire models
tirewear
wear required
state,
state, whichby
which for estimating
byitself
itself presents
presents the remaining
several
several treadchallenges
technical
technical depth. considering
challenges consideringthe thecomplexity
complexity
ofoftypicalTo overcome
typical models this challenge,
modelsrequired
required for alternative
forestimating
estimating signal
theremaining
the remainingfeatures tread
tread showing
depth. a strong correlation with the tire
depth.
loading state were
ToToovercome
overcome studied.
this
this challenge,
challenge, Knowing that asignal
alternative
alternative tire deflects
features
features vertically
showingin
showing astrong
linear
aastrong manner as
correlation
correlation the
with
with load
the tire
the is
increased,
loading
tire loading stateit were
statewas decided
studied.
were studied. to extract
KnowingKnowing thethat
that a peak radial
tirea deflects
tire displacement
vertically
deflects of
in the
in a linear
vertically tire manner
manner
a linear from
as thetheas radial
loadtheis
acceleration
increased,
load it signal.
is increased, wasit wasThisdecided
decided requires todouble
to extract the
extract integrating
peak
the peak radialthe acceleration
radial displacement
displacement signal
ofofthe to retrieve
the tire from
fromdisplacement.
theradial
the radial
Unfortunately,
acceleration
acceleration signal. accelerometers
signal. requireshave
Thisrequires
This anintegrating
double
double unwanted
integratingthe phenomenon
theacceleration
acceleration called drift,
signal
signal causeddisplacement.
totoretrieve
retrieve by a small DC
displacement.
bias in the acceleration
Unfortunately,
Unfortunately, accelerometerssignal.
accelerometers haveThean
have presence
anunwanted
unwanted of the drift can lead
phenomenon
phenomenon to large
called
called drift,integration
drift, causedby
caused byaerrors.
smallIf
asmall DCDCthe
acceleration
bias
bias ininthe signal from
theacceleration
acceleration a real accelerometer
signal.
signal. Thepresence
The presenceof isofintegrated
thedrift
the driftcanwithout
canlead
leadtoany filtering
tolarge
large performed,
integration
integration theIfoutput
errors.
errors. Ifthe
the
could become
acceleration
acceleration signalunbounded
signal froma areal
from realover time. To solve
accelerometer
accelerometer the problem
isisintegrated
integrated of any
without
without drift, a high-pass
anyfiltering
filtering filter was
performed,
performed, used
theoutput
the output to
remove
could
could become the
become DC component
unbounded
unbounded over over of
time. the
time. acceleration
To solve
To solve signal.
the problem
the problem This
of drift, is done
ofadrift, by
a high-pass
high-pass carefully
filter was filter extracting
usedwas used to
to remove the
theacceleration
remove the DC
DC component signal peracceleration
component
of the wheelofturn and
thesignal. then
Thisapplying
acceleration signal.
is done bythe high
This is pass
carefully done filter in
theconjunction
by carefully
extracting with
extracting
acceleration signal the
the
integration operation
acceleration signal per(Figure
wheel 7). turn and then applying the high pass filter in conjunction with the
integration operation (Figure 7).
Vibration 2019, 2 180

per wheel turn and then applying the high pass filter in conjunction with the integration operation
(Figure 7).

Figure 7. Algorithm for retrieving radial displacement from the acceleration signal.
Figure
Figure7.
Figure 7.Algorithm
7. Algorithmfor
forretrieving
retrievingradial
radialdisplacement
displacementfrom
displacement fromthe
from theacceleration
the accelerationsignal.
acceleration signal.
signal.

By
ByByfiltering
filteringbefore
beforeintegrating,
integrating,the
thedrift
drifterror
errorwas
waseliminated,
eliminated,and
andthe
theradial
radialdisplacement
displacement
By filtering
filtering before
before integrating,
integrating, the
the drift
drift error
error was
was eliminated,
eliminated, and
and the
the radial
radial displacement
displacement
successfully
successfully
successfully extracted
extracted (Figure
(Figure 8).
8).
successfullyextracted
extracted(Figure
(Figure8).
8).

