Thesis G03389 William PDF

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Development of Empirical Formula to Predict Maximum

Title of thesis Displacement of Offshore Blast Walls subjected to Hydrocarbon
Explosions
WILLIAM CHIN KUAN NG

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No. 10, Jalan Putra Permai 9A, Dr. Do Kyun Kim
Taman Equine,
43300 Seri Kembangan,
Selangor, Malaysia.
Date : __________________________ Date : _____________________

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI PETRONAS
DEVELOPMENT OF EMPIRICAL FORMULA TO PREDICT MAXIMUM
DISPLACEMENT OF OFFSHORE BLAST WALLS SUBJECTED TO
HYDROCARBON EXPLOSIONS
By
The undersigned certify that they have read, and recommend to the Postgraduate
Studies Programme for acceptance of this thesis for the fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree stated.
Signature: ______________________________________
Main Supervisor: Dr. Do Kyun Kim

______________________________________
Signature: ______________________________________
Co-Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Oe Ju Hwang

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Signature: ______________________________________
Head of Department: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Bashar S. Mohammed

______________________________________
Date: ______________________________________
DEVELOPMENT OF EMPIRICAL FORMULA TO PREDICT MAXIMUM
DISPLACEMENT OF OFFSHORE BLAST WALLS SUBJECTED TO
HYDROCARBON EXPLOSIONS
by
A Thesis
Submitted to the Postgraduate Studies Programme
as a Requirement for the Degree of
MASTER OF SCIENCE
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI PETRONAS
BANDAR SERI ISKANDAR
PERAK
FEBRUARY 2018
DECLARATION OF THESIS
Development of Empirical Formula to Predict Maximum

Title of thesis Displacement of Offshore Blast Walls subjected to Hydrocarbon
Explosions

I ____________________________________________________________________
hereby declare that the thesis is based on my original work except for quotations and
citations which have been duly acknowledged. I also declare that it has not been
previously or concurrently submitted for any other degree at UTP or other institutions.
Witnessed by
________________________________ __________________________
Signature of Author Signature of Supervisor
Permanent address: Name of Supervisor

No. 10, Jalan Putra Permai 9A, Dr. Do Kyun Kim
Taman Equine,
43300 Seri Kembangan,
Selangor, Malaysia.
Date : __________________________ Date : _____________________
iv
DEDICATION
To my parents
v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The completion of this thesis would not have been possible without the involvement
of several parties. First and foremost, I would like to express sincere thanks to my
project supervisor, Dr. Do Kyun Kim for his professional guidance and generous
support in many ways over the past two years. Much have I been enlightened by his
boldness and enthusiasm in research, the main purpose of which is to innovate for the
betterment of the ways we do things. I am also indebted to my co-supervisor, Prof. Dr.
Oe Ju Hwang, who is the Technip Professorial Chair at UTP, for his consistent
encouragement, guidance, and sharing of industrial experience have widened my
horizon and perspective about the future prospects.
My gratitude also goes to my colleagues in the Ocean and Ship Technology (OST)
research group and research students at the computer laboratories in the Department of
Civil and Environmental Engineering where I used to work, together with whom have
I learned and played throughout my stay in UTP.
Finally, my greatest support comes from my parents, for their trust has kept me
striving forward. No words are sufficient to express my heartiest gratitude for their
unconditional love.
vi
ABSTRACT
Blast walls play a vital role in the event of an accidental explosion by providing the
structural strength and ductility necessary for mitigating the effect of explosive
loadings. Due to spatial constraints in the congested topsides, one of the strict criteria
for the design of blast walls for offshore installations is based on the ultimate limit states
for the maximum deflections, as proposed by the Fire and Blast Information Group
(FABIG). Present study focused on developing an empirical equation for the estimation
of the maximum midspan displacements of corrugated blast walls as passive protective
barriers, in the event of an accidental explosion. The performances of several solid and
shell finite element (FE) formulations in LS-DYNA explicit FE solver have been
investigated, and it was suggested that the use of reduced integration elements with
additional hourglass control functions is an effective approach to overcome the
hourglassing effect, as validated by experimental data. The recommended element
formulations were then adopted for a subsequent parametric study on the influence of
key design parameters, i.e. geometry, material, and loading conditions of corrugated
blast walls, on their maximum transient displacements due to pulse pressure loadings.
A total of 1,620 simulation cases have been performed in LS-DYNA for the parametric
study, from which a closed-form, empirical equation was generated for the convenience
of quick estimation of the maximum midspan displacements of corrugated blast walls
due to accidental blast loadings, at early design stages.
vii
ABSTRAK
Dinding letupan memainkan peranan penting sekiranya berlaku letupan tidak

sengaja dengan menyediakan kekuatan struktur dan kemuluran yang diperlukan untuk
mengurangkan kesan beban letupan. Oleh kerana kekangan ruang di bahagian atas
platform minyak dan gas yang sesak, salah satu kriteria yang ketat untuk reka bentuk
dinding letupan untuk pemasangan luar pesisir adalah berdasarkan kepada batas
maksimum bagi pesongan maksimum, seperti yang dicadangkan oleh Fire and Blast
Information Group (FABIG). Kajian ini memberi tumpuan kepada pembangunan
persamaan empirikal untuk menganggar anjakan maksimum yang tinggi bagi dinding
letupan beralun sebagai halangan pelindung pasif, sekiranya berlaku letupan tidak
sengaja. Prestasi beberapa elemen pepejal dan shell dalam LS-DYNA finite element
(FE) solver telah disiasat, dan dicadangkan bahawa penggunaan reduced-integration
dengan tambahan fungsi kawalan hourglass adalah pendekatan yang berkesan untuk
mengatasi kesan hourglassing, seperti yang disahkan oleh data eksperimen. Formulasi
elemen yang dicadangkan kemudiannya diterima pakai untuk kajian parametrik
berikutnya mengenai pengaruh parameter reka bentuk utama, iaitu geometri, bahan, dan
keadaan pemuatan pada dinding letupan, pada anjakan sementara maksimum mereka
akibat tekanan nadi. Sejumlah 1,620 kes simulasi telah dilakukan menggunakan LS-
DYNA untuk kajian parametrik, dari mana persamaan empirikal bentuk tertutup telah
dihasilkan untuk kemudahan anggaran pantas anjakan maksimum pada midspan
dinding letupan disebabkan oleh tekanan letupan tidak sengaja, pada peringkat reka
bentuk awal.
viii
In compliance with the terms of the Copyright Act 1987 and the IP Policy of the
university, the copyright of this thesis has been reassigned by the author to the legal
entity of the university,
Institute of Technology PETRONAS Sdn Bhd.
Due acknowledgement shall always be made of the use of any material contained
in, or derived from, this thesis.
© William Chin Kuan Ng, 2018
Institute of Technology PETRONAS Sdn Bhd
All rights reserved.
ix
TABLE OF CONTENT
ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................vii
ABSTRAK ..................................................................................................................viii
LIST OF FIGURES .....................................................................................................xii
LIST OF TABLES ...................................................................................................... xiv
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ...................................................................................... xv
LIST OF SYMBOLS .................................................................................................. xvi
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................... 1
1.1 Background of Study ......................................................................................... 1
1.2 Problem Statement ............................................................................................. 3
1.3 Objectives and Scopes of Study ........................................................................ 4
1.4 Significance of Present Research....................................................................... 4
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................ 5
2.1 Design of Offshore Blast Walls for Accidental Explosions .............................. 5
2.2 Characterization of Blast Loads......................................................................... 6
2.3 Analysis of Blast Loaded Structures.................................................................. 9
2.3.1 Single-Degree-of-Freedom (SDOF) Method ........................................ 9
2.3.2 Nonlinear Finite Element Method ....................................................... 14
2.3.2.1 Definition of Blast Loading in LS-DYNA............................... 16
2.3.2.2 Material Models ....................................................................... 18
2.4 Finite Element Formulations and Material Models for Plasticity in LS-
DYNA .......................................................................................................... 20
2.5 Conclusions from Literature Review ............................................................... 20
CHAPTER 3 RECOMMENDATION OF FINITE ELEMENT FORMULATIONS
FOR STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF BLAST WALLS ..................................... 22
3.1 Chapter Overview ............................................................................................ 22
3.2 Target Blast Wall Model ................................................................................. 22
3.2.1 Experimental Test Results ................................................................... 25
3.2.2 Numerical Modelling .......................................................................... 27
3.3 Assessment of FE Types and FE Formulations in LS-DYNA ........................ 30
x
3.3.1 Selection of FE Types ......................................................................... 30
3.3.2 Selection of FE Formulations .............................................................. 38
3.4 Chapter Summary ............................................................................................ 46
CHAPTER 4 PARAMETRIC STUDY OF CORRUGATED BLAST WALL........... 48
4.1 Chapter Overview ............................................................................................ 48
4.2 Methodology .................................................................................................... 48
4.3 Validation of Full-Scale FE Model.................................................................. 52
4.4 Analysis of FE Simulation Results .................................................................. 53
4.5 Discussion ........................................................................................................ 57
4.6 Chapter Summary ............................................................................................ 58
CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ................................ 59
5.1 Conclusions ..................................................................................................... 59
5.1.1 Finite Element Formulations ............................................................... 59
5.1.2 Parametric Study ................................................................................. 60
5.2 Recommendations for Future Research ........................................................... 61
REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………………………….. 63
APPENDIX A SELECTION OF FE TYPES (CASES 1 – 5) ..................................... 70
APPENDIX B COMPUTATIONAL COSTS OF FE TYPES (CASES 1 – 5) AND
FE FORMULATIONS (TYPES I – IV) ................................................................ 76
APPENDIX C SELECTION OF FE FORMULATIONS (CASE 2 ONLY) .............. 78
APPENDIX D PARAMETERS FOR THE GENERATION OF EMPIRICAL
EQUATION ........................................................................................................... 84
xi
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1: Photographs of the Piper Alpha (left) and Deepwater Horizon (right)
platforms after accidental hydrocarbon explosions ....................................................... 2
Figure 2.1: Corrugated (left) and sandwich (right) blast wall panels ............................ 6
Figure 2.2: Elements of a typical blast wave (Rajendran & Lee, 2009) ........................ 7
Figure 2.3: Applied load regimes relative to structural resistance. ................................ 8
Figure 2.4: Idealizations of blast loading profiles for structural analyses ..................... 9
Figure 2.5: Real and equivalent SDOF spring-mass-force system .............................. 10
Figure 2.6: Bi-linear approximation of material resistance-displacement function .... 10
Figure 2.7: Maximum dynamic response of SDOF elastic-perfectly plastic system
subjected to symmetric triangular blast profile (Sohn, Kim, Kim, & Paik, 2013) ...... 11
Figure 2.8: Examples of pressure-impulse (P-I) iso-damage curve ............................. 13
Figure 3.1: Configuration of the target blast wall model ............................................. 23
Figure 3.2: Dynamic yield strength (normalized with static yield strength) versus
strain rate (Schleyer & Langdon, 2003) ....................................................................... 23
Figure 3.3: Processing of FEA input and output data .................................................. 24
Figure 3.4: Details on applied pressure loading (Schleyer & Langdon, 2003)............ 26
Figure 3.5: Benchmark study of FE model sizing based on extreme load condition, i.e.
loading scenario A7 ..................................................................................................... 27
Figure 3.6: Comparison of structural damage modes between present FE model and
the full experimental model ......................................................................................... 28
Figure 3.7: Quarter section of FE model with boundary conditions............................ 29
Figure 3.8: Investigation on mesh sensitivity based on loading scenario A4 .............. 30
Figure 3.9: Displacement-time plots for FE models of Cases 1 – 5 ............................ 32
Figure 3.10: Statistical analysis of comparison between FEA outcomes (present) and
test data (Schleyer & Langdon, 2003) for the selection of FE types ........................... 37
Figure 3.11: Responses of FE models of Types I – IV subjected to loading scenario
A7 (without hourglass control) .................................................................................... 40
Figure 3.12: FEA results of Type I – III models subjected to loading scenario A7 .... 42
xii
test data (Schleyer & Langdon, 2003) for the selection of FE formulations ............... 45
Figure 4.1: Cross-sectional parameters of symmetrical corrugation profile................ 49
Figure 4.2: Applied boundary conditions and load profile (Lei et al., 2015) .............. 50
Figure 4.3: Assumed boundary condition for the calculation of plastic moment, M P
...................................................................................................................................... 51
Figure 4.4: Comparison of maximum midspan displacements between full-scale and
¼-scale FE models ....................................................................................................... 53
Figure 4.5: Normalized displacement, wm H versus shape factor, M P M C . ........... 54
Figure 4.6: Data curve fitting for the proposed empirical equation ............................. 57
xiii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1: Structural response domains for different modes of loading ........................ 7
Table 2.2: Categorization of strain rates (Paik and Thayamballi, 2003) ..................... 18
Table 2.3: Coefficients of Cowper-Symonds constitutive equation obtained from
uniaxial tensile tests on specimens with small strains ................................................. 19
Table 2.4: Formulations of thin-shell elements in LS-DYNA ..................................... 20
Table 3.1: Summary of pulse pressure tests by HSE (Schleyer & Langdon, 2003) .... 25
Table 3.2: Assumed FE types for modelling of target blast wall................................. 31
Table 3.3: Selected combinations for the assessment of performance of shell and solid
FE formulations ........................................................................................................... 39
Table 4.1: Design parameters for corrugated blast walls ............................................. 49
xiv
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
2D Two Dimensional
3D Three Dimensional
CFD Computational fluid dynamics
COV Coefficient of variance
CP Corrugated panel
DLF Dynamic load factor
DOF Degree-of-freedom
ELFORM Element formulation (in LS-DYNA)
FABIG Fire and Blast Information Group
FE Finite element
FEA Finite element analysis
FEM Finite element method
FI Full integration
FPSO Floating production, storage, and offloading
GOM Gulf of Mexico
HSE Health and Safety Executive
IHQ Hourglass control function (in LS-DYNA)
MDOF Multi-degree-of-freedom
NLFEA Nonlinear finite element analysis
NLFEM Nonlinear finite element method
R2 Coefficient of determination
RI Reduced integration
S Standard error of regression
SDOF Single-degree-of-freedom
SM Supporting members
SRI Selectively reduced integration
TN5 Technical Note 5
xv
LIST OF SYMBOLS
A Area subjected to blast loading

B Breadth of flange
Beff Effective breadth of flange
C, q Cowper-Symonds coefficients
E Young’s modulus of material

F Applied external load
H Height of web
I Area moment of inertia
IP Impulse
k Actual spring stiffness

ke Equivalent spring stiffness
KL Load transformation factor
KM Mass transformation factor

L Vertical span of blast wall
M Actual structural mass
Me Equivalent structural mass
MC Maximum elastic moment
MP Plastic moment
P Applied external pressure

Ppeak Peak overpressure
t Thickness of panel
td Duration time
tr Rise time
wm Maximum displacement
wp Permanent displacement
y Displacement
xvi
yel Maximum elastic displacement
ym Maximum midspan displacement

