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Relaxation Length Review and Time Constant Analysis for Agile Tire Dynamics
Control

Conference Paper · August 2015

DOI: 10.1115/DETC2015-46798

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 Proceedings of the ASME 2015 International Design Engineering Technical Conferences &
Computers and Information in Engineering Conference
IDETC/CIE 2015
August 2-5, 2015, Boston, Massachusetts, USA

DETC2015-46798

RELAXATION LENGTH REVIEW AND TIME CONSTANT ANALYSIS FOR AGILE

TIRE DYNAMICS CONTROL

Vladimir V. Vantsevich Jeremy P. Gray

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering Ground Vehicle Robotics
University of Alabama at Birmingham US Army TARDEC
Birmingham, AL, USA Warren, MI, USA

ABSTRACT 𝑠 Laplace transformation operator

For military all-terrain vehicles, there is a need to
radically increase tactical and operational mobility through new
modalities by fundamentally improving vehicle terrain control.
By characterizing the tire relaxation length and time constants
for lateral and longitudinal dynamic changes, mobility control
can be enhanced to accommodate agile tire dynamics.
This paper analyzes the transient period of the tire reaction
force development process, which is characterized by the
relaxation length, for the purpose of agile tire dynamics control
as a pre-emptive, fast and exact response of a tire to dynamic
changes of its interaction with terrain. In this regards, a
comprehensive literature review was undertaken and the tire
relaxation length was analyzed for different types of vehicles and
their operational velocities. The time relaxation constants, which
are derived from the relaxation length, are determined and
analyzed based on the data gathered in technical literature. Based
on the analysis, reference magnitudes of the time relaxation
constants are proposed to be used in agile tire dynamics control
algorithm and hardware developments of military all-terrain
vehicles.
NOMENCLATURE
∝ tire slip angle
𝛼̇ rate of the slip angle
𝐶𝑐𝑎𝑟 translating stiffness of the carcass
𝐶𝛼 cornering stiffness of a tire
𝐹𝑙𝑟 tire lateral reaction force during relaxation period
𝐹𝑙𝑠 tire lateral reaction force during steady state motion
𝑙𝑟𝑙 longitudinal relaxation length
𝑙𝑟𝑡 lateral relaxation length
𝑙𝑡 length of the tire road patch
𝑞𝑟 non-steady slip factor
𝑟 tire radius
𝑅𝑧 normal reaction on the wheel
1
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Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.
𝑠𝛿 tire slip ratio (slippage)
𝑠̇𝛿 rate of the tire slippage
𝑇𝑤 wheel driving torque
𝑉𝑥 actual wheel center velocity (slippage occurs)
𝑊𝑤 normal load on a wheel, including weight of the wheel
𝛼 slip angle
𝛼̇ rate of the slip angle
𝜉 tire circumferential deflection
𝜏𝑟𝑙 longitudinal relaxation time constant
𝜏𝑟𝑡 lateral relaxation time constant
𝜔𝑤 wheel angular velocity
INTRODUCTION: AGILE TIRE DYNAMICS
Modern vehicle electronic systems associated with vehicle
motion control, such as traction control and wheel torque
vectoring systems, anti-lock braking systems, various active
suspension, active stabilizers, active steering, hybrid-electric and
fully electric vehicles, etc. – they can respond within the range
of 0.100 sec to 0.120 sec. With a hydraulic actuation, the
response time can increase up to 0.2 sec. These really small time
intervals provide fast vehicle-driver-environment interactions,
but the actual control of the interactions occurs after the vehicle
has got to a critical motion situation. As a result, vehicle traction
and braking performance can be deteriorated; lateral dynamics
can fail and lead to a rollover, vehicles can lose their terrain
mobility as an ability to effectively move across severe terrain,
etc. In this regards, there would be very important to decrease
the response time of control systems. Additional efforts towards
reducing the (i) sensing and (ii) actuation time and (iii)
decreasing the computational time associated with the fulfilment
of control algorithms can significantly enhance control
processes. However, the mentioned meanings could not result in
radical improvements if they still act within the same conceptual
approach, organization and design of the control systems.
Although the previously listed electronic control systems have
provided incremental improvements for military applications
and terrain vehicle mobility, performance and dynamics, there is
a need in new technological paradigms in all three-listed areas.
Radically new sensing processes could be developed
through establishing new tire modalities. Forming novel research
domains in tire-road/terrain dynamics, i.e., new technological
paradigms, can lead to fundamentally new system designs
instead of simply providing more incremental advances in
vehicle systems and gaining incremental vehicle performance
improvements.
A new technological paradigm in the tire-road/terrain
interaction is formulated as agile tire dynamics, which targets
extremely fast, precise and pre-emptive 3D-vehicle-tire-surface