(a)
(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
(b)
25
Acceleration Acceleration2525
Acceleration
Acceleration
Displacement Acceleration
Acceleration
Displacement
Displacement
Displacement Displacement
Displacement

200 20
200
200 2020
200 200
200100
0 100
100 0
00
Displacement [mm]
Acceleration [m/s ]

00

Displacement [mm]
Acceleration [m/s ] 2

Acceleration [m/s ]
Acceleration [m/s ] 2

-100
Displacement [mm]
Acceleration [m/s2 ]

Displacement [mm]

Displacement [mm]
2

Acceleration [m/s2 ]

Displacement [mm]
-200 -100
-100
2

-200 15
-200
-200 1515
-200
-200
-300
-300
-300

100
100 10
100 1010

50
5050 5
55

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 00
350 0
00 5050 100
100 150
Rotation200
150 200
Angle [ ]250
250 300
300 350
350 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 00
350
00 5050 100
100 150
150 200
200 [ ]250
250 300
300 350
350
Rotation
RotationAngle
Angle[°[]° ] Rotation Angle
Rotation
RotationAngle
Angle[°[]° ]

Figure8.8.(a)
Figure (a)Integration
Integrationwithout
withoutfiltering;
filtering;(b)
(b)integration
integrationwith
withfiltering.
filtering.
Figure
Figure8.8.(a)
(a)Integration
Integrationwithout
withoutfiltering;
filtering;(b)
(b)integration
integrationwith
withfiltering.
filtering.

Finally,
Finally,thetheamplitude
amplitudeofofthethe
thepeak
peakradial
radialdisplacement
displacementofofthe
the
thetire
tirewas
wasextracted
extractedfromfromthe
the
Finally,
Finally, the
the amplitude
amplitude of of the peak
peak radial
radial displacement
displacement of of the tire
tire was
was extracted
extracted from
from the
the
displacement curve.
displacement curve. The radial
The radial displacement shows
displacement shows the near
the nearlinear correlation
linear correlationwith the
with thetire load
tire loadand
and
displacement
displacementcurve.
curve.TheTheradial
radialdisplacement
displacementshows
showsthethenear
nearlinear
linearcorrelation
correlationwith
withthe
thetire
tireload
loadand
and
inflation
inflationpressure
pressure (Figure
(Figure9).9).
inflation
inflationpressure
pressure(Figure
(Figure9).
9).

Load
LoadSensitivity
Sensitivity Pressure
PressureSensitivity
Sensitivity
24
24 14.6
14.6

14.4
[mm]

[mm]

14.4
Displacement [mm]

Displacement [mm]

22
22
14.2
14.2
Radial Displacement

Radial Displacement

20
20
14
14
18
18
13.8
13.8
16
16
13.6
13.6
Radial

Radial

14
14 13.4
13.4

12
12 13.2
13.2
400
400 500
500 600
600 700
700 200
200 210
210 220
220 230
230 240
240
Tire
TireLoad
Load[kg]
[kg] Tire
TireInflation
InflationPressure
Pressure[kpa]
[kpa]
Figure9.9.Impact
Figure Impactofofload
loadand
andinflation
inflationon
onthe
thetire
tirevertical
verticaldisplacement.
displacement.Tire
TireSize:
Size:P245/65R17.
P245/65R17.
Figure
Figure9.
9.Impact
Impactof
ofload
loadand
andinflation
inflationononthe
thetire
tirevertical
verticaldisplacement.
displacement.Tire
TireSize:
Size:P245/65R17.
P245/65R17.

ItItItisisisimportant
important tomention
important to
mention thatit itwould
to mention that
would beincorrect
that it would be
incorrect togeneralize
be incorrect to
generalize thatthe
to generalize that
the tirebehavior
that the tire
behavior will
tire behavior will
will
always
always be linear under all loading and inflation pressure conditions. The linear behavior observed is
alwaysbe belinear
linearunder
underall
allloading
loadingand
andinflation
inflationpressure
pressureconditions.
conditions.The
Thelinear
linearbehavior
behaviorobserved
observedisis
specifically under
specifically the range of loads and inflation pressures considered in this study.
specificallyunder underthe
therange
rangeofofloads
loadsand
andinflation
inflationpressures
pressuresconsidered
consideredin
inthis
thisstudy.
study.
Vibration 2019, 2 181