 ,  ,  ,  , , Coefficients of proposed empirical equation
 Strain rate
 Angle of corrugation
 Density of material
Y Static yield strength
 Yd Dynamic yield strength
xvii
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of Study
Many explosion incidents have occurred throughout history in various industries, both
onshore and offshore which include, but not limited to petrochemical, pharmaceutical,
chemical, food production, metallurgical, wood processing, coal mining, cement
production, and shipping and transportation, with detailed statistics provided by
(Czujko, 2010). Accidental explosions occur on oil and gas processing facilities through
a sudden ignition of leaked hydrocarbon gas vapors which produces a spark that spreads
through the surrounding gas cloud. Although having a low probability of occurrence,
these events are associated with serious consequences that require special attention.
In 1988, the Piper Alpha tragedy (Figure 1.1) that happened in the North Sea has
triggered the increase of awareness on the potential hazards associated with offshore
operations. The incident was initiated by a gas leak and is currently the worst offshore
accident to date in terms of human life lost, that left 167 crew perished. A non-profitable
organization, the Fire and Blast Information Group (FABIG) was then created in the
wake of the incident with the aim of sharing the knowledge and best industrial practices
on mitigation and prevention of fires and explosions to protect the facilities and
personnel on board against these hazards. The Lord Cullen’s Report (Cullen, 1993),
“The Public Inquiry into the Piper Alpha Disaster” provides a thorough analysis of this
incident, and the recommendations of which were later implemented in HSE’s safety
regulations for offshore installations. Another post-Piper Alpha investigation was
jointly executed by the HSE and the Norwegian Petroleum Directorate (NPD) following
the incident. In addition, a more recent research report (Bull, 2004) suggests that there
still exists the necessity for researches on accidental explosions to improve
understanding of the physics behind the phenomenon and the consequences on offshore
structures for better accuracies in scaling and prediction.
However, although much emphasis has been devoted to improving the management
of safety procedures, the more recent Deepwater Horizon (Figure 1.1) disaster took
place in 2010 in the Gulf of Mexico (GOM) due to a well blowout followed by the
leakage of high pressure methane gas in the drilling riser, that subsequently led to
ignition and thus explosion of the platform, that killed 11 lives, as reported by (DHSG,
2011). As an environmental consequence, the oil spill had lasted several months with
an estimated 4.9 million barrels of oil into the GOM.
As the latest oil and gas ventures have been transitioning from shallow sea into
deeper ocean field explorations, requirements for more stringent designs with higher
safety criteria can be justified by uncertainties in the harsh environmental conditions.
Current researches have been devoted to the investigations of accident preventions and
risk assessments under various circumstances. Hydrocarbon gas explosions, like ship
collisions and grounding, and dropped objects, are accidental events that need to be
addressed with preventive measures.
Figure 1.1: Photographs of the Piper Alpha (left) and Deepwater Horizon (right)
platforms after accidental hydrocarbon explosions
Of several practical measures, corrugated blast walls are commonly installed as an

integral component of offshore topsides and act as passive protection barriers to isolate
2
hazardous hydrocarbon handling modules, e.g. well bay area from personnel and
critical equipment on board, as well as to prevent the escalation of subsequent fires. As
the name implies, these structures are designed to be efficient energy-absorbing systems
to mitigate the effect of blast loading arising from the accidental ignition of
hydrocarbon gases. Since blast loads are nonlinear external forces caused by a sudden
increment in overpressure that occur in a very short instance, but with extreme structural
consequences, their effects on structural responses are difficult to be predicted,
especially when involving large plastic deformations. Therefore, the design of offshore
blast protection systems requires sufficient understanding on the mechanism of
hydrocarbon gas explosion as well as collective experiences from previous incidents
which, in addition, give practical ideas for improvements in terms of design for
structural integrity.
1.2 Problem Statement
Offshore oil and gas installations are constantly exposed to harsh environmental
conditions in the ocean, which makes them vulnerable to a variety of safety hazards.
Despite continuous efforts from industry and governmental authorities on the safety
concerns, it is merely impossible to eliminate the risks of accidental fire and explosion.
The existing complexities in performing a reliable structural analysis of offshore blast
walls subjected to accidental explosion loading requires an in-depth knowledge of the
engineering problem from the technical point of view.
The most commonly used finite element method (FEM) provides detailed insights
on the local responses of the structures, however, the quality of the solution outputs
depends on the specialized skills and experiences of design engineers in utilizing the
analysis tools. A relatively simple approach such as the single-degree-of-freedom
(SDOF) method, on the other hand, provides an analytical estimation the maximum
structural response by using simple beam idealization, although the accuracy may not
be applicable for problems involving large plastic deformations due to extreme blast
loadings. Moreover, many individual calculation steps are required to perform the
SDOF analysis. In view of these existing issues, it may take some time and effort to
3
estimate the maximum transient behaviour of an offshore blast wall even at the
preliminary design stage.
1.3 Objectives and Scopes of Study
In line with the problem statement, the primary objective of present study is to develop
a closed-form empirical equation for quick, direct estimation of the maximum transient
displacements of corrugated blast walls with less calculation steps compared to the
SDOF method, based on the outcome from nonlinear finite element analysis (NLFEA).
The scope of study includes the followings:
• To develop a validated finite element model of corrugated blast walls subjected

to blast loadings – Chapter 3
• To conduct a parametric study to investigate the relationships between the
maximum midspan displacement of corrugated blast walls and geometry,
material, and load properties for the development of a closed-form empirical
equation – Chapter 4
• Analyses in present study are limited to stainless steel corrugated blast walls with
non-symmetrical supporting members connected to the primary framework,
subjected to transient dynamic loads obtained from existing experiment data.
1.4 Significance of Present Research
Despite the availability of sophisticated software tools, specifically, the finite element
method (FEM), hand calculations may still be relevant at the early stages of engineering
designs to provide a rough estimation of the structural behavior and tendencies to
certain modes of failure. In present research, outcomes from NLFEA have been
compiled and used to generate an empirical equation for direct estimation of the
maximum transient displacements of corrugated blast walls subjected to pulse pressure
loadings, in a much shorter time compared to the SDOF method.
4
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Design of Offshore Blast Walls for Accidental Explosions
Offshore blast walls are basically thin-walled steel structures built as an integral part to
the topsides of offshore platforms and floating production, storage, and offloading
(FPSO) units, serving as a critical safety component to mitigate the consequences of
accidental gas explosions where there is a risk, e.g. the well bay areas. To protect
personnel and critical equipment and to prevent escalation of possible subsequent fires,
which may lead to the progressive collapse and loss of integrity of the topsides
structure, proper design of offshore blast walls commonly includes considerations for
large (plastic) deformations, thus providing sufficient energy absorption capacities to
overcome the extreme blast loading.
These structures are normally designed by specialized subcontractors in the form

of profiled sheeting, i.e. corrugated panels of steel alloys and welded onto the primary
framework of the topsides, though other designs exist in the forms of stiffened panels
(Pan and Louca, 1999; Park and Cho, 2006; Sohn et al., 2016) as well as composite
panels (Louca and Fallah, 2010), as shown in Figure 2.1. The pioneering work on
designs of corrugated panels were performed for ship bulkheads through extensive
theoretical and experimental studies.
The functions of corrugated bulkheads require them to resist axial compressive

loads to prevent buckling, and in the case of flooding, to resist lateral loading from
hydrostatic pressure (Caldwell, 1955). Paik et al. (1997) presented a simple analytical
formulation to estimate the ultimate strength of corrugated bulkheads through collapse
tests on nine mild steel corrugated bulkhead models having five bays of corrugations
with varying corrugation angle, plate thickness and type of loading, i.e. axial
compression and lateral pressure. Liang et al. (2006) presented a simplified
approximate method for the static plastic analysis of corrugated steel panels by focusing
on the relationship between the central panel displacement and the applied distributed
load.
Flexible Angle
I-Beam
I-Beam Bolts and
gasket seal
Angle
Blast Wall
Blast Wall
Figure 2.1: Corrugated (left) and sandwich (right) blast wall panels
Materials such as carbon and stainless steels are the most common candidates for
offshore blast wall constructions, each of them having superiorities over one another,
including factors such as strength-to-weight ratio, ductility, corrosion resistance, energy
absorption capacity, and thermal strength, among others. The Technical Note 5 (TN5)
issued by the Fire and Blast Information Group (FABIG) provides design guidance for
stainless steel blast walls (Brewerton, 1999). A more general guideline for design and
protection of topsides against fire and explosion is provided by the Interim Guidance
Notes (SCI, 1992).
2.2 Characterization of Blast Loads
Blast loads are highly nonlinear external forces caused by a sudden increase in
overpressure, which is the pressure above the atmospheric pressure, Patm in a very short
instance followed by an exponential fall (Rajendran & Lee, 2009). Figure 2.2 illustrates
the typical elements of blast loading with respect to time in an idealized profile.
6
Schematic of typical blast loads
Pressure
Positive phase duration Negative phase duration
Time
Figure 2.2: Elements of a typical blast wave (Rajendran & Lee, 2009)
The parameters of interest along the loading process include the peak overpressure,
Ppeak the positive duration and impulse, I P while the negative phase of the blast wave
is generally ignored in structural analyses. The structural responses can generally be
classified into three domains, namely impulsive, dynamic, and quasi-static, which are
distinguished by the ratios td T and tr td as shown in Table 2.1, where t r is the rise
time, td is the duration time and T is the natural period of vibration of the structure.
Table 2.1: Structural response domains for different modes of loading

(Cormie, Mays, & Smith, 2009)
Structural Response Domain Ratios
td tr
Impulsive  0.1 3
T td
td tr
Dynamic 0.1   10 0.3  3
T td
td tr
Quasi-static 10   0.3
T td
7
When the positive phase is much longer than the natural period ( td T  10 ), the
applied blast load may be assumed as remaining constant as the structure reaches its
maximum deflection. For instance, this could be the case for a structure subjected to a
blast load at long range. This loading regime is referred to as quasi-static. At the other
extreme, when the positive phase is much shorter than the natural period ( td T  0.1 ),
the applied blast load duration would have finished acting on the structure before it has
gone through any significant response. This situation is described as impulsive loading.
The region in between the quasi-static and the impulsive regimes is defined as the
dynamic regime, which is more complicated and has to be solved from numerical
integration of the dynamic equations of equilibrium. Figure 2.3 illustrates the loads and
resistances of different loading regimes as described.
Quasi-static response domain Impulsive response domain Dynamic response domain

Load,
Load / Resistance
Load / Resistance
Load / Resistance
Load, Resistance,
Load,
Resistance,
Resistance,
Time Time Time
Figure 2.3: Applied load regimes relative to structural resistance.
The common idealized blast loading profiles are as illustrated in Figure 2.4.
However, it was suggested that the existing procedure using the average explosion loads
with uniform distribution may not be sufficient in terms of nonlinear structural response
as it tends to overestimate the structural capacities and could not capture torsional
behaviour (Paik et al., 2014). The actual blast load with non-uniform distribution can
be accurately determined from gas explosion computational fluid dynamics (CFD)
analyses.
8
2.3 Analysis of Blast Loaded Structures
In general, the design of blast walls can be carried out by using the single-degree-
of-freedom (SDOF) method or by means of an advanced numerical technique known
as nonlinear finite element analysis (NLFEA), as reviewed in the following subsections.
Figure 2.4: Idealizations of blast loading profiles for structural analyses

(Paik et al., 2014)
2.3.1 Single-Degree-of-Freedom (SDOF) Method
The single-degree-of-freedom (SDOF) method, also known as Biggs method (Biggs,

1964) is a simple analytical approach that idealizes the blast wall model as an equivalent
lumped mass, or SDOF system whose instantaneous position is defined in terms of a
single coordinate, as shown in Figure 2.5. As the structural damping effect can be
negligibly small in an explosive event, the equation of motion for the target structural
system can be expressed as Eq. (2.1).
My  ky  F (t ) Eq. (2.1)
9
where M and k represent the mass and stiffness of the actual target structure, y refers
to the displacement, y is the second derivative of the displacement, and F (t ) denotes
the time-dependent external loading.
Figure 2.5: Real and equivalent SDOF spring-mass-force system
The dynamic response of the structure is affected by several factors including the
deflection regime (elastic or plastic), load profile, natural period, among others. The
material nonlinearity is conveniently addressed by using an equivalent bi-linear, elastic-
perfectly plastic resistance function, as shown in Figure 2.6, which consists of three
distinct stages, i.e. (1) elastic response up to the elastic limit, yel , (2) plastic response
between the elastic limit, yel and the maximum displacement, ym , and (3) rebound
upon the attainment of the maximum displacement where the displacement.
Elastic-perfectly plastic resistance function

Resistance
Displacement
Figure 2.6: Bi-linear approximation of material resistance-displacement function
10
To convert the actual load and mass of the target structure into the equivalent SDOF
dynamic equation of equilibrium, i.e. with the same maximum displacement, the
transformation factors, i.e. load factor, K L and mass factor, K M are multiplied with the
actual quantities
M e y  ke y  Fe (t ) Eq. (2.2)
where M e , ke , and Fe represent the equivalent mass, stiffness, and external load. The
dynamic response of an equivalent SDOF system can be determined from the dynamic
response charts of yel ym versus td T . Figure 2.7 shows the maximum dynamic
response chart for the an SDOF elastic-perfectly plastic system subjected to symmetric
triangular blast profile. The details of this concept was originated from Biggs’ approach
and is presented in a vast number of literature (Biggs, 1964; Brewerton, 1999; Cormie
et al., 2009; DNV, 2010; SCI, 1992; UFC, 2008).
Figure 2.7: Maximum dynamic response of SDOF elastic-perfectly plastic system

subjected to symmetric triangular blast profile (Sohn et al., 2013)
11
Once the equivalent SDOF system is defined, the total structural response can thus
be represented by the dynamic equation of motion with the sum of an inertial term based
on the mass of the structure and a stiffness term based on the structure’s geometrical
and material properties which act in opposition to the applied blast load. In this method,
a time-independent equivalent static load can be obtained by simply multiplying the
peak explosion pressure with a dynamic load factor (DLF), which is a ratio of the actual
dynamic reaction to the equivalent static reaction representing the specified peak
explosion pressure. The DLF and other amplification factors can be determined
manually or by simple computer programs using charts and tables provided by Biggs
(1964) and DNV (2010).
From the SDOF method, the structural damage due to blast loadings can be
categorized into curves of constant damage, also known as iso-damage curves in the
pressure-impulse (P-I) domain. According to the P-I diagram of the structure of interest,
an applied load with peak pressure and impulse exceeding the critical value will lead to
damage of the structure, vice versa, the structure is safe if the applied peak pressure and
impulse combination is located below the curve, as illustrated in Figure 2.8.
The quasi-static and impulsive asymptotes are determined from the force-
displacement and resistance-displacement relationships in their respective response
domains as specified in Table 2.1, and are defined as the upper bounds for the safe
structural response. For instance, any structure with a pressure-impulse combination
that exceeds the asymptotes is considered as damaged. In other words, the further to the
top-right of the P-I diagram, the more severe the structural damage, vice versa, the
further down to the bottom-left, the safer the structure. A spreadsheet based tool named
“Component Explosive Damage Assessment Workbook” or CEDAW was developed
for the generation of P-I diagrams for structural assessments due to air blast loads by
the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (PDC, 2008).
12
Schematic of typical P-I diagrams
Impulsive
Impulsive asymptote
loading region
Pressure Curve of constant damage
Dynamic
loading region Quasi-static
loading region
Quasi-static asymptote
Impulse
Figure 2.8: Examples of pressure-impulse (P-I) iso-damage curve
According to the TN5 (Brewerton, 1999), a single corrugation strip can be

represented by a simple structural beam and classified based on their cross-sectional
and material properties in accordance to the Eurocode 3 (CEN, 2005) as plastic (Class
I), compact (Class II), semi-compact (Class III), and slender (Class IV). The purpose
of the classification is to identify the extent to which the resistance and rotation
capacities of the cross-sections are limited by their local buckling resistance. Under the
ultimate limit state design criteria, the typical recommended deflection limits were
determined to be in the range of span/40 to span/25.
Hitherto, there are no unanimous guidelines for the design of explosion-resistant

blast walls, though the Technical Note 5 has generally been referred to as a de facto
standard in designing corrugated blast walls (Brewerton, 1999). Another
comprehensive guidance is referred to the Unified Facilities Criteria (UFC) which
presents procedures for analyzing weapons effects, structural dynamics, and the design
of hardened protective structures made of structural steel and reinforced concrete (UFC,
2008). Both technical guidelines mostly prescribed the use of simple analytical method
such as the SDOF method.
Since then, a vast number of researches based on experimental, analytical, and

numerical techniques have been conducted with references to these guidelines and
13
provided additional recommendations and guidance for the design of corrugated blast
walls. The SDOF method, as a quick estimation tool can at best only suggest the
tendencies of structural response in general, though it will be beneficial at the early
design stage with relatively less computational effort compared to NLFEA (Sohn et al.,
2013). Where a structure cannot be modelled as an SDOF system, the only general
method of dynamic analysis is by finite elements.
2.3.2 Nonlinear Finite Element Method
The nonlinear finite element method (NLFEM) is essentially a multi-degree-of-freedom