parameter identification and control within the tire/soil transient
mode between quasi-steady states [1, 2].
Therefore, the core of agile tire dynamics is the introduction
and consideration of tire kinematics-related and force/moment-
deflection characteristics while the tire (tire and soil) is in the
transient mode [2]. Such characteristics are a basis of agile tire
control and, thus, radical improvement of tire and vehicle
performance. Indeed, any elastic body can transmit a force only
if the body is deflected by this force. The same is true for a tire.
When a tire is loaded by an active force, the tire-road/terrain
reaction force emerges only after the tire gains a deflection. This
means that there is a time delay/lag between the time moment of
the active force application and the time moment of the tire-
surface reaction presence. Therefore, sensing and understanding
tire-road/terrain characteristics during the time lag can provide
enough time for a control system to make a decision and activate
a wheel actuator while the tire and soil are still deflecting.
The goal of this paper is to determine magnitudes of the
above-explained time delay/lag for different vehicles/tires in
different vehicle operational conditions. This is done through a
review and analysis of the tire relaxation length and the
relaxation time constant.
LATERAL RELAXATION LENGTH
Even the tire slip angle, 𝛼, was discovered in 1925 [3], first
research work on the time-delay of the tire lateral reaction
apparently came to know in 1950s. A lateral force response of a
Buick to a step input of the steering angle was about 80msec as
it can be read from experimental graphs in [4]. It was shown in
1960s that the tire lateral reaction force approximately follows
the exponential law under step input of the wheel steering angle,
and the wheel covers a distance approximately equal to its static
radius before the emerging lateral reaction varies by no more
than 36.8% of its new steady-state value (i.e., the value of 1/e)
[5]. The rotational angle of a wheel before it generates a steady
lateral reaction is around a half-turn or more, and the travel
covered by the wheel before it will have reached up the steady
lateral force is referred as the “relaxation length” [6-9].
Once the concept of the relaxation length was introduced
(also termed later as the “lateral relaxation length” (𝑙𝑟𝑡 ), “t”
stands for “transverse”, i.e. “lateral”), it was employed to study
dynamics of transient processes and relaxation behavior in
2
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Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.
various car system dynamics areas: a lane change maneuver [10],
suspension damping [11], vehicle handling [12], shimmy
dynamics [13, 14], unsteady aerodynamic response [15], tilt of
narrow-track three-wheelers [16], etc.
In some references, the lateral relaxation length was
assumed to be a constant, which takes different numerical values
in different tires: 𝑙𝑟𝑡 = 0.3 m and 0.5 m for passenger car tires at
linear speed of 13 m/sec [11], 𝑙𝑟𝑡 = 0.139 m for motorcycles
[17]. It is set to be twice the wheel radius in reference [18]. A
default value of the relaxation length is 0.2m in SimDriveline of
MATLAB [19]. In a study of tire lateral forces of a passenger car
[20], the front and rear relaxation lengths are accepted as 0.359
m and 0.572 m. Several research studies proved that the
relaxation length is not constant and vary with the wheel normal
load, tire slip angle and its rate of change [21-24].
In [21], the lateral relaxation of a tire is characterized by the
non-steady slip factor (given in the notations of this article
authors)
𝑞𝑟 = 𝐹𝑙𝑟 /𝐹𝑙𝑠 (1)
here, 𝐹𝑙𝑟 characterizes values of the tire lateral reaction during
the relaxation period; 𝐹𝑙𝑠 is the tire lateral reaction value at steady
motion with a constant slip angle. Figure 1 presents experimental
data of the non-steady slip factor for 12.00-18 tire tested on a
metal drum stand at different values of the normal load [21].
1: 𝑊𝑤 = 4, 6 𝑎𝑛𝑑 8 𝑘𝑁 2: 𝑊𝑤 = 13 𝑎𝑛𝑑 16 𝑘𝑁
3: 𝑊𝑤 = 19 𝑘𝑁 4: 𝑊𝑤 = 23 𝑘𝑁 5: 𝑊𝑤 = 27.2 𝑘𝑁
Figure 1. EXPERIMENTAL VALUES OF NON-STEADY
LATERAL SLIP OF 12.00-18 TIRE (INFLATION PRESSURE
0.3 MPA; LINEAR SPEED OF 4KPH; RATE OF SLIP
ANGLE ∝̇= 0.02 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐):
As seen from Figure 1, zero value of factor 𝑞𝑟 corresponds
to zero active lateral force (no tire lateral deflections at zero
force). The relaxation behavior of the tire is different at different
loads and slip angles. The lag in forces 𝐹𝑙𝑟 and 𝐹𝑙𝑠 is bigger at
smaller slip angles and larger values of the normal load. Indeed,
the tire lateral deflections practically finish at large slip angles
and factor 𝑞𝑟 is close to unity. The normal deflection of a tire
increases with the normal load, and the tire needs a smaller a
lateral force to deflect in transverse direction; relative lag
reduces, i.e. factor 𝑞𝑟 takes smaller values. The following
expressions were introduced in [22] to compute the non-steady
slip factor