It is important to mention that it would be incorrect to generalize that the tire behavior will
always be linear
More under allin
interestingly, loading and inflation
comparison to the pressure conditions.
tire contact The linear
patch length, behavior observed
the amplitude is
of the peak
specifically under theshowed
radial displacement range ofaloads
muchand inflation
higher pressures
sensitivity considered
to the in this3).
tire load (Table study.
Moreover, the radial
More interestingly, in comparison to the tire contact patch length, the amplitude
displacement shows negligible sensitivity to the tire tread depth. This makes radial displacement of the peaka
radial displacement showed a much higher sensitivity to the tire load (Table 3). Moreover,
more attractive feature in comparison to the contact patch length and hence was the preferred the feature
radial
displacement
for this study.shows negligible sensitivity to the tire tread depth. This makes radial displacement
a more attractive feature in comparison to the contact patch length and hence was the preferred feature
for this study.
Table 3. Sensitivity analysis—impact of load, pressure and tire wear change on the tire radial
displacement and contact patch length.
Table 3. Sensitivity analysis—impact of load, pressure and tire wear change on the tire radial
displacement and contact patch length. Load (kg) Pressure (kPa) Tread Depth (mm)

Range Tested Load

350 (kg) kg Pressure
kg–680 200–240(kPa)
kPa Tread2mm–8mm
Depth (mm)
Range Tested 350 kg–680 kg 200–240 kPa 2mm–8mm
% Change in the Peak Radial Displacement 80–90% 10–15% negligible
% Change in the Peak Radial Displacement 80–90% 10–15% negligible
% Change in the Contact
% Change in the Contact Patch Length 40–50%
40–50% 10–15%
10–15% 15–20%
15–20%
Patch Length

A model capturing the dependencies between the tire radial displacement, load and inflation
A model capturing the dependencies between the tire radial displacement, load and inflation
pressure was fit (Figure 10). A polynomial fit with the second-order in pressure and the first-order in
pressure was fit (Figure 10). A polynomial fit with the second-order in pressure and the first-order in
the load provided a good model fit.
the load provided a good model fit.
𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑙
Peak 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑝00
radial displacement + 𝑝10
= p00 ∗ 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
+ p10 ∗ load + 𝑝01∗∗pressure
+ p01 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒++
(1)
p11 ∗ load ∗ pressure + p02 ∗ pressure2 (1)
𝑝11 ∗ 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 ∗ 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 + 𝑝02 ∗ 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 2

Figure 10. Model fitting. Tire Size: P245/65R17, speeds tested: 25, 50, 75, 100 kph, camber = 0 deg.
Figure 10. Model fitting. Tire Size: P245/65R17, speeds tested: 25, 50, 75, 100 kph, camber = 0 deg.
Equation (1) can be rewritten into a standard parameter identification form as follows:
Equation (1) can be rewritten into a standard parameter identification form as follows:
) = ϕˆT
𝑦(𝑡) y=(t𝜑^𝑇 · θ(t)
(𝑡)(t⋅ )𝜃(𝑡)
where :
where: (Peak Displacement−p00−p01∗pressure−p02∗pressure2 )
y(t) =
(𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡− 𝑝00 − 𝑝01∗𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 2 (2)
𝑦(𝑡) = (p11∗pressure +p10) − 𝑝02∗pressure )
ϕT (t) = 1+ 𝑝10)
(𝑝11∗𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 (2)
𝜑 𝑇 (𝑡) =variable
θ(t) = is the unknown 1 (i.e. the tire load)
𝜃(𝑡) = 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 unknown variable (i.e. the tire load)
The
Theunknown
unknownparameter (t) can
parameterθ(𝑡) can be
beidentified
identifiedin
inreal-time
real-timeusing
usingthe
theparameter
parameteridentification
identification
approach.
approach. The recursive least squares (RLS) algorithm [37] provides a methodtotoiteratively
The recursive least squares (RLS) algorithm [37] provides a method iterativelyupdate
update
the unknown parameter at each sampling time to minimize the sum of the squares of the
the unknown parameter at each sampling time to minimize the sum of the squares of the modeling modeling
error using the past data contained within the regression vector, φ(𝑡). The performance of the RLS
algorithm was evaluated through experimental road vehicle tests. The vehicle maneuver was straight
driving with intermittent gas pedal presses (Figure 11).
Vibration 2019, 2 182

error using the past data contained within the regression vector, ϕ(t). The performance of the RLS
algorithm was evaluated through experimental road vehicle tests. The vehicle maneuver was straight
driving with intermittent gas pedal presses (Figure 11).