(MDOF) technique that is used to perform detailed analysis of blast walls (DNV, 2010,
2013; SCI, 1992). Given its capability in modelling problems involving high structural
complexities with various load and boundary conditions, as well as providing greater
insights into the failure progression for buckling, connection failure, or membrane
effect, all of which cannot be adequately accounted for in the SDOF method, it has been
regarded as the most cost-effective design and analysis tool in industry. However,
despite the sophisticated capabilities over the experimental and analytical approaches,
the quality of outputs from these numerical analyses strongly depends on the skills and
experiences of the users. Appropriate modelling techniques, e.g. mesh densities, load
and boundary conditions, material models, and element formulations, are essential to
ensure that the FE model properly represents the real structure.
Generally, there are two types of time integration schemes in finite element
analysis, namely implicit and explicit schemes that are being preferred for different
types of analysis including quasi-static, dynamic, and impact. The explicit scheme is
usually used for nonlinear transient dynamics analyses, particularly when large
deformation, contact, tearing, and local buckling effects can be efficiently modelled
without the requirement for iterations. The implicit scheme, though having the
advantage of allowing for larger time steps, is not capable of capturing the sudden drop
in the load-displacement relationship unless some forms of stabilizing algorithms are
incorporated, e.g. the RIKS algorithm in ABAQUS/Standard (Hibbitt et al., 2014).
14
Commercial finite element codes that are suitable for blast wall analysis include
ABAQUS, AUTODYN, and LS-DYNA, among others (SCI, 1992).
The explicit finite element method is a convenient way for blast response
assessments which involve high energy dynamics, though appropriate techniques are
paramount in handling one of the most common problems in the explicit integration
scheme, i.e. hourglassing, which is a zero-energy mode of deformation that leads to
inaccurate estimation of the true structural response. Hourglassing can be observed as
local elemental distortions where the “soft” structural behavior can be visualized in the
post-processing FE model. The use of reduced-integration (RI) element formulations
(usually with only one integration or Gauss point) is largely related to the presence of
hourglassing, but due to their very fast and robust solutions under high distortion
conditions and resistance to shear-locking which can over-stiffen the structural
response, the RI element formulations are preferred for most of the explicit dynamics
analyses.
Louca and Boh (2004) recommended the use of first-order reduced integration shell
elements for efficient and accurate FE simulations of blast response. Schwer et al.
(2005) conducted a three-dimensional (3D) patch test based on the solid mesh proposed
by Macneal and Harder (1985) to assess the performance of hourglass control functions
via explicit finite element software, LS-DYNA. Sun (2006) demonstrated the
compromise between reduced and full integration schemes for FE formulations in
dealing with shear locking and hourglassing problems, whereby the details on both
problems are as explained by Koh and Kikuchi (1987). As element formulations are
intrinsically defined in commercial finite element software, their selection poses
challenges that can directly influence the quality of the solution outputs. DNV (2013)
gives general guidance on the application of NLFEA for the determination of structural
capacity.
In many cases, the connection details are the determining factor to the structural
integrity of blast walls, particularly in the sense of membrane response and buckling.
As such, it is also important to consider the modelling of weld tearing at these
intersecting regions, which may be achieved through rupture strain criterion (Louca and
Friis, 2000) or force-based failure criteria (Boh et al., 2003). In addition, in order not to
15
overestimate the restrained conditions along the boundaries, it may be necessary to
carry out the study on a two or three bay corrugation model (Louca and Boh, 2004).
Louca and Boh (2004) compared the performances of both the SDOF and NLFEA
methods and highlighted their advantages and limitations. In general, decent
agreements between the predictions made by both methods can be achieved up to the
elastic limit, however, in the presence of extensive inelastic deformations, good
predictions might not be obtained from the SDOF design charts which are derived based
on idealized resistance function. In addition to the statements from Louca and Boh
(2004), Sohn et al. (2013) observed similar results between both methods in cases of
larger deflections.
Significant research findings on blast response assessments of reduced and full

scale stainless steel corrugated blast walls were presented by Louca and Friis (2000),
Schleyer and Langdon (2003, 2006), through experimentation, analytical, and
numerical studies. A geometric design and analysis was conducted by Lei et al. (2015) on
mild steel corrugated blast walls by manipulating the profile geometry and showed that the
sensitivity of the design parameters is in the order of height, H thickness, t angle of
corrugation,  and breadth, B . The study, however, has assumed fixed support conditions
at both vertical ends, which provided a conservative (lower-bound) estimate of the
maximum responses. Louca and Boh (2004) investigated the response of corrugated blast
walls of varying profile heights, namely shallow, intermediate, and deep, and the influence
of slenderness ratios. Sohn et al., (2012), on the other hand, investigated the effects of
applied peak pressure and impulse on the structural response of corrugated blast wall in the
quasi-static condition.
2.3.2.1 Definition of Blast Loading in LS-DYNA
There are several keywords that define the blast loading conditions in LS-DYNA,
depending on the physics of an explosion event. For instance, the keyword
*LOAD_BLAST_ENHANCED (LBE) which is partially based on the ConWep
functionality developed by the Protective Design Center (Hyde, 1988) can be used as
an empirical model for air blast loads from conventional explosives. This keyword is
16
purely based on the Lagrangian approach, through which only the target structure is
modeled. *LOAD_BRODE can be used to model pressure loads from explosions at
altitudes; *INITIAL_IMPULSE_MINE can be used to investigate vehicles subjected
to loads from buried mines. For submarine shock analysis or typical underwater
explosions, *LOAD_SSA may be used.
LeBlanc, Adoum, & Lapoujade (2005) developed a user-defined load model based
on the TM 5-1300, now UFC 3-340-02 (UFC, 2008) which obtained a more precise and
more conservative load compared the results with that using LBE, while retaining a
reasonable model size as the method is purely Lagrangian. Similarly, Syed, Mohamed,
& Rahman (2016) have also obtained a good agreement between LBE and the UFC
guideline.
The more complex fluid-structure interaction (FSI) approaches include the

Arbitrary Lagrangian-Eulerian (ALE), the Smooth Particle Hydrodynamics (SPH), and
the Particle Blast (PB) methods, which are so called the “first principle” models
requiring extensive user inputs, e.g. equations of state (EOS) for the explosive and
surrounding air. In the ALE method, the explosive as well as the air are explicitly
modeled. An initial charge is detonated within an air domain and impulse transferred
through contact algorithms. The SPH is a meshfree particle method based on
Lagrangian formulation for solving the Navier-Stokes equations on the basis of a
disordered set of freely moving interpolation points in space. The PB method, which is
also a Lagrangian approach, can be used to model high explosive detonation products
and air as a set of discrete spherical particles transferring forces among themselves
through collisions. These methods are more computational intensive and their
applications can be referred to (L. Schwer, Teng, & Souli, 2015; Slavik, 2009;
Tabatabaei & Volz, 2012).
Abovementioned numerical methods are employed to predict challenging

engineering events by establishing some basis for confidence in the FEA outcomes in
the absence of relevant experimental results. When experimental data is available, the
blast loading can be directly defined by idealizing the recorded pressure-time history
into linear curves as shown in Figure 2.4.
17
2.3.2.2 Material Models
Depending on the selected load definition approach as explained in the previous

subsubsection, several types of material model from the LS-DYNA material library can
be used to model the plastic response characteristics of the target blast wall structure.
LS-DYNA keywords, e.g. *MAT_PLASTIC_KINEMATIC (*MAT_003) and
*MAT_PIECEWISE_LINEAR_PLASTICITY (*MAT_024) are among the suitable
material models for the simulation of plastic responses of blast loaded structures
considering the effect of strain rates, as demonstrated by Syed et al. (2016) and Sohn et
al. (2013), respectively.
The material behavior of steel alloys differ greatly by the applied loading velocity,
which is evident from published test data by Paik et al. (2017), Choung et al. (2013),
and Burgan (2001). It is generally anticipated that the material becomes more brittle as
the loading rate increases, such that the time of fracture or crack initiation is directly
related to the strain rate. However, the exceptional case of high strength steels which
do not exhibit the similar tendency was particularly addressed by Storheim and Amdahl
(2015). The suggested ranges of resulting strain rates from various applications are
generally categorized in Table 2.2.
Table 2.2: Categorization of strain rates (Paik and Thayamballi, 2003)

Strain rate (1/s) Mode of response
< 10-5 Creep
10-5-10-1 Quasi-static
10-1-101.5 Dynamic
101.5-104 Impact
> 104 Hyper velocity impact
The most accurate approach to investigate the strain rate dependency of a material
is perhaps through the conventional way, i.e. by conducting laboratory tests, though it
is not always feasible due to higher costs and difficulties in setup up the experiments.
Practically, in the offshore industry, the effect of strain rates on the structural response
18
of steel alloys are accounted for by using Cowper-Symonds constitutive relationship
(Cowper and Symonds, 1957),
1
 Yd   q
 1.0    Eq. (2.3)
Y C 
where  Yd = dynamic yield strength,  Y = static yield strength,  = strain rate, C and
q = Cowper-Symonds coefficients obtained through curve-fitting of experimental data.
Table 2.3: Coefficients of Cowper-Symonds constitutive equation obtained from

uniaxial tensile tests on specimens with small strains
Material 𝑪 𝒔−𝟏 𝒒 References
Mild steel 40.5 5 Cowper & Symonds (1957)
Aluminium alloy 6,500 4 Bodner & Symonds (1962)
𝛼-titatnium (Ti-50A) 120 9 Symonds & Chon (1974)
Stainless steel 304 100 10 Forrestal & Sagartz (1978)
High-tensile steel 3,200 5 Paik & Chung (1999)
Besides the strain rate effect, possible structural collapse modes may be assessed
by adopting appropriate fracture criteria, e.g. force-based fracture criterion (Boh, Choo,
& Louca, 2002; Boh et al., 2003) or strain-based fracture criterion (Storheim, Amdahl,
& Martens, 2015). The material modeling technique proposed by Paik (2007) and Ling
(1996) may be employed for optimization of material strength capacities to produce a
more cost-effective design.
When the multiphysics coupling between the laws of structural mechanics and fluid
dynamics is of interest, the fluid-structure interaction (FSI) approach may be employed.
In the context of FSI, for an air blast analysis using the multi-material ALE approach,
the air is treated as an ideal gas using the linear polynomial (EOS), while the explosive
may be characterized by the Jones-Wilkins-Lee (JWL) EOS. In terms of material
models, the air and explosive materials may be defined, for instance, by using
*MAT_NULL and *MAT_HIGH_EXPLOSIVE_BURN. Detailed descriptions of
these keywords are referred to the LS-DYNA Keyword Manual (Hallquist, 2016).
19
2.4 Finite Element Formulations and Material Models for Plasticity in LS-DYNA
LS-DYNA is a general-purpose finite element code for analyzing static and dynamic
problems involving large plastic structural deformations by using explicit time integration
as the main solution methodology. Currently, the code contains over a hundred constitutive
models and ten equations-of-state to cover a wide range of material behaviors, and a variety
of element formulations are available for each element type. The mathematical and physical
basis of the code can be referred to the Theory Manual (Hallquist, 2016).
In the context of present study, only shell (or thin-shell), thick-shell, and solid
elements are considered relevant for modeling of the corrugated panel and the
supporting members of the blast walls. Table 2.4 presents the element types and
formulations considered in present study.
Table 2.4: Formulations of thin-shell elements in LS-DYNA

Integration Element Type and Formulation
Form Solid (Erhart, 2011) Thin Shell (Haufe et al.,2013) Thick Shell (Haufe et al.,2013)
Reduced ELFORM = 1: Constant stress ELFORM = 2: Belytschko-Tsay ELFORM = 1:
integration hexahedron - Very cheap with moderate - Solid discretization
- Tendency towards hourglass accuracy - Tendency towards hourglass
modes modes
Fully ELFORM = 3: Hexahedron with ELFORM = 16: Fully-integrated ELFORM = 2:

integrated nodal rotations shell - Solid discretization
- 14 integration points - 4 integration points - No hourglass modes
- No hourglass modes - 2.5 times more expensive - 7-8 times more expensive
- 7.5 times more expensive than ELFORM = 2 than thin shell (ELFORM = 2)
than ELFORM = 1
2.5 Conclusions from Literature Review
This chapter reviews the characteristics of typical blast waves and the techniques used
by the industry for the design and analysis of offshore blast walls. Detailed theoretical
20
descriptions and examples pertaining to the single-degree-of-freedom (SDOF) method
and the vast approaches of nonlinear finite element method (NLFEM) are referred to
their original texts or other published literatures.
Several important aspects of blast wall analysis can be enhanced in terms of

modeling techniques through relevant research endeavours. Based on critical literature
review, the following research gaps have been identified, where the two former aspects
are investigated in present study.
• Lack of detailed guidelines on the selection of finite element types and

hourglass control functions from the expanding element libraries from FE code
developers.
• Closed-form solutions for rough estimation of maximum transient structural

response may be useful in the preliminary design stage, compared to the more
commonly employed single-degree-of-freedom (SDOF) method and nonlinear
finite element method (NLFEM).
• The true structural capacities take full account of the nonlinearity in the plastic
region of the material stress-strain curve. Material modeling techniques
proposed by Paik (2007) and Ling (1996) may be employed to more accurately
predict the structural capacities and potentially reducing costs from overdesign.
21
CHAPTER 3
RECOMMENDATION OF FINITE ELEMENT FORMULATIONS FOR
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF BLAST WALLS
3.1 Chapter Overview
This chapter aims to investigate the performances of solid and shell finite element (FE)
formulations for blast simulation of a corrugated blast wall model, with the aid of
relevant hourglass control functions using LS-DYNA explicit FE solver. The outcomes
of this study will provide greater acumen on the recommended FE formulations in terms
of solution accuracy and computational cost, which can generally be applied in various
FE software in which a majority of FE formulations are somewhat similar (Langer,
Maeder, Guist, Krause, & Marburg, 2017).
3.2 Target Blast Wall Model
Present blast wall model was adopted from an HSE research report (Schleyer &
Langdon, 2003), which provided relevant experiment data that are beneficial to this
study. The configuration and dimensions of the target blast wall consisting of a
corrugated panel and connecting parts including angle, flexible angle, and I-beams are
shown in Figure 3.1. This blast wall model is a ¼ scale model of the real structure that
was constructed by Mech-Tool Engineering Ltd and tested at the Impact Research
Centre (IRC) of the University of Liverpool (Schleyer & Langdon, 2003). The
connection type is “non-symmetrical”, i.e. having a much higher structural rigidity at
one side than the other.
Dynamic characteristics of the applied materials are illustrated by the plot of

dynamic yield strength normalized by static yield strength versus strain rate in Figure
3.2, together with the material properties, i.e. density, Young’s modulus, yield strength,
and Cowper-Symonds coefficients, Eq. (2.1).
Flexible Angle Connection detail