𝑞𝑟 = [1 − 𝑒𝑥𝑝(−0.042𝑎𝑏)]𝑡ℎ(0.15𝑎𝑏)

𝐶∝ 𝑙𝑡 (2)
𝑎= ; 𝑏 = 𝑉𝑥 (𝛼 + 0.01)/(𝛼̇ 𝑙𝑡 )
𝑅𝑧

here, 𝐶∝ is the tire cornering stiffness (kN/m), 𝑙𝑡 is the length of

the tire-road patch (m), 𝑅𝑧 is the normal reaction (kN), 𝑉𝑥 is the
longitudinal velocity (the wheel center velocity in the plane of
the wheel rotation, m/sec); 𝛼 and 𝛼̇ are the slip angle in radians
b
and rate of the slip angle (rad/sec).
The time lag (or relaxation time), which corresponds to a
half or one revolution of a passenger car’s wheel in its transient
to a steady lateral reaction, can take 35 msec at 100 kph (27.78
m/sec) [25] or 50 msec at a highway speed (the value of this
highway speed is not given in [8]). The tire relaxation is
modelled as a first-order lag function with the relaxation lag time
constant of 0.1 sec [26]. The time constant of the first-order lag
is assumed to be 8 msec at speed of 25 m/sec [19]. As seen, there
is no agreement between the presented data.
As mentioned in [8], small tire responses are considered
imperceptible for many drivers; however, they may be
perceptible for expert drivers. As seen from Figure 1, the
perceptible relaxation behavior of vehicles is typically expected
at smaller slip angles. This is especially true for multi-wheel
vehicles with several steered axles in which impact loads can be
observed and reach considerable values. When those vehicles Figure 2. ILLUSTRATION OF LONGITUDINAL
start entering a curve path, the front steered wheels and the DEFLECTIONS OF (A.) A TIRE ON A ROAD, AND (B.) A
steered wheels at the rear have different directions of the tire TIRE-SOIL CONTACT ON DEFORMABLE SURFACES
lateral slip velocities (positive slip angles at the front wheels and
negative slip angles at the rear wheels). When the turn maneuver In this regards, the Pacejka magic formula [9] offers a
continues and vehicle inertia in transverse direction goes up, the mathematical tool to study transient processes in tires; the
rear wheels transit to positive slip velocities. This directional formula was used in a study of a traction control system for
change of the rear slip velocity often results in the mentioned electric vehicles including the relaxation length that is a function
impact load and, thus, vehicle handling characteristics are of the wheel speed, normal load and the tire slip ratio [27]. The
getting worse. However, a time delay in steering the rear wheels relaxation length as introduced in the Pacejka formula and the
in the beginning of a turn maneuver (i.e., the rear wheels start tire slippage was included in a study of an electric transmission
turning after the front wheels have already been turned through [28]. The Pacejka tire model for combined slip was employed in
a small steering angle up to 0.1 rad) can create larger values of a study of stability of a hybrid-electric vehicle [29], in which the
factor 𝑞𝑟 and the rear wheels will be in positive slip condition tire transient longitudinal slippage was computed as
[21].