(a)
1000

500
Acceleration [m/s ]
2

-500

-1000

-1500

-2000
59 59.1 59.2 59.3 59.4 59.5 59.6 59.7 59.8 59.9 60
Time [sec]
(b) (c)
1000 25
Displacement (mm) = 21.53 Acceleration
Displacement
500 20
Displacement [mm]
Acceleration [m/s ]
2

0 15

-500 10

-1000 5

-1500 0
Predicted tire load 1490 lbs.
Actual Tire Load (measured)= 1455 lbs.
-2000 -5
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 Error=2.6%
Rotation Angle [° ]

Figure 11. Prediction performance. (a) Raw measurement—straight-line driving; (b) feature extraction;
(c)Figure
RLS prediction model. performance. (a) Raw measurement—straight-line driving; (b) feature
11. Prediction
extraction; (c) RLS prediction model.
The RLS model was found to predict the tire load within the first 20 wheel rotations. The
estimation errormodel
The RLS was 2.6%.wasFor the sake
found of completeness,
to predict thewithin
the tire load same dataset was
the first 20also used
wheel to evaluate
rotations. The
the
estimation error was 2.6%. For the sake of completeness, the same dataset was also used error
performance of a contact patch length based load estimation model. The estimation was
to evaluate
found to be 5.3%. So,
the performance of aa radial
contactdeflection basedbased
patch length modelload
wasestimation
found to bemodel.
superior than
The the contact
estimation patch
error was
length based model.
found to be 5.3%. So, a radial deflection based model was found to be superior than the contact patch
length based model.
4.2. Tire Slip Angle Estimation
4.2.Using
Tire Slip
theAngle Estimation
procedure described in Figure 7, the lateral displacement profile of the tire footprint
was extracted from the lateral acceleration
Using the procedure described signal7,atthe
in Figure different
lateral tire slip anglesprofile
displacement (Figureof12).
the tire footprint
wasThe following
extracted observations
from were made:signal at different tire slip angles (Figure 12).
the lateral acceleration
The following observations were made:
• The maximum lateral displacement of the tire footprint increases as the slip angle increases.
• The maximum lateral displacement of the tire footprint increases as the slip angle increases.
• The slope of the initial linear part of the lateral displacement profile also increases as the slip
• The slope of the initial linear part of the lateral displacement profile also increases as the slip
angle increases.
angle increases.
Both of these features were found to be linearly correlated with the tire slip angle (Figure 13).
Vibration 2019, 2 183
Slip angle=0° Slip angle =2°

Acceleration Acceleration
Slip angle=0° Displacement Slip angle =2° Displacement

100
Acceleration Acceleration
Displacement Displacement

Displacement [mm]
Acceleration [m/s ]
Displacement [mm]
Acceleration [m/s ]

2
50
2

40
20
100 0 2.5
0
-20

Displacement [mm]
Acceleration [m/s ]
Displacement [mm]
2
Acceleration [m/s ]

2
-40 50
2

-50
40
-60
20 1.5
0 0
-100 2.5
-20 1
-40 2
0.8 -50
-150
-60 0.6 0.5
0.4 1.5
0.2 -100 0
0 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 3501
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
0.8 Rotation Angle [° ]
Rotation Angle [° ] -150
0.6 0.5
0.4
Slip angle =4° 0.2
0 0 50
Slip angle =6°
100 150 200 250 300 350
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Rotation Angle [° ]
Rotation Angle [° ]
200 5
Acceleration Acceleration
Slip angle =4° Displacement Slip angle =6° Displacement

4 4
200 100 5
Acceleration Acceleration
Displacement Displacement

Displacement [mm]
Displacement [mm]

Acceleration [m/s ]
Acceleration [m/s ]

2
50
2

3
4 4
100
0 0

Displacement [mm]
Displacement [mm]

Acceleration [m/s ]
Acceleration [m/s ]

2
2

2 50
2

-50 3

0 0
-100
1
2 2
-50
-150

-100
-200 0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 3501
Rotation Angle [° ] Rotation Angle [° ]
-150

0
Figure
-200
0 12.
50 Extraction
100 150 of 200
lateral 250 displacement
300 350
0 from the lateral
0 acceleration
50 100 signal200at different
150 250 300 tire
350slip
Rotation Angle [° ] Rotation Angle [° ]
angles.
Figure 12. Extraction of lateral displacement from the lateral acceleration signal at different tire
Figure 12. Extraction of lateral displacement from the lateral acceleration signal at different tire slip
Both
slip of these features were found to be linearly correlated with the tire slip angle (Figure 13).
angles.
angles.
Peak Deflection Sensitivity Initial Slope Sensitivity
Both of these5 features were found to be linearly correlated
70 with the tire slip angle (Figure 13).
4.5
60
Peak Deflection Sensitivity Initial Slope Sensitivity
[mm] [mm]