I-Beam (Units: mm)
(Primary
Framework)
Angle
Blast Wall
(Corrugated
Panel) Corrugation profile
(Single bay)
Side view
Figure 3.1: Configuration of the target blast wall model
2.5
Dynamic characterisation of applied materials
Flexible Angle
I-Beam
I-Beam
2.0 (Primary
Angle
Framework)
Flexible Angle
Blast Wall
1.5 (Corrugated
Panel)
Angle
Corrugated Panel
1.0
Cowper-Symonds
Material coefficients
Part
type
𝑪 𝟏 𝒔 𝒒
0.5 Corrugated panel 2 293.7 1522 5.13

Angle 4 AISI 316L 200.0 283.3 2720 5.78
7970
Flexible angle 3 276.2 429 4.08
I-beam 12 Mild steel 205.8 235.0 40.4 5.00
0.0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
−𝟏
Strain rate, 𝒔
Figure 3.2: Dynamic yield strength (normalized with static yield strength) versus
strain rate (Schleyer & Langdon, 2003)
23
The applied blast loadings were idealized as triangular load curves by noting the
rise time, tr duration time, t d and peak pressure, Ppeak as shown in Figure 3.3(a) to be
used as the inputs into the FE pre-processor. The values of maximum and permanent
midspan displacements are captured as demonstrated in Figure 3.3(b).
1.0
Idealisation of applied blast loading
0.8
Actual loading
Pressure (bar)
0.6
Idealised loading
0.4
0.2
0.0
0 20 40 60 80
Time (s)
(a) Idealization of applied blast loading
Schematic view of max. and permanent displacement

Maximum displacement
Displacement
Permanent displacement
Time
(b) Definition of maximum and permanent displacements
Figure 3.3: Processing of FEA input and output data
24
3.2.1 Experimental Test Results
Specimens of the target blast wall were tested by HSE (Schleyer & Langdon, 2003) in
the pulse pressure loading rig developed at the University of Liverpool. In present
study, seven (7) and three (3) pulse pressure load profiles were selected for two (2)
opposing loading directions, namely positive “A” and negative “B”, respectively, as
clarified in Figures 3.4. These load profiles will be used as load inputs for the NLFEA
while the previous blast test results, i.e. the maximum and permanent displacements
summarized in Table 3.1 will be used for comparisons with the numerical solutions in
the following sections.
Table 3.1: Summary of pulse pressure tests by HSE (Schleyer & Langdon, 2003)
Ppeak Loading tr td wm wp
(bar) direction (ms) (ms) (mm) (mm)

0.51 (A1) A 16.7 38.0 4.8 0.0
0.57 (A2) (Positive) 30.7 57.5 4.9 0.0
0.76 (A3) 25.9 63.0 7.5 0.0
0.91 (A4) 21.7 59.1 7.5 0.0
1.04 (A5) 31.0 83.0 9.0 0.0
1.21 (A6) 26.1 73.4 - 4.0
1.92 (A7) 59.7 125.7 - 69.0
0.47 (B8) B 23.0 44.0 2.5 0.0
0.94 (B9) (Negative) 29.7 59.5 8.3 1.0
1.18 (B10) 30.8/41.2 78.9 - 283.0
Note: Ppeak = peak pressure, t r = rise time, t d = duration time, wm = maximum deflection, and w p =
permanent deflection.
25
2.5
Blast loading Peak Rise Duration
Idealised load profiles Scenario Pressure Time Time
(bar) (ms) (ms)
(Positive direction “A”)
No.
A1 : 0.51 16.7 38.0
A2 : 0.57 30.7 57.5
2.0 A3 : 0.76 25.9 63.0
A4 : 0.91 21.7 59.1
A5 : 1.04 31.0 83.0
A6 : 1.21 26.1 73.4
Pressure (bar)
A7 : 1.92 59.7 125.7

1.5
A6
A7
1.0
A5
A4
0.5 A3 A2
A1
0.0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Time (ms)
(a) Idealized load profiles for direction “A”
2.5
Blast loading Peak Rise Duration
Idealised load profiles Scenario Pressure Time Time
(bar) (ms) (ms)
(Negative direction “B”) No.
B8 : 0.47 23.0 44.0
B9 : 0.94 29.7 59.5
2.0 B10 : 1.18 35.0 78.9
Pressure (bar)
1.5
B10
1.0
B9
0.5 B8
0.0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Time (ms)
(b) Idealized load profiles for direction “B”

Figure 3.4: Details on applied pressure loading (Schleyer & Langdon, 2003)
26
3.2.2 Numerical Modelling
In ensuring robustness and safety of offshore structures, the possibilities of failure due
to accidents such as explosion or fire should be anticipated and clearly reflected in the
design stage. Due to high costs and time restraints, numerical methods such as nonlinear
finite element analysis (NLFEA) are widely favored in the offshore industry to ascertain
structural responses, in contrast to experimental or destructive testing.
Taking advantage of symmetry, the FE model of the blast wall was simplified as
one corrugation bay, half corrugation bay, and quarter corrugation bay. Figure 3.5
presents the displacement-time plots of these simplified FE models together with the
full experimental model subjected to a peak pressure of 1.92 bar (loading scenario A7),
for the comparison of permanent displacements between present FEA and the
experiment (Schleyer & Langdon, 2003). Based on this investigation on the effect of
model sizing, the quarter section model was adopted for subsequent analyses in this
study, appreciating the reduced computational costs without compromising result
accuracy.
100 Full (actual) size

Effect of model sizing One corrugation bay
obtained by Testing (HSE, 2003) Half corrugation bay
Quarter corrugation bay
80
Displacement (mm)
60
40
20
0
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18
Time (s)
Figure 3.5: Benchmark study of FE model sizing based on extreme load condition, i.e.
loading scenario A7
27
Figure 3.6(a) compares the failure modes between the full experimental model and
its corresponding FE model. Buckling failure can be seen at flanges and webs along the
midspan of the FE model of the corrugated panel, at which the maximum transient
displacement was attained. Figure 3.6(b) shows similar structural response at the
connection angles of the experimental and present FE models, where the formation of
plastic hinge can be observed. Thus, the FE modeling technique is considered valid and
can be applied to other analysis cases throughout this study.
Flange and web buckling
(a) Simulation of buckling failure
Plastic hinge formation

along the weld-line
(b) Deformation at supporting angles

Figure 3.6: Comparison of structural damage modes between present FE model and
the full experimental model
28
LS-DYNA explicit FE solver was used to perform the numerical simulation. The
structural responses of the blast wall model subjected to a range of pulse pressure load
profiles illustrated in Figure 3.4 were evaluated. Pertaining to boundary conditions, the
upper edge of the model was assumed to be fixed with both sides of the model set to be
symmetrical in the transverse direction; the bottom edges were set to be symmetrical in
the longitudinal direction, while a uniformly-distributed time-dependent idealized pulse
pressure loading was applied all over the surface of the corrugated panel, as illustrated
in Figure 3.7.
The *MAT_PIECEWISE_LINEAR_PLASTICITY material model, or *MAT_024

in LS-DYNA was used to represent the nonlinear dynamic behavior of the structure by
specifying the material strain rate parameters. A mesh sensitivity analysis was presently
conducted based on mesh sizes of 2, 4, 8, and 16-mm, as presented in Figure 3.8. From
this investigation, mesh sizes of approximately 4-mm were selected and applied to the
entire FE model and 5 through-thickness integration points have been used for all
applied shell elements.
Fixed edge
Uniformly
distributed
pressure
loading
Transversely-
symmetrical
Longitudinally-
symmetrical
Figure 3.7: Quarter section of FE model with boundary conditions
29
10
Mesh sensitivity analysis
Loading scenario A4
Maximum displacement (mm)
8 2 mm
8 mm 4 mm
obtained by Testing (HSE, 2003)
16 mm
4 16mm 8mm 4mm 2mm
Number of elements
Mesh size (mm) m
Solid Shell Total
2 2 7.658 18,901 14,885 33,786

4 7.540 5,390 3,910 9,300
8 7.394 1,772 1,102 2,874
16 6.926 630 319 949
0
0 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000 30,000 35,000
Number of elements
Figure 3.8: Investigation on mesh sensitivity based on loading scenario A4
3.3 Assessment of FE Types and FE Formulations in LS-DYNA
This section is divided into two subsections; the selection of FE types, i.e. solid, thin-
shell, and thick-shell will be addressed in subsection 3.3.1, from which further
investigation will be presented in the context of performance of FE formulations, i.e.
reduced or full integration, and hourglass control in subsection 3.3.2. The structural
responses, i.e. maximum and permanent midspan displacements will then be compared
and validated by the experimental results in Table 3.1 (Schleyer & Langdon, 2003).
3.3.1 Selection of FE Types
Five (5) representative cases as shown in Table 3.2 were generated to study the blast
response of target blast wall models based on combinations of pre-selected quadrilateral
thin- and thick-shell, and hexahedral solid finite elements in LS-DYNA. Figure 3.9
provides an overview of blast responses for extreme load scenarios in both loading
directions, i.e. A7 ( Ppeak = 1.92 bar) and B10 ( Ppeak = 1.18 bar) for each of the five cases
30
in terms of peak structural displacements, with respect to experimental measurements
provided in Table 3.1.
Table 3.2: Assumed FE types for modelling of target blast wall

FE type
Model part
Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4 Case 5
Supporting Shell Solid Solid T-shell T-shell
members (SH) (S) (S) (SHT) (SHT)
Corrugated Shell Shell Solid Shell T-shell
panel (SH) (SH) (S) (SH) (SHT)
Note: S, SH, and SHT denote solid, thin-shell, and thick-shell, respectively in present study.
Statistical approach was employed to analyses the FEA results. Figure 3.10 shows
the comparison between the present FEA and test results (Schleyer & Langdon, 2003)
for all loading scenarios and for all combinations of FE types with the calculated means,
coefficients of variance (COVs), coefficients of determination (R2) and standard error
of the regression (S). Details on statistical analysis results are provided in Appendix A.
Based on Figures 3.10(a) and (b), Case 1 or 2 model may be suggested for further
analyses due to their solution accuracies. Note that in Figure 3.10(b), mean and COV
values were not calculated because zero deformation was measured from testing. As
such, R2 and S values were added to ease the comparison. On the other hand, the
performance of all Cases can be sorted in the sequence of increasing computational
efficiencies as Case 5 < Case 4 < Case 3 < Case 2 < Case 1, while the details are referred
to Table B.1 in Appendix B. Throughout this study, the Intel® Core™ i7-6800K CPU
@ 3.40GHz computer processor with 64-bit operating system were used. Therefore,
from this subsection which covers “Selection of FE types”, Cases 1and 2 can be used
for blast wall analyses with decent accuracies. More detail on the application of Case 2
FE types, which apparently gives higher accuracy than Case 1 will be scrutinized in the
next subsection.
31
300
Case 1: Shell-Shell model (Loading scenario “A7”)
200
100 obtained by Testing (HSE, 2003)

Displacement (mm)
0 IHQ SH2 SH16

Without
With
-100
-200
-300 obtained by Testing (HSE, 2003)
-400
Case 1: Shell-Shell model (Loading scenario “B10”)

-500
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14
Time (s)
(a) Case 1
Figure 3.9: Displacement-time plots for FE models of Cases 1 – 5

(Table 3.2 is referred for the naming convention of each model)
(Continues)
32
300
Case 2: Solid-Shell model (Loading scenario “A7”)
200
100
Displacement (mm)
0 S1 S3
IHQ
SH2 SH16 SH2 SH16
Without
With N/A
-100
-200
-400
Case 2: Solid-Shell model (Loading scenario “B10”)

-500
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14
Time (s)
(b) Case 2

(Continues)
33
300
Case 3: Solid-Solid model (Loading scenario “A7”)
200

Displacement (mm)
-100 IHQ S1 S3
Without
With N/A
-200
-400
Case 3: Solid-Solid model (Loading scenario “B10”)

-500
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14
Time (s)
(c) Case 3

(Continues)
34
300
Case 4: Tshell-Shell model (Loading scenario “A7”)
200
100

Displacement (mm)
0 SHT1 SHT2
IHQ
SH2 SH16 SH2 SH16
Without
With
-100
-200
-400
Case 4: Tshell-Shell model (Loading scenario “B10”)

-500
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14
Time (s)
(d) Case 4

(Continues)
35
300
Case 5: Tshell-Tshell model (Loading scenario “A7”)
200
100

Displacement (mm)
-100 IHQ SHT1 SHT2

Without
With N/A
-200
-300
-400
Case 5: Tshell-Tshell model (Loading scenario “B10”)

-500
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14
Time (s)
(e) Case 5

(Continued)
36
1000
100
FEA (mm)
10
Mean COV R2-value S
Case
(Avg.) (Avg.) (Avg.) (Avg.)
1 1.215 0.238 0.9962 0.5156
2 1.202 0.236 0.9945 0.6151
3 13.215 0.522 0.9661 24.7016
4 1.478 0.257 0.9883 1.1486
5 1.186 0.228 0.9947 0.6003
1
1 10 100 1000
Test (mm)
(a) Maximum displacement
test data (Schleyer & Langdon, 2003) for the selection of FE types
(Continues)
37
1000
100
FEA (mm)
10
Mean COV R2-value S
Case
(Avg.) (Avg.) (Avg.) (Avg.)
1 - - 0.9837 16.4894
2 - - 0.9924 7.8840
3 - - 0.2696 71.6761
4 - - 0.9859 17.6024
5 - - 0.7932 16.2720
1
1 10 100 1000
Test (mm)
(b) Permanent displacement
test data (Schleyer & Langdon, 2003) for the selection of FE types
(Continued)
3.3.2 Selection of FE Formulations
In subsection 3.3.1, shell and solid elements were recommended for modelling
corrugated panel and connection parts, accordingly. In this section, the performance of
several pre-selected FE formulations will be assessed. Table 3.3 shows four (4) FE
models, comprising of the combinations of reduced and full integration solid and shell
elements—hereafter systematically referred to as Types I, II, III, and IV—for detailed
investigation. Each FE model is named according to the designation of FE formulations
in LS-DYNA in the following sequence: supporting members-corrugation panel-
hourglass control. For example, S1-SH16-8 refers to a model consisting of reduced
38
integration solid supporting members and full integration shell corrugated panel with
hourglass control EQ.8, while S3-SH2-0 refers to one consisting full integration solid
supporting members and reduced integration shell corrugated panel without hourglass
control. Table 3.2 is referred for the abbreviations.
Table 3.3: Selected combinations for the assessment of performance of shell and solid
FE formulations
Reduced integration Full integration Hourglass
FE formulation
(RI) (FI) control
SM (Solid) √ -
Type I
CP (Shell) √ -
SM (Solid) √ - IHQ = 5
Type II
CP (Shell) - √ IHQ = 8
SM (Solid) - √
Type III
CP (Shell) √ -
SM (Solid) - √ -
Type IV
CP (Shell) - √ -
Note: SM = supporting members modelled by solid elements, CP = corrugated panel modelled
by shell elements, IHQ = hourglass control function in LS-DYNA.
Through comparisons of the test results (Schleyer & Langdon, 2003), it was
observed that the influence of FE formulations rises exponentially with increasing peak
pressure. Figure 3.10(a) compares the displacement-time histories of all models (Types
I to IV) subjected to 1.92 bar peak pressure (loading scenario A7), which clearly
indicates the capabilities of these FE formulations in predicting the dynamic responses
of the blast wall model. The excessively overestimated responses from Type I (S1-SH2-
0) and Type II (S1-SH16-0) models were due to the hourglass modes that generated
zero energy in the affected solid elements, particularly at regions of large deformation,
causing the connection angles to lose stiffness hence exaggerating the maximum
response. The hourglassing phenomenon is shown in Figure 3.10(b).
While reduced integration (RI) hexahedral solid and quadrilateral shell elements
are prone to hourglassing, Type III model (S3-SH2-0) was effective in mitigating the
39
undesirable elemental “defects” in most cases that were subjected to low peak
pressures. For instance, the permanent displacements in loading scenario A7 was
slightly underestimated by the fully-integrated (FI) solid elements, which might be due
to the shear-locking phenomenon that over-stiffens the responses. In contrast, Type IV
(S3-SH16-0) model, which consists mainly of FI elements has shown little deviation
from that of Type III model, implying the insignificant influence of shell element
formulations on solution output.
Models without hourglass control at the connection (solid elements) and the
corrugated panel (shell elements) during maximum response are shown in Figure
3.10(b). Since hourglassing was observed only in the RI solid elements of S1-SH2-0
and S1-SH16-0, a simple deduction can be made such that RI solids would suffer the
numerical shortcomings, in which they tend to be excessively flexible, hence the
overestimation of permanent displacement. However, hourglassing did not occur in the
FI solids shown in Figure 3.10(b)—connection part modelled by solid element.
160
Type I, II, III, and IV (without hourglass control)
Loading scenario “A7”
Type I (S1-SH2-0)
120
Displacement (mm)
Type II (S1-SH16-0)