𝜔𝑤 𝑟 − 𝑉𝑥 = 𝑉𝑥 𝑠𝛿 + 𝑙𝑟𝑙 𝑠̇𝛿 (3)

LONGITUDINAL RELAXATION LENGTH AND
COMBINED-SLIP here 𝜔𝑤 is the angular velocity of the wheel, 𝑟 is the tire radius
It is obvious that there should be a delay/lag in the (no definition given in [29]), 𝑠𝛿 is the tire longitudinal slippage,
longitudinal deflection of a tire under the applied wheel torque 𝑠̇𝛿 is the time derivative of the tire slippage; 𝑙𝑟𝑙 is the longitudinal
(see Figure 2); thus, a longitudinal relaxation length (𝑙𝑟𝑙 ), can be relaxation length. The effect of the tire longitudinal and lateral
introduced and then integrated in tire combined-slip models. force lag was taken into account in integrated vehicle dynamics
3
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Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.
control [30]; the relaxation length effect was included in an
analysis of handling performance [31]. In [32], a different
approach to the force lag effect was developed by introducing an
instantaneous slip of a tire that includes the effect of the rate of
tire circumferential deflection 𝜉
(𝜔𝑤 + 𝜉̇ )𝑟 − 𝑉𝑥
𝑠𝛿 = (4)
𝑉𝑥
In [33], the localized longitudinal slip ratio in the
neighborhood of the tire patch contact was introduced and the
longitudinal relaxation length defined as the distance covered by
the tire in order to reach 63% of its steady state force after the
application of a step slip-ratio input. It is mentioned that the
longitudinal relaxation length ranges between 0.3 m and 0.8 m
and it does not remain constant during the tire motion. It is
different at different normal loads and different level of the tire
slippage. The above-mentioned research work made significant
contributions to the tire slippage control field by introducing the
relaxation length as a component of dynamics equations to
originate transfer functions; however, the problem to design an
agile control capable to respond within the tire relaxation length
was not formulated in those studies.
Tire relaxation effects are introduced in [34] for both lateral
and longitudinal directions of the tire. The lateral relaxation
length is given by the ratio of cornering stiffness of the tire (𝐶∝ ),
and the translating stiffness of the carcass (𝐶𝑐𝑎𝑟 )
𝐶∝
𝑙𝑟𝑡 = (5)
𝐶𝑐𝑎𝑟
An analogy in the consideration of non-steady side slip
processes can be observed between the approaches presented in
[34] and [21]: compare Eq. (1) and (5). A relaxation effect on the
longitudinal slip and the aligning moment in the tire patch (the
latter is caused by the traction and lateral reactions in the tire
patch) is given by the longitudinal relaxation length:
𝑙𝑟𝑙 = 2𝑙𝑡 𝑠/3 (6)
here 𝑠 is Laplace transformation operator (i.e., 𝑙𝑟𝑙 is given in
spatial domain in Eq. (6)).
SOIL RELAXATION AND RELAXATION LENGTH IN
TERRAMECHANICS AND OFF-ROAD VEHICLE
APPLICATIONS
Relaxation dynamics of soils, relaxation lengths gained
noticeable attention in terramechanics and off-road vehicle
dynamics. Stress-relaxation characteristics of soil analyzed in
numerous studies over the past four decades [35–37]. In the
tillage tool-soil interaction, soil failure observed after the applied
stress exceeds the soil yield stress researched in [38]. Soil
relaxation in the tire-soil interaction is usually defined as the
height reached by the soil under the rising wheel behind the
4
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Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.
wheel axis [39]. Stress-relaxation characteristics of tires were
integrated in a FE model for a tire traversing obstacles [40].
Relaxation properties of compaction materials researched for a
track vehicle in [41].
It is clear that the soil relaxation in the tillage tool-soil, tire-
soil and track-soil interactions, as defined above, and the tire
relaxation length are different entities; even both may relate to
and influence each other (no research was done yet). For the
purpose of this article, the following consideration is given to the
relaxation length only.
A tractor-implement mathematical model in [42] included
the lateral relaxation length effect. The lateral relaxation length