54 70
50
3.5
4.5
Lateral Displacement

60
Initial Slope

43 40
50
2.5
3.5 30
Lateral Displacement

Initial Slope

32 40
20
1.5
2.5 30
10
21
20
0.5
1.5 0
0 2 4 6 0 2 4 6
10
1 T ire slip angle [deg] T ire slip angle [deg]
0.5 0
0Figure 13.2Correlation
Figure13. 4 between
Correlation betweenextracted
6extractedfeatures
0
featuresand2the
and thetire
tireslip
4 angle.
slip angle. 6
T ire slip angle [deg] T ire slip angle [deg]
AAmultiple
multiplelinear
linearregression
regressionmodel
model(Equation
(Equation(3))
(3))was
wastrained
trainedusing
usingbothboththese
thesesignal
signalfeatures
features
and found to Figure
estimate 13.tire
the Correlation
slip between
angle with extracted
an accuracyfeatures
of +/−and
0.2the tire slip angle.
deg.
and found to estimate the tire slip angle with an accuracy of +/− 0.2 deg.
𝑇𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑝linear
A multiple 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒
Tire =angle
𝑝00 =+p00
regression
slip 𝑝01+∗p01
model 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
(Equation
∗ lateral + 𝑝02using
(3)) was trained
displacement + p02 ∗∗initial
𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙
both𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒
+ +signal features
these
slope (3)
(3)
and found to estimate the tire slip angle𝑝03 ∗p03
with 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
an∗ accuracy
pressure of +/− 0.2 deg.
𝑇𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 = 𝑝00 + 𝑝01 ∗ 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 + 𝑝02 ∗ 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 +
(3)
𝑝03 ∗ 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
Vibration 2019, 2 184

It is noteworthy to mention that the correlation between the lateral displacement of the footprint
and the tire slip angle only holds true when the tire is deforming. Once the tire force saturates and
the footprint starts to slide, this relationship does not hold true anymore. Future work will focus on
understanding the lateral acceleration signal during high slip angle maneuvers and extracting signal
features that correlate with the slip angle even when the tire is sliding.

5. Conclusions
This paper provides a review of relevant works about the different signal processing techniques
proposed by researchers to extract the tire load and slip angle information from tire mounted
accelerometers. Details about research activities undertaken as part of this study to develop a smart
tire are presented. Novel algorithms for the tire load and slip angle estimation are presented. The tire
load is estimated by extracting the peak radial deflection of the tire from the radial acceleration signal.
The tire slip angle is estimated by extracting the peak lateral deflection and the slope of the lateral
deflection curve from the lateral acceleration signal. Multiple linear regression models are used to
model the relationship between the identified signal features of interest and tire load, slip angle. It is
noteworthy to mention that the motivation for using linear regression models is the low computational
burden imposed while doing the real-time implementation of these models in the vehicle electronic
control unit (ECU). Non-linear models are expected to give better fits; however, they also need more
compute resources, which poses implementation challenges. This is expected to improve as the next
generation vehicles are expected to come equipped with more sophisticated processing units to enable
advanced driver-assistance system (ADAS) functionalities. Future work will focus on using the tire
load and slip angle information to enhance the robustness of the vehicle state estimators.
Key challenges for the large-scale industrialization of smart tire technology are as follows:

• For the installation of sensors in a tire, many problems will need to be considered, such as the
compatibility of the sensors with the tire rubber i.e., stiffness issues, robustness of sensor in the
harsh tire environment, wireless transmission of gathered data in an energy efficient manner,
economic issues relating to the use of expensive sensors in a comparatively inexpensive product,
the tire and finally meeting the power requirements of all the electronic components.
• Most studies have assessed the benefits of a smart tire for control systems in a simulation
environment. It remains to be foreseen how much of this benefit can be captured in the
real-world, considering that most smart tires use a single point sensing solution transmitting data
at a low frequency.
• It is also concluded that the current tire pressure monitoring chips available in the production
vehicles cannot support complex signal processing algorithms required to extract signal features
from tire mounted sensors. Hence, an application specific integrated chip (ASIC) would be required.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, K.B.S. and S.T.; Methodology, K.B.S. and S.T.; Validation, K.B.S;
Writing—Original Draft Preparation, K.B.S.; Writing—Review and Editing, K.B.S.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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