80
Type III (S3-SH2-0)

40
Type IV (S3-SH16-0)
0
0.00 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16
Time (s)
(a) Displacement-time plots

A7 (without hourglass control)
(Continues)
40
Loading scenario A7
Supporting members Corrugated panel

(solid elements) (shell elements)
Type I:
S1-SH2-0
Hourglassing
Type II:
S1-SH16-0
Hourglassing
Type III:
S3-SH2-0
Type IV:
S3-SH16-0
(b) Blast wall structure at maximum response

A7 (without hourglass control)
(Continues)
41
Essentially, hourglass control functions can be viewed as correction terms for
numerical integrations, which introduce internal nodal (hourglass) forces that are
proportional to the components of nodal velocity or nodal displacements to
counterbalance the zero-energy modes. The available hourglass control functions in LS-
DYNA were applied in accordance to Table 3.3, to all models.
From Figures 3.11(a) and (b), Type I and Type II models both have seen result
improvements for the RI solids with the aid of hourglass control functions, whereas
Type III model in Figure 3.11(c) was not improved by this addition of corrective forces
as FI were already in use. Based on the overall results shown in Appendix C, including
all ten (10) load scenarios (A1 to B10), Type III and Type IV models are not satisfactory
in predicting the structural response at high peak pressures as they tend to be
excessively stiff, thus underestimating the permanent displacements.
160
Type I model
S1-SH2-0
120
(no hourglass control)
Displacement (mm)
S1-SH2-5
(hourglass control)
80
40
0
0.00 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16
Time (s)
(a) Displacement-time plots of Type I FE models

Figure 3.12: FEA results of Type I – III models subjected to loading scenario A7
(with hourglass control)
(Continues)
42
160
Type II model
120 S1-SH16-0
Displacement (mm)
S1-SH16-8
(hourglass control)
80
40
0
0.00 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16
Time (s)
(b) Displacement-time plots of Type II FE models
160
Type III model
120
Displacement (mm)
S3-SH2-0
S3-SH2-5
80 (hourglass control)

40
0
0.00 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16
Time (s)
(c) Displacement-time plots of Type III FE models

Figure 3.12: FEA results of Type I – III models subjected to loading scenario A7
(with hourglass control)
(Continued)
43
Due to advantages in computational efficiency and ability to overcome shear
locking, RI schemes are widely implemented in explicit FEA codes. However, the
downside of these elements is their tendency to introduce hourglass modes of
deformation, in which neither stresses nor strains are generated in the affected elements,
thus ill-defining the resulting structural response. While FI elements are effective in
dealing with hourglass instabilities, their major drawback is, as opposed to that of RI
elements, over-stiffening of the responses by shear-locking. In short, shear locking and
hourglassing are two compromised factors between the two integration schemes. Thus,
as it may be difficult to eliminate hourglassing, some form of hourglass control may be
required in FEA to mitigate the errors.
As in the previous section, statistical analysis is used to compare the present FEA
results against test results (Schleyer & Langdon, 2003) for both maximum and
permanent displacements for Case 2 only, i.e. four combinations of solid and shell
elements according to Table 3.3. Since S1-SH2-0 and S1-SH16-0 were affected by
hourglassing, their calculations are unaccredited, and the values shown in Figures
3.12(a) and (b) were discarded. From Figure 3.12(a), Types I and II with slightly higher
R2-values performed well in predicting maximum displacements compared to slightly
underperformed Types III and IV, while from Figure 3.12(b), Types III and IV have
somewhat outperformed Types I and II in predicting permanent displacements.
However, although with decent capabilities, Types III and IV models were deemed too
conservative in dealing with cases involving high peak pressures, in addition to
requiring much higher computational costs as shown in Table B.2 (Appendix B).
Using the same PC as mentioned in subsection 3.3.1, the computational costs of the
FE types can be sorted in the sequence of Type I (Cheap) < Type II < Type III < Type
IV (Expensive). Thus, the use of RI elements with appropriate hourglass control
functions is indeed the cost-effective approach. In view of solution accuracy and
computational efficiency, FE formulations of Types I and II will be recommended.
44
15
10
5
FEA (mm)
-5
Type FE model Mean COV R2-value S
S1-SH2-0 1.315 0.235 0.9941 0.7343
I
S1-SH2-5 1.176 0.236 0.9953 0.5520
S1-SH16-0 1.305 0.234 0.9947 0.6804
-10 II
S1-SH16-8 1.177 0.236 0.9954 0.5462
S3-SH2-0 1.148 0.238 0.9942 0.5941
III
S3-SH2-5 1.144 0.238 0.9940 0.6008
IV S3-SH16-0 1.145 0.238 0.9941 0.5980
-15
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15
Testing (mm)
(a) Maximum displacement
test data (Schleyer & Langdon, 2003) for the selection of FE formulations
(Continues)
45
200
100
0
FEA (mm)
-100
-200
Type FE model Mean COV R2-value S
S1-SH2-0 - - 0.9854 15.6531
I
S1-SH2-5 - - 0.9916 6.5885
S1-SH16-0 - - 0.9852 15.7654
-300 II
S1-SH16-8 - - 0.9942 5.6934
S3-SH2-0 - - 0.9972 3.6638
III
S3-SH2-5 - - 0.9961 4.1496
IV S3-SH16-0 - - 0.9971 3.6740
-400
-400 -300 -200 -100 0 100 200
Testing (mm)
(b) Permanent displacement
test data (Schleyer & Langdon, 2003) for the selection of FE formulations
(Continued)
3.4 Chapter Summary
In this chapter, the influences of solid and shell FE formulations with additional
hourglass control functions on the maximum responses of corrugated blast wall have
been investigated using LS-DYNA explicit FE solver. It is wise to take advantage of
thickness variation over the entire target structure when selecting the representative
finite element (FE) types, i.e. thin-shell, thick-shell or solid to represent the model.
The selection of element integration scheme, like other considerations in FE

modelling, is essential to the quality of FEA solutions. Reduced integration (RI)
elements are favorable in explicit dynamics analyses, given its high speed and
robustness under high structural distortions, whereas full integration (FI) elements are
46
more typical in implicit analyses. Although FI solid elements perform consistently well
in predicting maximum responses under low peak pressure, they are very costly
compared to their RI counterparts. Furthermore, FI solid elements are not suitable for
predicting responses of high peak pressure as the effect of shear locking increasingly
falsifies or over-stiffens the responses, which had been observed through the
comparison with experimental measurements. The number of integration points should
also be carefully taken into consideration in order to alleviate the shear locking
phenomenon of solid element. In contrast, RI solid elements associated with relevant
hourglass control functions can be used to obtain satisfactory estimations of blast
responses for all peak pressures with much shorter computation times.
In short, the Case 2 FE types and Types I and II FE formulations are recommended
for the NLFEA of offshore blast walls subjected to explosion loadings. The present
recommendations are presumably software independent and generally govern different
FE software. In future, researchers may want to delve into studies on the performances
of relatively newly developed solid element formulations, i.e. EQ.-1 and -2 in LS-
DYNA to address the effect of shear locking (Erhart, 2011).
47
CHAPTER 4
PARAMETRIC STUDY OF CORRUGATED BLAST WALL
4.1 Chapter Overview
One of the major advantages of using the finite element method is the relative ease in
carrying out parametric studies. This chapter investigates the influences of some key
design parameters of stainless steel corrugated blast walls on the structural performance
under explosion loadings using LS-DYNA explicit code, with the aim of proposing
closed-form equations for quick estimation of the maximum midspan displacements,
which will be beneficial to design engineers at early design stages.
A full-scale FE model is now used instead of the ¼-scale model, and the
recommendations in Chapter 3 on the selection of FE types and formulations were
employed throughout this study.
4.2 Methodology
The structural response of a corrugated blast wall is governed by its geometric

configurations, material properties, as well as design load conditions, as represented by
Eq. (4.1). In this parametric study, all FE models were constructed based on different
combinations of geometric parameters including angle of corrugation (θ), flange
breadth (B), web height (H), and panel thickness (t), as illustrated in Figure 4.1.
wm  f  , B, H , t , L  ,  Y , E  ,  Ppeak , td  Eq. (4.1)
Geometry Material Loading

The corrugation profiles are symmetrical about the centroidal axis at H/2, i.e.
having tension and compression flanges of the same dimensions, and the vertical span
of the blast wall models was set to be 4-meters to represent the structures in real scale.
Table 4.1 lists the ranges of the parameters considered in present study.
Neutral axis
H
H/2
B/2 B/2
Figure 4.1: Cross-sectional parameters of symmetrical corrugation profile
Table 4.1: Design parameters for corrugated blast walls

Corrugation angle,  Breadth, B Height, H Thickness, t Peak pressure, Ppeak
50 100 100 6 1
60 120 120 8 3
70 140 140 10 5
80 160 160 - -
90 180 180 - -
- 200 200 - -
Basically, the FE modelling technique as in Chapter 3 were used in this study. The
material properties and boundary conditions are the same as illustrated in Figures 3.2
and 3.6 (duplicated here as Figure 4.2), respectively. A constant duration time, td of
100-milliseconds was used for all triangular blast profiles, which is a typical loading
scenario obtainable from computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations (Lei et al.,
2015).
49
Fixed edge
Applied blast loading
Pressure
Transversely-
symmetrical
Longitudinally-
symmetrical 0.00 0.05 0.10
Time
(a) Load and boundary conditions (b) Idealized triangular blast profile
Figure 4.2: Applied boundary conditions and load profile (Lei et al., 2015)
According to the TN5 (Brewerton, 1999), each corrugation strip of the blast wall
model can be represented by a two-dimensional beam member subjected to lateral
distributed load with partially-restrained end conditions which provide certain degree
of stiffness and moment resistance toward the translational and rotational motions.
Theoretically, the internal reactions of a structural beam member subjected to pure
bending are categorized as normal force, shear force, and bending moment. While the
normal force is assumed to be constant along the span of a homogeneous member with
a uniform cross-section, the shear force and bending moment vary with the change of
the longitudinal coordinate. Thus, it is reasonable that the actual force distribution
across the depth of the beam be expressed as a parameter of the transverse shear force
and the bending moment. However, only the latter is dependent on the definition of
boundary conditions.
As far as boundary condition is concerned, the supporting members at both the

lower and upper edges were assumed to be clamped, as shown in Figure 4.3(a). Isolating
the connection parts from the present FE model, the corrugated panel can then be
assumed to behave as a beam simply supported at both edges, e.g. pin-roller support
condition as shown in Figure 4.3(b), for the assessment of the maximum structural
50
response. As such, the plastic moment resistance of the simply-supported member due
to external loading, M P can be determined in terms of geometric and load properties,
whereas the maximum elastic, or yield moment, M C is given as a function of geometric
and material properties,
qL2
MP  Eq. (4.2)
8
Y  I
MC  Eq. (4.3)
c
where q  Ppeak A L , A = cross-sectional area, L = span, I = moment of inertia, and
c = distance between the neutral axis and the outermost element of the member
subjected to bending. The ratio of M P M C , also known as the shape factor that acts as
an indicator for plastic response by determining if the structural deformation has

exceeded the yield limit. The load condition which is governed by the applied peak
pressure, Ppeak and the duration time, td is expressed in term of impulse, I P or by
taking the total area under the pressure-time curve.
(a) Corrugated blast wall with fixed end condition at the supporting members
(b) Idealized beam with simple support condition

Figure 4.3: Assumed boundary condition for the calculation of plastic moment, M P
51
4.3 Validation of Full-Scale FE Model
The full-scale corrugated blast wall FE model was prepared by transforming all of the
linear dimensions of the ¼-scale model used in the previous chapter by a factor of 4
(Schleyer & Langdon, 2006). Likewise, the FE mesh size was transformed accordingly
in the full-scale model. As for the load curves, only the time data were scaled up by 4,
while the peak pressures were not changed.
Figure 4.3 shows the simulation results of both the full- and ¼-scale models
subjected to peak pressures of 0.91 bar (loading scenario A4) and 1.92 bar (loading
scenario A7), with favorable agreements. These results were also backed by
experimental data by HSE (Schleyer & Langdon, 2003), thus validating the current
modelling technique for further studies using the full-scale FE models.
40
Peak pressure = 0.91 bar
(Loading scenario “A4”)
30
Maximum displacement by HSE (2003)
Displacement (mm)
20
¼-scale model
Full-scale model
10
-10
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30
Time (s)
(a) Peak pressure = 0.91 bar

¼-scale FE models (continues)
52
500
Peak pressure = 1.92 bar
400 ¼-scale model

Displacement (mm)
Full-scale model
300
Permanent displacement by HSE (2003)
200
100
0
0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60
Time (s)
(b) Peak pressure = 1.92 bar

¼-scale FE models (continued)
4.4 Analysis of FE Simulation Results
In total, 1,620 cases of LS-DYNA computations have been conducted for all
combinations of design parameters listed in Table 4.1. To maintain the validity of the
result datasets, any FE model with possible tearing or fracture of elements during the
pressure loading have been excluded from further analysis by setting the nominal
fracture strain at 0.50 for the applied material, i.e. AISI 316L stainless steel. Thus, the
remaining 1,548 cases were considered for further processing.
The data points for the maximum midspan displacement normalized with the web
height, wm H for each FE model are presented with respect to the shape factor,
M P M C , in Figure 4.4. Alhough there seems to be no direct relevance between the two
ratios, the normalized displacement generally increases with increasing shape factor.
53
Through transformations of the normalized parameters, a “best-fit” 3D surface plot
of the normalized displacement with respect to impulse, I P and shape factor, M P M C
is generated, together with its corresponding 2D plot, as presented in Figure 4.5. The
surface equation, with an R2-value of 0.9212, is given as Eq. (4.4),
1
 wm 
1 
  
 M P M C  e B H    I P    Eq.
 H    1   I P   I P  
 
2
  M P M C  e B H  
(4.4)
 
where t = panel thickness, I = area moment of inertia,  = corrugation angle, while

  0.025 ,   19.66 ,   68.7 ,   3.512 ,   52.4 , and   0.2 are the
coefficients,. By inversing Eq. (4.4), the parameter of interest, wm H can be
determined from Eq. (4.5).