of 1.5 times the tire radius was included in the first order
differential equation of the tire slip angle model of an
autonomous small tractor-trailer system [43]. For a model of a
tractor-implement combination [44], a hitch relaxation length
was proposed; this provided a better response of the model,
especially at higher frequencies.
An analysis of different mathematical models of tires
including a first-order lag model (i.e., the lateral relaxation
length model) and a spring-damper-in-series model showed the
equivalency of both [45].
In a study of tires on deformable surfaces [46], the lateral
relaxation length is approximately equal to the rolling radius of
the tire (in [46], it is not specified in which rolling mode that
radius is determined). The authors of the mentioned article also
concluded that for 𝑙𝑟𝑡 = 1 m at the longitudinal speed of a wheel
of 𝑉𝑥 = 1.5 m/sec, the time constant 𝜏𝑟𝑡 = 𝑙𝑟𝑡 ⁄𝑉𝑥 = 0.6667 sec
or break frequency of 1⁄𝜏𝑟𝑡 = 1.5 rad/sec (0.24 Hz), which
makes the lateral relaxation length as an important component in
studying handling (with frequencies at least 3 Hz) and lateral ride
stability (with frequencies of 4 to 5 Hz). A similar conclusion
can be drawn from a study of the sensitivity of responses of a
tractor-single-axle-towed-implement system with regard to
perturbations of its parameters [47], in which the lateral
relaxation length at all three axles only influenced the vehicle
lateral velocity and yaw rate. It was found that the velocity
sensitivities are much higher at 1m/sec than at higher speeds. In
a recent study of a self-leveling hillside vehicle [48], the
longitudinal and lateral relaxation lengths are 𝑙𝑟𝑙 = 1.1 m and
𝑙𝑟𝑡 = 0.5 m for a tire free radius of 0.4475 m.
ANALYSIS OF RELAXATION TIME CONSTANTS
As seen from the above-presented review, the relaxation
length has gained an application in transient vehicle dynamics
analysis including response time of tires in various vehicle
applications and vehicle operational conditions. Some research
works reported tire slippage control designs, in which, however,
the relaxation length is used as a component of dynamics
equations to originate a transfer function. The existing controls
were not yet detailed to the level of the above-formulated agile
control, in which a control algorithm can utilize the agile tire
characteristics from [2] and work during the transition time from
one steady-state to another, while the tire/soil deflections are
being accumulated. In order to develop agile control, the
transition time should be first estimated and thus the time
available for the control would be determined.
This time period can be determined from the following
equation that links the longitudinal velocity and the relaxation
length:
𝑑𝑙𝑟
𝑉𝑥 = (7)
𝑑𝑡
Applying Eq. (7) to the lateral and longitudinal relaxation
length, the relaxation time constants are to be as
𝑙 𝑙
𝜏𝑟𝑡 = ∫0 𝑟𝑡 𝑉𝑥 𝑑𝑙𝑟𝑡 and 𝜏𝑟𝑙 = ∫0 𝑟𝑙 𝑉𝑥 𝑑𝑙𝑟𝑙 (8)
As seen from Eq. (8), determining the relaxation time
constants requires to know the velocity and the relaxation
lengths. As a first attempt, the longitudinal velocity might be
considered as a constant. In this case, lateral (𝑙𝑟𝑡 ) and
longitudinal (𝑙𝑟𝑙 ) relaxation lengths can be simply determined
from
road and off-road applications, and also computed time
constants, 𝜏𝑟𝑡 and 𝜏𝑟𝑙 . Even the data on 𝑙𝑟𝑡 and 𝑙𝑟𝑙 from different
references is not fully consistent, some valuable conclusions can
be withdrawn from the computed time constants.
Both time constants increase their values when the
longitudinal speed of the wheel decreases. For passenger cars,
the longitudinal time constant varies from 0.0231 to 0.2143 sec
when the longitudinal velocity drops from 13 m/s (29.1 mph) to
2.8 m/s (6.26 mph). At the same time, the lateral time constant
increases from 0.0113 to 0.0385 sec when the velocity changes
from 27.8 m/s (62.2 mph) to 13 m/s (29.1 mph).
Figure 3 illustrates longitudinal relaxation time constants
determined from the literature review conducted in this study
(termed “experimental”, see rhombus dots), and then
approximated by Eq. (9) and shown by black curve and squared
dots (termed “approximated”).

𝑙𝑟𝑡
𝜏𝑟𝑡 =
𝑉𝑥
and 𝜏𝑟𝑙 = 𝑙𝑉𝑟𝑙 (9)
𝑥

The lateral relaxation time constant presents the time that

can be utilized for agile tire lateral dynamics control (side slip
angle control) and thus for agile vehicle lateral dynamics control
by controlling the lateral acceleration and yaw rate of a vehicle.
This control can be implemented through a steering system and
powertrain control with the use of the turn angle of the steered
wheels and rotational speed of the vehicle’s wheels as control
Figure 3. EXPERIMENTAL AND APPROXIMATED
inputs [49].
LONGITUDINAL RELAXATION TIME CONSTANTS
The longitudinal relaxation time characterizes the time
BASED ON LITERATURE REVIEW
available for agile wheel torque control and longitudinal tire
slippage control to enhance vehicle mobility and energy
Table 1 presents the numerical values of the experimental
efficiency. Indeed, an agile control of wheel torques and tire
and approximated coefficient of approximation values of
slippages can reduce slippages at some tires by re-distributing
longitudinal relaxation time constants from Figure 3.
the torque to the other wheels, which are in better terrain
conditions. This can be done in a pre-emptive way while the tire-
Table 1. NUMERICAL VALUES FROM Figure 3
soil deflections are still changing that is an indication of
emerging slippages of tires. The torque re-distribution, which Long. Data Velocity Exp. 𝜏𝑟𝑙 Statistical Approx.
leads to the same slippages of the tires, can minimize the power Point (m/s) (sec) 𝑎𝑟𝑙 𝜏𝑟𝑙 (sec)
losses in tire-terrain interaction and, thus, increase vehicle 𝜏𝑟𝑙−1 2.8 0.2143 0.58806 0.21000
energy efficiency [49, 50].
Taken together, the longitudinal and lateral relaxation time 𝜏𝑟𝑙−2 8.3 0.0723 0.58806 0.07085
constants can be utilized in vehicle lateral dynamics control that 𝜏𝑟𝑙−3 13.0 0.0231 0.58806 0.04524
introduces agile wheel torque change between the front-rear and
left-right wheels when a vehicle is in a turn. Such control can To derive the approximated relaxation length, a statistical
significantly advance torque vectoring systems and stability
relaxation length ( 𝑎𝑟𝑙 ) is calculated using Eq. (9) to solve for
control programs.
𝑙𝑟𝑙 , where its resulted value is squared and divided by the
As a foundation for the above-described controls, the
velocity, then summed for each data point, and then used to
relaxation time constants need to be analyzed. Table 1 presents a
recalculate 𝜏𝑟𝑙 based on the 𝑎𝑟𝑙 .
summary of data available in literature on lateral (𝑙𝑟𝑡 ) and
As shown, the curve in Figure 3 is easily fit since there are
longitudinal (𝑙𝑟𝑙 ) relaxation lengths of various vehicles, both
only three data points, and each theoretical data point is very
5
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Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.
close to the experimental value. However, that is not true for the
analysis conducted for lateral relaxation time constants, where
much more literature of experimental data was found.
Figure 4 illustrates experimental lateral relaxation times
taken from the literature review conducted in this study, and then
calculated the approximated 𝜏𝑟𝑡 -values based on Eq. (9).

Figure 5. EXPERIMENTAL AND APPROXIMATED

LATERAL AND LONGITUDINAL RELAXATION TIME
BASED ON LITERATURE REVIEW

Table 3 presents the numerical values of the experimental

and approximated coefficient of approximation values of lateral
and longitudinal relaxation time constants from Figure 5.
Figure 4. EXPERIMENTAL AND
APPROXIMATEDLATERAL RELAXATION TIME Table 3. NUMERICAL VALUES FROM Figure 5
CONSTANTS BASED ON LITERATURE REVIEW Long. Velocity Exp. 𝜏𝑟𝑡,𝑟𝑙 Statistical Approx.
Data Point (m/s) (sec) 𝑎𝑟𝑡,𝑟𝑙 𝜏𝑟𝑡,𝑟𝑙 (sec)
Table 2 presents the numerical values of the experimental
and approximated coefficient of approximation values of lateral 𝜏𝑟𝑙−1 2.8 0.2143 0.58806 0.21000
relaxation time constants from Figure 4. 𝜏𝑟𝑙−2 8.3 0.0723 0.58806 0.07085