wm 1 
 1  IP   IP 

 M P M C  e B H    I P     Eq. (4.5)
H   M P M C  e B H 
2 
   
8
Normalized displacement versus moment ratio
= 1 bar
= 3 bar
= 5 bar
6
0
0 4 8 12 16 20
𝑪
Figure 4.5: Normalized displacement, wm H versus shape factor, M P M C .
54
(a) Three-dimensional surface plot of normalised displacement,  wm H 
1
versus
impulse, I P and shape factor, M P M C .
12
Proposed
LS-DYNA
(bar) equation
10 1
3
5
8
−𝟏
0
0 20 40 60 80
𝑪
(b) Two-dimensional plot of normalised displacement,  wm H 

1
versus a
function of shape factor, M P M C .
55
12
= 1 bar
8
−𝟏
LS-DYNA
Proposed equation
4
0
0 4 8 12 16
𝑪
(a) Curve fitting for peak pressure of 1 bar
3
= 3 bar
2
−𝟏
LS-DYNA
1
Proposed equation
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
𝑪
(b) Curve fitting for peak pressure of 3 bar

Figure 4.6: Data curve fitting (upper-bound) for the proposed empirical equation
(continues)
56
1.0
= 5 bar
0.8
−𝟏
0.6
LS-DYNA
0.4
Proposed equation
0.2
0.0
0 20 40 60 80
𝑪
(c) Curve fitting for peak pressure of 5 bar
Figure 4.6: Data curve fitting (upper-bound) for the proposed empirical equation
(continued)
4.5 Discussion
The proposed empirical equation with a coefficient of determination, R2 = 0.9212 can

be used to provide a quick check on the maximum structural response of corrugated
blast walls due to explosion loadings, e.g. to assist design engineers in determining if
the estimated maximum deflections fall within the recommended limits (Brewerton,
1999) prior to further analyses. However, some discrepancy may result if the adopted
connection type is other than that used in present study, as shown in Figure 4.2.
Furthermore, the proposed equation does not give detailed insights on the time history
of failure progression, thus, nonlinear finite element analyses (NLFEA) shall always be
performed in order to make further justifications on the design.
57
In the elastic range, no permanent displacement was allowed. The maximum elastic
moment, M C occurs at the onset of yielding at the outermost fibers of the flanges, and
further increase in the applied blast pressure leads to the development of plastic moment
in the plastic zones associated with the decrease of the elastic core, which exists along
the neutral axis at the midsection of the web. Full plastic deformation is attained as the
remaining elastic core approaches zero, during which the strength of the structure
becomes exhausted followed by total collapse.
Although buckling behaviors have been detected in some of the models, it was not
directly addressed in this study. Logically, it was observed that as the angle of
corrugation increases, the shear effect increases and thus the tendency of panel buckling
becomes more dominant as the possible failure mode.
4.6 Chapter Summary
In this chapter, an empirical equation with an R2-value of approximately 0.92 has been
generated with the accompanying 3D surface curve based on the outcomes from
nonlinear finite element analyses (NLFEA) using LS-DYNA explicit FE code. The
benefits of including the connection behavior in the design of the blast wall system has
been demonstrated in this study, which is in line with the suggestions highlighted in
HSE-RR-404 (Schleyer & Langdon, 2006).
58
CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Conclusions
Hydrocarbon explosions are among the most disastrous accidents that could ever
happen on offshore installations, as witnessed from the tragic incidents of the Piper
Alpha and the Deepwater Horizon. Since then, numerous researches on the safe design
and maintenance of offshore structures have been conducted. This thesis presents the
development of an empirical equation for the estimation of the maximum transient
displacement of offshore corrugated blast walls subjected to explosion blast loadings.
A validated finite element (FE) model with relevant finite element (FE) types and
formulations have been developed in Chapter 3 and a parametric study considering
several key design parameters has been addressed in Chapter 4 with a proposed closed-
form empirical equation aimed for quick estimation of the maximum responses of
corrugated blast walls subjected to explosion loadings. The major findings are
summarized as follows.
5.1.1 Finite Element Formulations
A validated finite element (FE) model has been developed through careful selection of
appropriate FE formulations, which is paramount to the quality of analysis outcomes,
so as other factors including, but not limited to material model, load and boundary
conditions, and mesh density. From the blast response analyses in this study, the author
recommends the use of four-node thin-shell elements to model the corrugated panel and
eight-node solid elements for the connection parts. As for FE formulations, it is much
more convenient to employ the reduced integration (RI) solid and shell elements in
explicit FE scheme, as it is generally preferred, for higher computational efficiency.
While the shear-locking phenomenon is not susceptible in RI elements, the
hourglassing problem can be rectified by the inclusion of appropriate hourglass control
algorithms in the FE software.
Full integration (FI) solid elements have been observed to perform consistently well
in predicting maximum responses under low peak pressure, but they are very costly
compared to their RI counterparts. However, FI solid elements are not suitable for
predicting responses of high peak pressure as the effect of shear-locking increasingly
falsifies the responses by under-prediction, which can be noted through the comparison
with experimental measurements. On the other hand, the shell elements were observed
to be insensitive of the element integration scheme.
In short, combination of RI shell elements and RI solid elements (associated with

relevant hourglass control functions) and can be opted to obtain satisfactory estimations
of blast responses for all peak pressures with much shorter computation times. The
present recommendations are presumably software independent and generally govern
different FE software.
5.1.2 Parametric Study
In offshore installations, the design of each component is to fulfill strict standards of

safety and financial considerations, which include weight and spatial consumption,
among others. In Chapter 4, a parametric study has been performed to investigate the
relationships between the maximum midspan displacement of corrugated blast walls
and geometry, material, and load properties for the development of a closed-form
empirical equation for quick estimation of the maximum transient response.
The maximum structural response of corrugated blast walls in term of transverse

displacement have been considered with varying combinations of key design
parameters consisting of geometry (panel thickness, t flange breadth, B web height,
H and angle of corrugation, θ), material (Young’s modulus, E and yield strength,  Y
), and load conditions (rise time, t r duration time, td and peak applied overpressure,
60
Ppeak ). A closed-form, empirical equation with an R2-value of approximately 0.92 has
been generated based on total of 1,548 nonlinear finite element simulation cases in LS-
DYNA for quick estimation of maximum midspan displacements, wm relative to
impulse, I P and shape factor, M P M C , which can be plotted as a 3-D surface. The
peak overpressures considered in present study were 1, 3, and 5 bar.
5.2 Recommendations for Future Research
In view of the shortcomings in present study (as mentioned in section 1.3) and in the
existing literature, the following recommendations are suggested for improved
understanding on the structural response of offshore blast walls which can lead to more
cost-effective designs in future researches:
• The finite element modelling techniques for the analysis of blast walls shall be
able to provide realistic approximate solutions to the structural response. In
addition to the LS-DYNA solid elements EQ.1 and EQ.3 employed in present
study, the performances of relatively new solid element formulations EQ.-1 and
EQ.-2 which are claimed to be ideal for overcoming the effect of shear-locking
(Erhart, 2011) can be investigated.
• As the present parametric study was conducted based on a specific type of
connection detail, some degree of discrepancy may be observed for designs with
varying geometric configurations. Thus, future researches may consider
evaluating different types of blast wall end connection, e.g. the symmetrical type.
When connection details are excluded from the analyses, the simplified
approximate method by Liang et al. (2006) is claimed to be able to obtain
favorable results. Detailed inspections on the local structural responses would
then be necessary for plastic analysis as this is an important procedure to identify
any tendency of buckling.
• In addition to that, possible structural collapse modes may also be investigated by
adopting appropriate failure criteria, e.g. force-based fracture criterion (Boh et
al., 2002, 2003) and strain-based fracture criterion (Storheim et al., 2015).
61
• Material modelling techniques proposed by Paik (2007) and Ling (1996) may be
employed for the optimization of material strength capacities to produce a more
cost-effective design. On the other hand, the performance of other steel alloys
with favorable material properties, such as nickel (Ni) steel and high-manganese
(hi-Mn) steel can be investigated for the potential application in future design of
offshore blast walls.
62
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69
APPENDIX A
SELECTION OF FE TYPES (CASES 1 – 5)
70
Table A.1(a) Statistical analysis results: Case 1 (Maximum displacement)
Case 1 - Shell-Shell model (Maximum displacement)
Peak FEA (mm) FEA/Test
No pressure Test S2 S2 S16 S16 S2 S2 S16 S16
(bar) (mm) -S2 -S2 -S16 -S16 -S2 -S2 -S16 -S16
-0 -5 -0 -8 -0 -5 -0 -8
1 0.51 4.8 5.007 5.007 5.005 5.005 1.043 1.043 1.043 1.043
2 0.57 4.9 5.298 5.299 5.296 5.297 1.081 1.081 1.081 1.081
3 0.76 7.5 7.554 7.554 7.548 7.549 1.007 1.007 1.006 1.006
4 0.91 7.5 8.450 8.391 8.395 8.396 1.127 1.119 1.119 1.119
5 1.04 9.0 10.658 10.090 10.240 10.233 1.184 1.121 1.138 1.137
6 1.21 - 16.348 14.028 14.758 14.762 - - - -
7 1.92 - 142.570 142.340 140.680 140.920 - - - -
8 -0.47 -2.5 -4.608 -4.608 -4.603 -4.604 1.843 1.843 1.841 1.841
9 -0.94 -8.3 -10.753 -10.296 -10.430 -10.434 1.296 1.240 1.257 1.257
10 -1.18 - -357.440 -334.340 -352.420 -351.670 - - - -
Mean 1.226 1.208 1.212 1.212
COV 0.235 0.240 0.238 0.238
R2 0.9962 0.9961 0.9963 0.9963
Mean (Total) 1.215
COV (Total) 0.238
2
R (Total) 0.9962
Table A.1(b) Statistical analysis results: Case 1 (Permanent displacement)

Case 1 - Shell-Shell model (Permanent displacement)
No pressure Test S2 S2 S16 S16 S2 S2 S16 S16
(bar) (mm) -S2 -S2 -S16 -S16 -S2 -S2 -S16 -S16
-0 -5 -0 -8 -0 -5 -0 -8
1 0.51 0.0 0 0 0 0 N/A N/A N/A N/A
2 0.57 0.0 0 0 0 0 N/A N/A N/A N/A
3 0.76 0.0 0 0 0 0 N/A N/A N/A N/A
4 0.91 0.0 0.210 0 0 0 N/A N/A N/A N/A
5 1.04 0.0 1.240 0.549 0.739 0.727 N/A N/A N/A N/A
6 1.21 4.0 5.980 2.960 4.000 4.000 1.495 0.740 1.000 1.000
7 1.92 69.0 138.0 137.0 136.0 136.0 2.000 1.986 1.971 1.971
8 -0.47 0.0 0 0 0 0 N/A N/A N/A N/A
9 -0.94 -1.0 -0.957 -0.447 -0.549 -0.550 0.957 0.447 0.549 0.550
10 -1.18 -283.0 -355.000 -330.000 -351.000 -350.000 1.254 1.166 1.240 1.237
Mean N/A N/A N/A N/A
COV N/A N/A N/A N/A
R2 0.9852 0.9793 0.9852 0.9850
Mean (Total) N/A
COV (Total) N/A
2
R (Total) 0.9837
71
Case 2 - Solid-Shell model (Maximum displacement)
No pressure Test S1 S1 S1 S1 S3 S3 S3 S1 S1 S1 S1 S3 S3 S3
(bar) (mm) -SH2 -SH2 -SH16 -SH16 -SH2 -SH2 -SH16 -SH2 -SH2 -SH16 -SH16 -SH2 -SH2 -SH16
-0 -5 -0 -8 -0 -5 -0 -0 -5 -0 -8 -0 -5 -0
1 0.51 4.8 5.105 4.947 5.103 4.945 4.844 4.844 4.842 1.064 1.031 1.063 1.030 1.009 1.009 1.009
2 0.57 4.9 5.433 5.248 5.429 5.246 5.162 5.162 5.159 1.109 1.071 1.108 1.071 1.053 1.053 1.053
3 0.76 7.5 7.794 7.343 7.787 7.337 7.057 7.057 7.049 1.039 0.979 1.038 0.978 0.941 0.941 0.940
4 0.91 7.5 9.396 8.042 9.334 8.034 7.788 7.821 7.818 1.253 1.072 1.245 1.071 1.038 1.043 1.042
5 1.04 9.0 12.052 9.948 11.800 9.983 9.846 9.735 9.767 1.339 1.105 1.311 1.109 1.094 1.082 1.085
6 1.21 - 20.149 13.181 18.831 13.401 13.192 12.623 12.824 - - - - - - -
7 1.92 - 140.230 86.773 138.960 84.596 75.434 74.088 72.951 - - - - - - -
8 -0.47 -2.5 -4.771 -4.474 -4.765 -4.471 -4.370 -4.370 -4.367 1.908 1.790 1.906 1.788 1.748 1.748 1.747
9 -0.94 -8.3 -12.425 -9.833 -12.156 -9.888 -9.543 -9.421 -9.463 1.497 1.185 1.465 1.191 1.150 1.135 1.140
10 -1.18 - -357.90 -246.00 -357.20 -252.66 -241.82 -227.37 -232.64 - - - - - - -
Mean 1.315 1.176 1.305 1.177 1.148 1.144 1.145
COV 0.235 0.236 0.234 0.236 0.238 0.238 0.238
R2 0.9941 0.9953 0.9947 0.9954 0.9942 0.9940 0.9941
Mean (Total) 1.202
COV (Total) 0.236
2 0.9945
R (Total)

Case 2 - Solid-Shell model (Permanent displacement)
No pressure Test S1 S1 S1 S1 S3 S3 S3 S1 S1 S1 S1 S3 S3 S3
(bar) (mm) -SH2 -SH2 -SH16 -SH16 -SH2 -SH2 -SH16 -SH2 -SH2 -SH16 -SH16 -SH2 -SH2 -SH16
-0 -5 -0 -8 -0 -5 -0 -0 -5 -0 -8 -0 -5 -0
1 0.51 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
2 0.57 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
3 0.76 0.0 0.153 0 0.167 0 0 0 0 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
4 0.91 0.0 0.848 0 0.714 0 0.107 0.032 0 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
5 1.04 0.0 2.550 0.564 2.240 0.636 0.825 0.520 0.658 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
6 1.21 4.0 10.000 2.400 8.470 2.720 3.020 2.210 2.520 2.500 0.600 2.118 0.680 0.755 0.553 0.630
7 1.92 69.0 135.000 68.700 135.000 68.100 58.600 57.800 57.800 1.957 0.996 1.957 0.987 0.849 0.838 0.838
8 -0.47 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
9 -0.94 -1.0 -2.260 -0.346 -2.000 -0.404 -0.471 -0.322 -0.405 2.260 0.346 2.000 0.404 0.471 0.322 0.405
10 -1.18 -283.0 -347.00 -196.00 -346.00 -205.00 -192.00 -183.00 -189.00 1.226 0.693 1.223 0.724 0.678 0.647 0.668
Mean N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
COV N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
R2 0.9854 0.9916 0.9852 0.9942 0.9972 0.9961 0.9971
Mean (Total) N/A
COV (Total) N/A
2 0.9924
R (Total)
72
Case 3 - Solid-Solid model (Maximum displacement)
No pressure Test S1 S1 S3 S1 S1 S3
(bar) (mm) -S1 -S1 -S3 -S1 -S1 -S3
-0 -5 -0 -0 -5 -0
1 0.51 4.8 96.184 4.953 4.825 20.038 1.032 1.005
2 0.57 4.9 114.090 5.259 5.144 23.284 1.073 1.050
3 0.76 7.5 130.030 7.278 7.013 17.337 0.970 0.935
4 0.91 7.5 136.980 7.922 7.805 18.264 1.056 1.041
5 1.04 9.0 131.600 9.832 9.778 14.622 1.092 1.086
6 1.21 - 139.430 12.803 12.932 - - -
7 1.92 - 133.340 53.455 52.146 - - -
8 -0.47 -2.5 -317.050 -4.554 -4.345 126.820 1.821 1.738
9 -0.94 -8.3 -339.410 -10.157 -9.452 40.893 1.224 1.139
10 -1.18 - -340.060 -21.740 -19.446 - - -
Mean 37.323 1.181 1.142
COV 1.083 0.248 0.237
R2 0.9084 0.9958 0.9940
Mean (Total) 13.215
COV (Total) 0.522
2 0.9661
R (Total)