Table 2. NUMERICAL VALUES FROM Figure 4 𝜏𝑟𝑙−3 13.0 0.0231 0.58806 0.04524
Long. Data Velocity Exp. 𝜏𝑟𝑡 Statistical Approx. 𝜏𝑟𝑡−1 13.0 0.0385 0.49608 0.03816
Point (m/s) (sec) 𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝜏𝑟𝑡 (sec) 𝜏𝑟𝑡−2 18.5 0.0330 0.49608 0.02682
𝜏𝑟𝑡−1 13.0 0.0385 0.49608 0.03816
𝜏𝑟𝑡−3 20.8 0.0275 0.49608 0.02385
𝜏𝑟𝑡−2 18.5 0.0330 0.49608 0.02682
𝜏𝑟𝑡−4 20.8 0.0176 0.49608 0.02385
𝜏𝑟𝑡−3 20.8 0.0275 0.49608 0.02385
𝜏𝑟𝑡−5 27.8 0.0113 0.49608 0.01784
𝜏𝑟𝑡−4 20.8 0.0176 0.49608 0.02385
𝜏𝑟𝑡−5 27.8 0.0113 0.49608 0.01784 As shown in Figure 5, the combined 𝜏𝑟𝑡 - and 𝜏𝑟𝑙 -values
generates a continuous curve where 𝜏𝑟𝑙 constants occupy one
area, and 𝜏𝑟𝑡 occupy the other. Based on these numerical values,
As shown in Figure 4, the approximated 𝜏𝑟𝑡 -values generate
one can conclude that lateral or longitudinal time constants can
a smooth translational curve, whereas the experimental values
reside within a predefined segment of the relaxation time
very much more but are still fairly in line with the theoretical
constant plot based on the vehicle’s velocity. This is illustrated
curve. Due to the amount of data being pulled from various
more clearly in Figure 6 where only the approximated 𝜏𝑟𝑡 - and
experiments with various test environments, tire characteristics,
𝜏𝑟𝑙 -values are plotted in separate series.
data collection methods and accuracy, it can be assumed to have
such variations. An interesting observation can be made when
the 𝜏𝑟𝑡 - and 𝜏𝑟𝑙 -values are plotted together.
Figure 5 illustrates experimental and approximated 𝜏𝑟𝑡 - and
𝜏𝑟𝑙 -values based on the aforementioned data sets.

6
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Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.

Figure 6. APPROXIMATED LATERAL AND
LONGITUDINAL RELAXATION TIME CURVE
Based on the numerical values of the relaxation time
constants, one can conclude that the response time of recent
traction and stability controls of passenger cars, which is
typically 90 to 120 sec, is pretty much in agreement with 𝜏𝑟𝑡 -
and 𝜏𝑟𝑙 -values if the vehicle velocity is low. However, this is not
a case for velocities of 8 m/s (18 mph) and higher values; the
relaxation time constants drop to 0.0723 sec and then to 0.0113
sec, which requires novel approaches to radically improve
sensing, computing and actuating actions.
In motorcycle designs (see Table 4), the relaxation time
constants are much smaller in the area of highly increased
velocities; the relaxation time constant of 0.0018 sec at 76.3 m/s
7
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Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.
(170 mph) does not make any sense for agile tire dynamics
control at today’s development level of electronics and actuators
for ground vehicle applications. It also remains questionable at
reasonable speeds of motorcycles because of the reported
smaller values of the relaxation lengths (the latter needs to be
more researched since their numerical values differ in different
references). Only at very small velocities (see Table 4, row 3
from the top), the relaxation time constants takes values of
0.3106 sec and 0.0621 sec that are suitable for agile control
design.
Stronger opportunities for agile tire dynamics control come
for off-road vehicles as seen from 𝜏𝑟𝑡 - and 𝜏𝑟𝑙 -data in Table 4.
However, these data differ very much and some values (see [47])
were received in analytical studies with the relaxation length as
a variable assigned in a wide range. Due to lower velocities,
more reasonable values of the relaxation time constants are
appeared to be within 0.060 to 0.150 sec. For example, for a tire
moving in snow [51], the traction force time-history showed a
very strong transient effect during the first 0.150 sec. This needs
more analytical and experimental research work. Also, high
sensitivity of responses of off-road vehicles to perturbations of
their parameters [47] needs special attention in agile control
design and implementation.
Table 4. REVIEW OF LATERAL AND LONGITUDINAL RELAXATION LENGTHS AND COMPUTATION OF TIME CONSTANTS

Tire radius Lateral Relaxation Longitudinal Lateral/Longitudinal Reference, Year

Type of Vehicle Area of Study Longitudinal speed Length, m Relaxation Length, m Time Constants, sec of Publication
Road Vehicle Applications
Front 0.291 m
0.0198 to 0.0018
Motorcycle Tire friction / performance Rear 0.307 m 0.139 - [17], 2009
-
7.4 to76.3 m/s
0.305m -
Motorcycle Traction control - 0.809 - 0.243 [32], 2010
20 m/s 0.01215 to 0.04045
N/A – towed motorcycle 0.164 m 0.072 0.3105 and 0.0589
Shimmy dynamics - [14], 2009
wheel 0.2447 and 1.2232 m/s -
- Distance to reach 63%
3 wheel motor cycle Tilt of narrow-track three-wheelers - No data to calculate [52], 2011
8.3 m/s of steady force
0.313 m The tire radius, 0.0113
Passenger car Integrated vehicle dynamics control 0.091 [30], 2006
27.8 m/s 0.313 -
- 0.0385
Passenger car Suspension damping 0.5 0.3 [11], 2007
13 m/s 0.0231
F: 0.0176
- Front 0.359
Passenger car Tire lateral forces - R: 0.0275 [20], 2008
20.8 m/s Rear 0.572
-
- 0.3300
Passenger car Unsteady aerodynamic response - - [15], 2010
18.5 m/s (wind) -
0.32 m -
Passenger car Tire-road interactions - 0.6 [33], 2010
2.8 and 8.3 m/s 0.2143 and 0.0723
-
Truck Vehicle handling - - No data to calculate [12], 2014
-
- 2 times the tire
6 wheel military vehicle Steering control 10 times the tire radius No data to calculate [18], 2007
10 m/s radius
Off-Road Vehicle Applications
-
Tractor-implement - Front 0.75
- - F: 0.7500 to 0.1000 [42], 2010
system 1.0, 4.5 and 7.5 m/s Rear 1.0
R: 1.0000 to 0.1333
Autonomous small 1.5 times the tire
- - - No data to calculate [43], 2014
tractor-trailer system radius
- 0.1000 to 2.2000
Sensitivity to the variation in system 0.1 ≤ 𝑙𝑟𝑡1 ≤ 2.2
Tractor with a single 1.0 m/s 0.0333 to 0.0667
axle towed implement
responses to perturbations in system 0.15 ≤ 𝑙𝑟𝑡2 ≤ 3.0 - 0.0133 to 0.2933 [47], 2010
parameters 4.5 m/s
7.5 m/s 0.1 ≤ 𝑙𝑟𝑡3 ≤ 2.2 -
- 0.6667
Not specified Tire-deformable surface interaction 1 - [46], 1987
1.5 m/s -
0.4475 m 0.2994
Tractor Suspension 0.5 1.1 [48], 2014
1.67 m/s 0.6587

8
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Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.

CONCLUSION
A review and analysis of technical literature revealed that
the relaxation length has been proven as a component of transient
dynamics of vehicles including on- and off-road applications.
However, additional research work is needed to establish
consistent and reliable data on the longitudinal and lateral
relaxation length in different vehicle operational modes and
terrain conditions.
Based on the relaxation length analysis in this study,
magnitudes of the longitudinal and lateral relaxation time
constants were determined and recommended as a time interval
that is available for sensing tire characteristics in the transient
mode for the purpose of agile tire dynamics controls to radically
reduce vehicle responses. It was also observed that the
theoretical relaxation time constants for lateral and longitudinal
directions align to a single hyperbolic curve that aligns to the
vehicle velocity. This requires more experimental and analytical
analysis to prove the theory that for both lateral and longitudinal
relaxation time constants can be predicted within an appropriate
variance based on the vehicle’s velocity. It is critical that future
experimental and analytical studies utilize corresponding data
collection and analysis procedures across various terrains, tires,
operating speeds and conditions.
The implementation of the relaxation time constants in agile
controls would create a basis for designing new sensors and
actuators to make vehicle responses agile and vehicle dynamics
more precise and safe. Vehicle dynamics was already challenged
with a time reduction technical problem for sensing and
deploying airbags. This time is today about 0.02 to 0.03 sec that
is enough to deploy an airbag before a human head touch (about
0.06 sec).
Disclaimer: Reference herein to any specific commercial
company, product, process, or service by trade name, trademark,
manufacturer, or otherwise, does not necessarily constitute or
imply its endorsement, recommendation, or favoring by the
United States Government or the Department of the Army
(DoA). The opinions of the authors expressed herein do not
necessarily state or reflect those of the United States Government
or the DoA, and shall not be used for advertising or product
endorsement purposes.
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