Case 3 - Solid-Solid model (Permanent displacement)
No pressure Test S1 S1 S3 S1 S1 S3
(bar) (mm) -S1 -S1 -S3 -S1 -S1 -S3
-0 -5 -0 -0 -5 -0
1 0.51 0.0 89.400 0 0 N/A N/A N/A
2 0.57 0.0 109.000 0 0 N/A N/A N/A
3 0.76 0.0 126.000 0 0 N/A N/A N/A
4 0.91 0.0 134.000 0 0.102 N/A N/A N/A
5 1.04 0.0 129.000 0.460 0.690 N/A N/A N/A
6 1.21 4.0 136.000 2.130 2.770 34.000 0.533 0.693
7 1.92 69.0 132.000 40.700 40.100 1.913 0.590 0.581
8 -0.47 0.0 -313.000 0 0 N/A N/A N/A
9 -0.94 -1.0 -326.000 -0.352 -0.473 326.000 0.352 0.473
10 -1.18 -283.0 -328.000 -7.220 -7.670 1.159 0.026 0.027
Mean N/A N/A N/A
COV N/A N/A N/A
R2 0.3010 0.2471 0.2607
Mean (Total) N/A
COV (Total) N/A
2 0.2696
R (Total)
73
Case 4 - Tshell-Shell model (Maximum displacement)
No pressure Test SHT1 SHT1 SHT1 SHT1 SHT2 SHT2 SHT2 SHT2 SHT1 SHT1 SHT1 SHT1 SHT2 SHT2 SHT2 SHT2
(bar) (mm) -SH2 -SH2 -SH16 -SH16 -SH2 -SH2 -SH16 -SH16 -SH2 -SH2 -SH16 -SH16 -SH2 -SH2 -SH16 -SH16
-0 -5 -0 -8 -0 -5 -0 -8 -0 -5 -0 -8 -0 -5 -0 -8
1 0.51 4.8 5.365 5.355 5.361 5.352 5.357 5.357 5.354 5.354 1.118 1.116 1.117 1.115 1.116 1.116 1.115 1.115
2 0.57 4.9 6.255 6.233 6.246 6.225 6.239 6.239 6.231 6.231 1.277 1.272 1.275 1.270 1.273 1.273 1.272 1.272
3 0.76 7.5 8.440 8.387 8.430 8.384 8.404 8.393 8.391 8.388 1.125 1.118 1.124 1.118 1.121 1.119 1.119 1.118
4 0.91 7.5 11.369 10.853 11.213 10.912 11.129 10.915 10.943 10.986 1.516 1.447 1.495 1.455 1.484 1.455 1.459 1.465
5 1.04 9.0 14.904 13.087 14.270 13.337 14.287 13.254 13.558 13.561 1.656 1.454 1.586 1.482 1.587 1.473 1.506 1.507
6 1.21 - 31.603 20.191 28.180 21.061 28.542 21.121 23.698 23.720 - - - - - - - -
7 1.92 - 168.850 165.860 167.560 164.340 168.410 168.260 166.990 166.910 - - - - - - - -
8 -0.47 -2.5 -5.537 -5.518 -5.529 -5.511 -5.524 -5.524 -5.516 -5.516 2.215 2.207 2.212 2.204 2.210 2.210 2.206 2.206
9 -0.94 -8.3 -14.057 -13.093 -13.731 -13.283 -13.809 -13.175 -13.368 -13.384 1.694 1.577 1.654 1.600 1.664 1.587 1.611 1.613
10 -1.18 - -437.730 -436.050 -437.260 -436.200 -437.670 -436.600 -436.940 -436.810 - - - - - - - -
Mean 1.514 1.456 1.495 1.464 1.494 1.462 1.470 1.471
COV 0.257 0.257 0.256 0.257 0.257 0.257 0.256 0.256
R2 0.9836 0.9907 0.9865 0.9901 0.9867 0.9902 0.9894 0.9893
Mean (Total) 1.478
COV (Total) 0.257
R2 (Total) 0.9883

Case 4 - Tshell-Shell model (Permanent displacement)
No pressure Test SHT1 SHT1 SHT1 SHT1 SHT2 SHT2 SHT2 SHT2 SHT1 SHT1 SHT1 SHT1 SHT2 SHT2 SHT2 SHT2
(bar) (mm) -SH2 -SH2 -SH16 -SH16 -SH2 -SH2 -SH16 -SH16 -SH2 -SH2 -SH16 -SH16 -SH2 -SH2 -SH16 -SH16
-0 -5 -0 -8 -0 -5 -0 -8 -0 -5 -0 -8 -0 -5 -0 -8
1 0.51 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
2 0.57 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
3 0.76 0.0 0.124 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
4 0.91 0.0 1.480 0.887 1.310 0.956 1.240 0.979 0.951 1.060 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
5 1.04 0.0 4.270 2.090 3.450 2.540 3.500 2.200 2.690 2.750 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
6 1.21 4.0 20.600 8.280 17.000 8.860 17.500 9.290 12.200 12.200 5.150 2.070 4.250 2.215 4.375 2.323 3.050 3.050
7 1.92 69.0 156.000 152.000 154.000 152.000 155.000 154.000 153.000 154.000 2.261 2.203 2.232 2.203 2.246 2.232 2.217 2.232
8 -0.47 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
9 -0.94 -1.0 -2.720 -1.740 -2.400 -1.760 -2.490 -1.780 -2.000 2.000 2.720 1.740 2.400 1.760 2.490 1.780 2.000 -2.000
10 -1.18 -283.0 -400.000 -401.000 -398.000 -403.000 -397.000 -392.000 -396.000 -396.000 1.413 1.417 1.406 1.424 1.403 1.385 1.399 1.399
Mean N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
COV N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
R2 0.9853 0.9872 0.9859 0.9876 0.9853 0.9846 0.9860 0.9859
Mean (Total) N/A
COV (Total) N/A
R2 (Total) 0.9860
74
Case 5 - Tshell-Tshell model (Maximum displacement)
No pressure Test SHT1 SHT1 SHT2 SHT1 SHT1 SHT2
(bar) (mm) -SHT1 -SHT1 -SHT2 -SHT1 -SHT1 -SHT2
-0 -5 -0 -0 -5 -0
1 0.51 4.8 4.880 4.869 4.869 1.017 1.014 1.014
2 0.57 4.9 5.201 5.184 5.183 1.061 1.058 1.058
3 0.76 7.5 7.304 7.184 7.196 0.974 0.958 0.959
4 0.91 7.5 8.566 8.026 8.084 1.142 1.070 1.078
5 1.04 9.0 11.222 10.008 10.227 1.247 1.112 1.136
6 1.21 - 20.116 13.885 14.836 - - -
7 1.92 - 124.670 99.009 120.800 - - -
8 -0.47 -2.5 -4.403 -4.391 -4.392 1.761 1.756 1.757
9 -0.94 -8.3 -11.239 -9.801 -10.015 1.354 1.181 1.207
10 -1.18 - -345.150 -43.615 -324.140 - - -
Mean 1.222 1.164 1.173
COV 0.223 0.232 0.230
R2 0.9942 0.9950 0.9951
Mean (Total) 1.186
COV (Total) 0.228
2 0.9947
R (Total)

Case 5 - Tshell-Tshell model (Permanent displacement)
No pressure Test SHT1 SHT1 SHT2 SHT1 SHT1 SHT2
(bar) (mm) -SHT1 -SHT1 -SHT2 -SHT1 -SHT1 -SHT2
-0 -5 -0 -0 -5 -0
1 0.51 0.0 0 0 0 N/A N/A N/A
2 0.57 0.0 0 0 0 N/A N/A N/A
3 0.76 0.0 0.223 0.000 0.000 N/A N/A N/A
4 0.91 0.0 0.703 0.194 0.239 N/A N/A N/A
5 1.04 0.0 2.370 0.929 1.190 N/A N/A N/A
6 1.21 4.0 10.900 3.560 4.740 2.725 0.890 1.185
7 1.92 69.0 120.000 89.200 115.000 1.739 1.293 1.667
8 -0.47 0.0 0 0 0 N/A N/A N/A
9 -0.94 -1.0 -1.880 -0.592 -0.708 1.880 0.592 0.708
10 -1.18 -283.0 -339.000 -32.500 -318.000 1.198 0.115 1.124
Mean N/A N/A N/A
COV N/A N/A N/A
R2 0.9915 0.3982 0.9900
Mean (Total) N/A
COV (Total) N/A
2 0.7932
R (Total)
75
APPENDIX B
COMPUTATIONAL COSTS OF FE TYPES (CASES 1 – 5) AND FE
FORMULATIONS (TYPES I – IV)
76
77
APPENDIX C
SELECTION OF FE FORMULATIONS (CASE 2 ONLY)
78
8 S1 S3
IHQ
Case 2: Solid-Shell model SH2 SH16 SH2 SH16
(Loading scenario “A1”) Without
With N/A
6
Displacement (mm) obtained by Testing (HSE, 2003)
von Mises stress contour plot

4
(Scale factor: 10.0)

-2
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14
Time (s)
(a) Load scenario “A1”
8 S1 S3
IHQ
With N/A
Displacement (mm)

4

-2
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14
Time (s)
(b) Load scenario “A2”
Figure C.1 Detail comparison among Case II FE models
(Loading scenarios can be referred to Figure 3.4)
79
8
Case 2: Solid-Shell model
6 S1 S3
IHQ
SH2 SH16 SH2 SH16
Displacement (mm)
Without
With N/A
4

-2
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14
Time (s)
(c) Load scenario “A3”
18 S1 S3
IHQ
With N/A
14
Displacement (mm)

10
6

-2
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14
Time (s)
(d) Load scenario “A4”

Figure C.1. (continued)
80
18 S1 S3
IHQ
With N/A
14
Displacement (mm) obtained by Testing (HSE, 2003)

10

-2
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14
Time (s)
(e) Load scenario “A5”
25 S1 S3
IHQ
With N/A
20
Displacement (mm)

15
10

5

0
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14
Time (s)
(f) Load scenario “A6”

81
150
120 von Mises stress contour plot S1 S3
IHQ
SH2 SH16 SH2 SH16
Displacement (mm)
Without
With N/A
90
60
(Scale factor: 2.0)

30
0
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14
Time (s)
(g) Load scenario “A7”
Time (s)
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14
2 S1 S3
IHQ
SH2 SH16 SH2 SH16
Without
With N/A
0
Displacement (mm)

-2
-4

-6
(Loading scenario “B8”) (Scale factor: 10.0)
-8
(h) Load scenario “B8”

82
Time (s)
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14
0 S1 S3
IHQ
SH2 SH16 SH2 SH16
Without
With N/A
-4
Displacement (mm)

-8
-12
-16
(Loading scenario “B9”) (Scale factor: 10.0)
-20
(i) Load scenario “B9”
Time (s)
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14
0 S1 S3
IHQ
SH2 SH16 SH2 SH16
Without
von Mises stress contour plot With N/A
-80
Displacement (mm)
-160
-240
(Scale factor: 2.0)

-320
(Loading scenario “B10”)
-400
(j) Load scenario “B10”

83
APPENDIX D
PARAMETERS FOR THE GENERATION OF EMPIRICAL EQUATION
84
IP  B H t wm
p I MP MC
4
( ∙ ) (°) (𝑚𝑚) (𝑚𝑚) (𝑚𝑚) (𝑚𝑚) (𝑚𝑚 ) (𝑁 ∙ 𝑚𝑚) (𝑁 ∙ 𝑚𝑚)
0.005 50 100 100 6 244 0.0396 2158532 46108146 11961526
0.005 50 100 120 6 177 0.0183 3294506 51329775 15358673
0.005 50 100 140 6 124 0.0107 4738459 56551404 19064182
0.005 50 100 160 6 96 0.0077 6521720 61773033 23077459
0.005 50 100 180 6 73 0.0053 8675619 66994662 27398164
0.005 50 100 200 6 54 0.0030 11231486 72216292 32026092
0.005 50 120 100 6 245 0.0386 2458892 50108146 13625974
0.005 50 120 120 6 176 0.0176 3726866 55329775 17374294
0.005 50 120 140 6 124 0.0112 5326819 60551404 21431324
0.005 50 120 160 6 95 0.0078 7290080 65773033 25796342
0.005 50 120 180 6 71 0.0051 9647979 70994662 30468940
0.005 50 120 200 6 51 0.0026 12431846 76216292 35448866
0.005 50 140 100 6 246 0.0374 2759252 54108146 15290421
0.005 50 140 120 6 174 0.0170 4159226 59329775 19389916
0.005 50 140 140 6 124 0.0116 5915179 64551404 23798465
0.005 50 140 160 6 94 0.0079 8058440 69773033 28515226
0.005 50 140 180 6 68 0.0048 10620339 74994662 33539715
0.005 50 140 200 6 49 0.0024 13632206 80216292 38871640
0.005 50 160 100 6 256 0.0370 3059612 58108146 16954869
0.005 50 160 120 6 176 0.0190 4591586 63329775 21405537
0.005 50 160 140 6 124 0.0122 6503539 68551404 26165607
0.005 50 160 160 6 93 0.0082 8826800 73773033 31234109
0.005 50 160 180 6 66 0.0046 11592699 78994662 36610491
0.005 50 160 200 6 47 0.0021 14832566 84216292 42294414
0.005 50 180 100 6 274 0.0587 3359972 62108146 18619317
0.005 50 180 120 6 184 0.0344 5023946 67329775 23421158
0.005 50 180 140 6 126 0.0134 7091899 72551404 28532748
0.005 50 180 160 6 92 0.0084 9595160 77773033 33952993
0.005 50 180 180 6 64 0.0044 12565059 82994662 39681266
0.005 50 180 200 6 46 0.0020 16032926 88216292 45717188
0.005 50 200 100 6 294 0.0802 3660332 66108146 20283765
0.005 50 200 120 6 200 0.0524 5456306 71329775 25436779
0.005 50 200 140 6 132 0.0219 7680259 76551404 30899890
0.005 50 200 160 6 92 0.0086 10363520 81773033 36671876
0.005 50 200 180 6 63 0.0046 13537419 86994662 42752042
0.005 50 200 200 6 44 0.0018 17233286 92216292 49139962
0.005 50 100 100 8 161 0.0164 2884087 46108146 15686229
0.005 50 100 120 8 91 0.0053 4399555 51329775 20189831
0.005 50 100 140 8 68 0.0027 6325660 56551404 25106032
0.005 50 100 160 8 56 0.0018 8704177 61773033 30433533
0.005 50 100 180 8 46 0.0011 11576878 66994662 36171587
85
IP  B H t wm
p I MP MC
4
( ∙ ) (°) (𝑚𝑚) (𝑚𝑚) (𝑚𝑚) (𝑚𝑚) (𝑚𝑚 ) (𝑁 ∙ 𝑚𝑚) (𝑁 ∙ 𝑚𝑚)
0.005 50 100 200 8 37 0.0006 14985537 72216292 42319732
0.005 50 120 100 8 156 0.0153 3284940 50108146 17866426
0.005 50 120 120 8 89 0.0048 4976408 55329775 22837047
0.005 50 120 140 8 68 0.0026 7110514 60551404 28221052
0.005 50 120 160 8 55 0.0017 9729030 65773033 34016860
0.005 50 120 180 8 45 0.0011 12873732 70994662 40223563
0.005 50 120 200 8 36 0.0006 16586390 76216292 46840603
0.005 50 140 100 8 151 0.0141 3685794 54108146 20046623
0.005 50 140 120 8 86 0.0045 5553261 59329775 25484263
0.005 50 140 140 8 67 0.0026 7895367 64551404 31336071
0.005 50 140 160 8 54 0.0018 10753884 69773033 37600186
0.005 50 140 180 8 44 0.0106 14170585 74994662 44275540
0.005 50 140 200 8 35 0.0005 18187243 80216292 51361475
0.005 50 160 100 8 149 0.0134 4086647 58108146 22226819
0.005 50 160 120 8 85 0.0042 6130115 63329775 28131479
0.005 50 160 140 8 67 0.0026 8680220 68551404 34451090
0.005 50 160 160 8 54 0.0016 11778737 73773033 41183513
0.005 50 160 180 8 43 0.0010 15467438 78994662 48327517
0.005 50 160 200 8 34 0.0004 19788097 84216292 55882346
0.005 50 180 100 8 146 0.0126 4487500 62108146 24407016
0.005 50 180 120 8 84 0.0041 6706968 67329775 30778695
0.005 50 180 140 8 67 0.0025 9465074 72551404 37566109
0.005 50 180 160 8 53 0.0017 12803590 77773033 44766839
0.005 50 180 180 8 42 0.0009 16764292 82994662 52379494
0.005 50 180 200 8 34 0.0004 21388950 88216292 60403217
0.005 50 200 100 8 145 0.0122 4888354 66108146 26587213
0.005 50 200 120 8 84 0.0040 7283821 71329775 33425911
0.005 50 200 140 8 66 0.0025 10249927 76551404 40681129
0.005 50 200 160 8 53 0.0016 13828444 81773033 48350166
0.005 50 200 180 8 41 0.0009 18061145 86994662 56431471
0.005 50 200 200 8 33 0.0004 22989803 92216292 64924089
0.005 50 100 100 10 103 0.0076 3614823 46108146 19303154
0.005 50 100 120 10 60 0.0017 5510500 51329775 24898983
0.005 50 100 140 10 51 0.0012 7919475 56551404 31012664
0.005 50 100 160 10 44 0.0010 10893964 61773033 37641849
0.005 50 100 180 10 37 0.0007 14486183 66994662 44785179
0.005 50 100 200 10 31 0.0003 18748349 72216292 52441810
0.005 50 120 100 10 97 0.0068 4116490 50108146 21982054
0.005 50 120 120 10 59 0.0016 6232167 55329775 28159806
0.005 50 120 140 10 51 0.0013 8901142 60551404 34856871
0.005 50 120 160 10 43 0.0010 12175631 65773033 42070384
86
IP  B H t wm p I MP MC
( ∙ ) (°) (𝑚𝑚) (𝑚𝑚) (𝑚𝑚) (𝑚𝑚) (𝑚𝑚4 ) (𝑁 ∙ 𝑚𝑚) (𝑁 ∙ 𝑚𝑚)
0.005 50 120 180 10 37 0.0007 16107850 70994662 49798689
0.005 50 120 200 10 30 0.0003 20750016 76216292 58040758
0.005 50 140 100 10 92 0.0060 4618156 54108146 24660954
0.005 50 140 120 10 59 0.0016 6953833 59329775 31420629
0.005 50 140 140 10 51 0.0013 9882808 64551404 38701077
0.005 50 140 160 10 43 0.0011 13457297 69773033 46498920
0.005 50 140 180 10 36 0.0006 17729516 74994662 54812200
0.005 50 140 200 10 30 0.0003 22751682 80216292 63639706
0.005 50 160 100 10 89 0.0055 5119823 58108146 27339854
0.005 50 160 120 10 59 0.0015 7675500 63329775 34681452
0.005 50 160 140 10 50 0.0014 10864475 68551404 42545284
0.005 50 160 160 10 43 0.0011 14738964 73773033 50927455
0.005 50 160 180 10 35 0.0006 19351183 78994662 59825710
0.005 50 160 200 10 29 0.0002 24753349 84216292 69238653
0.005 50 180 100 10 86 0.0050 5621490 62108146 30018754
0.005 50 180 120 10 59 0.0016 8397167 67329775 37942275
0.005 50 180 140 10 50 0.0013 11846142 72551404 46389491
0.005 50 180 160 10 42 0.0011 16020631 77773033 55355990
0.005 50 180 180 10 35 0.0006 20972850 82994662 64839221
0.005 50 180 200 10 29 0.0002 26755016 88216292 74837601
0.005 50 200 100 10 84 0.0047 6123156 66108146 32697654
0.005 50 200 120 10 59 0.0016 9118833 71329775 41203098
0.005 50 200 140 10 50 0.0014 12827808 76551404 50233697
0.005 50 200 160 10 42 0.0011 17302297 81773033 59784526
0.005 50 200 180 10 34 0.0005 22594516 86994662 69852731
0.005 50 200 200 10 28 0.0002 28756682 92216292 80436549
0.005 60 100 100 6 214 0.0301 2083307 43094011 11544666
0.005 60 100 120 6 135 0.0122 3164450 47712813 14752363
0.005 60 100 140 6 93 0.0061 4531869 52331615 18233012
0.005 60 100 160 6 72 0.0039 6213278 56950417 21986020
0.005 60 100 180 6 55 0.0026 8236389 61569219 26011049
0.005 60 100 200 6 42 0.0012 10628916 66188022 30307890
0.005 60 120 100 6 216 0.0299 2383667 47094011 13209114
0.005 60 120 120 6 137 0.0121 3596810 51712813 16767984
0.005 60 120 140 6 95 0.0064 5120229 56331615 20600154
0.005 60 120 160 6 72 0.0044 6981638 60950417 24704904
0.005 60 120 180 6 54 0.0023 9208749 65569219 29081824
0.005 60 120 200 6 40 0.0011 11829276 70188022 33730664
0.005 60 140 100 6 217 0.0295 2684027 51094011 14873562
0.005 60 140 120 6 138 0.0121 4029170 55712813 18783605
0.005 60 140 140 6 97 0.0111 5708589 60331615 22967295
87
0.005 60 140 160 6 72 0.0043 7749998 64950417 27423787
0.005 60 140 180 6 53 0.0022 10181109 69569219 32152600
0.005 60 140 200 6 39 0.0010 13029636 74188022 37153438
0.005 60 160 100 6 225 0.0298 2984387 55094011 16538010
0.005 60 160 120 6 140 0.0127 4461530 59712813 20799226
0.005 60 160 140 6 99 0.0074 6296949 64331615 25334437
0.005 60 160 160 6 72 0.0046 8518358 68950417 30142671
0.005 60 160 180 6 52 0.0022 11153469 73569219 35223375
0.005 60 160 200 6 39 0.0009 14229996 78188022 40576212
0.005 60 180 100 6 241 0.0503 3284747 59094011 18202458
0.005 60 180 120 6 144 0.0145 4893890 63712813 22814847
0.005 60 180 140 6 100 0.0080 6885309 68331615 27701578
0.005 60 180 160 6 72 0.0048 9286718 72950417 32861554
0.005 60 180 180 6 51 0.0022 12125829 77569219 38294151
0.005 60 180 200 6 38 0.0008 15430356 82188022 43998986
0.005 60 200 100 6 261 0.0626 3585107 63094011 19866905
0.005 60 200 120 6 155 0.0347 5326250 67712813 24830468
0.005 60 200 140 6 103 0.0109 7473669 72331615 30068720
0.005 60 200 160 6 73 0.0050 10055078 76950417 35580438
0.005 60 200 180 6 50 0.0021 13098189 81569219 41364927
0.005 60 200 200 6 37 0.0008 16630716 86188022 47421760
0.005 60 100 100 8 127 0.0110 2783920 43094011 15141434
0.005 60 100 120 8 70 0.0031 4226306 47712813 19394782
0.005 60 100 140 8 57 0.0019 6050394 52331615 24013522
0.005 60 100 160 8 48 0.0013 8293134 56950417 28996352
0.005 60 100 180 8 39 0.0009 10991479 61569219 34342524
0.005 60 100 200 8 32 0.0004 14182376 66188022 40051577
0.005 60 120 100 8 125 0.0104 3184774 47094011 17321631
0.005 60 120 120 8 70 0.0031 4803159 51712813 22041998
0.005 60 120 140 8 57 0.0020 6835247 56331615 27128541
0.005 60 120 160 8 48 0.0014 9317988 60950417 32579679
0.005 60 120 180 8 39 0.0009 12288332 65569219 38394501
0.005 60 120 200 8 32 0.0004 15783230 70188022 44572448
0.005 60 140 100 8 122 0.0099 3585627 51094011 19501828
0.005 60 140 120 8 71 0.0030 5380012 55712813 24689214
0.005 60 140 140 8 58 0.0021 7620100 60331615 30243560
0.005 60 140 160 8 47 0.0014 10342841 64950417 36163005
0.005 60 140 180 8 38 0.0009 13585185 69569219 42446478
0.005 60 140 200 8 31 0.0003 17384083 74188022 49093319
0.005 60 160 100 8 121 0.0096 3986480 55094011 21682024
0.005 60 160 120 8 71 0.0031 5956866 59712813 27336430
88
0.005 60 160 140 8 58 0.0022 8404954 64331615 33358580
0.005 60 160 160 8 47 0.0014 11367694 68950417 39746332
0.005 60 160 180 8 38 0.0008 14882039 73569219 46498455
0.005 60 160 200 8 31 0.0003 18984936 78188022 53614191
0.005 60 180 100 8 120 0.0092 4387334 59094011 23862221
0.005 60 180 120 8 72 0.0031 6533719 63712813 29983646
0.005 60 180 140 8 58 0.0022 9189807 68331615 36473599
0.005 60 180 160 8 47 0.0014 12392548 72950417 43329658
0.005 60 180 180 8 37 0.0008 16178892 77569219 50550431
0.005 60 180 200 8 30 0.0002 20585790 82188022 58135062
0.005 60 200 100 8 120 0.0090 4788187 63094011 26042418
0.005 60 200 120 8 73 0.0032 7110572 67712813 32630862
0.005 60 200 140 8 59 0.0023 9974660 72331615 39588618
0.005 60 200 160 8 47 0.0014 13417401 76950417 46912985
0.005 60 200 180 8 37 0.0008 17475745 81569219 54602408
0.005 60 200 200 8 30 0.0002 22186643 86188022 62655933
0.005 60 100 100 10 83 0.0052 3489829 43094011 18635686
0.005 60 100 120 10 53 0.0012 5294196 47712813 23921622
0.005 60 100 140 10 45 0.0010 7575692 52331615 29666408
0.005 60 100 160 10 39 0.0007 10380503 56950417 35867692
0.005 60 100 180 10 33 0.0004 13754819 61569219 42524109
0.005 60 100 200 10 32 0.0004 17744827 66188022 49634816
0.005 60 120 100 10 80 0.0047 3991495 47094011 21314586
0.005 60 120 120 10 53 0.0012 6015863 51712813 27182445
0.005 60 120 140 10 45 0.0011 8557358 56331615 33510615
0.005 60 120 160 10 39 0.0008 11662170 60950417 40296227
0.005 60 120 180 10 32 0.0004 15376486 65569219 47537619
0.005 60 120 200 10 27 0.0002 19746494 70188022 55233764
0.005 60 140 100 10 77 0.0042 4493162 51094011 23993486
0.005 60 140 120 10 53 0.0013 6737529 55712813 30443268
0.005 60 140 140 10 46 0.0011 9539025 60331615 37354822
0.005 60 140 160 10 39 0.0008 12943837 64950417 44724762
0.005 60 140 180 10 32 0.0004 16998152 69569219 52551130
0.005 60 140 200 10 26 0.0001 21748160 74188022 60832711
0.005 60 160 100 10 75 0.0039 4994829 55094011 26672386
0.005 60 160 120 10 54 0.0014 7459196 59712813 33704091
0.005 60 160 140 10 46 0.0012 10520692 64331615 41199028
0.005 60 160 160 10 39 0.0009 14225503 68950417 49153297
0.005 60 160 180 10 32 0.0004 18619819 73569219 57564640
0.005 60 160 200 10 26 0.0002 23749827 78188022 66431659
0.005 60 180 100 10 74 0.0036 5496495 59094011 29351286
89
0.005 60 180 120 10 54 0.0014 8180863 63712813 36964914
0.005 60 180 140 10 46 0.0013 11502358 68331615 45043235
0.005 60 180 160 10 38 0.0008 15507170 72950417 53581833
0.005 60 180 180 10 32 0.0004 20241486 77569219 62578151
0.005 60 180 200 10 26 0.0002 25751494 82188022 72030606
0.005 60 200 100 10 73 0.0035 5998162 63094011 32030186
0.005 60 200 120 10 54 0.0015 8902529 67712813 40225737
0.005 60 200 140 10 46 0.0014 12484025 72331615 48887442
0.005 60 200 160 10 38 0.0009 16788837 76950417 58010368
0.005 60 200 180 10 31 0.0004 21863152 81569219 67591661
0.005 60 200 200 10 26 0.0001 27753160 86188022 77629554
0.005 70 100 100 6 209 0.0269 2038325 41283555 11295398
0.005 70 100 120 6 113 0.0084 3086573 45540267 14389310
0.005 70 100 140 6 76 0.0039 4408063 49796978 17734904
0.005 70 100 160 6 59 0.0025 6028334 54053689 21331587
0.005 70 100 180 6 46 0.0015 7972928 58310400 25179020
0.005 70 100 200 6 37 0.0009 10267384 62567111 29276996
0.005 70 120 100 6 215 0.0271 2338685 45283555 12959846
0.005 70 120 120 6 118 0.0086 3518933 49540267 16404931
0.005 70 120 140 6 79 0.0042 4996423 53796978 20102046
0.005 70 120 160 6 60 0.0025 6796694 58053689 24050471
0.005 70 120 180 6 46 0.0014 8945288 62310400 28249796
0.005 70 120 200 6 36 0.0008 11467744 66567111 32699770
0.005 70 140 100 6 222 0.0275 2639045 49283555 14624294
0.005 70 140 120 6 123 0.0090 3951293 53540267 18420552
0.005 70 140 140 6 83 0.0046 5584783 57796978 22469187
0.005 70 140 160 6 62 0.0026 7565054 62053689 26769354
0.005 70 140 180 6 46 0.0045 9917648 66310400 31320571
0.005 70 140 200 6 36 0.0008 12668104 70567111 36122544
0.005 70 160 100 6 237 0.0440 2939405 53283555 16288741
0.005 70 160 120 6 128 0.0099 4383653 57540267 20436173
0.005 70 160 140 6 86 0.0053 6173143 61796978 24836329
0.005 70 160 160 6 63 0.0028 8333414 66053689 29488238
0.005 70 160 180 6 46 0.0013 10890008 70310400 34391347
0.005 70 160 200 6 35 0.0007 13868464 74567111 39545318
0.005 70 180 100 6 260 0.0611 3239765 57283555 17953189
0.005 70 180 120 6 133 0.0116 4816013 61540267 22451794
0.005 70 180 140 6 89 0.0057 6761503 65796978 27203470
0.005 70 180 160 6 63 0.0030 9101774 70053689 32207121
0.005 70 180 180 6 46 0.0013 11862368 74310400 37462122
0.005 70 180 200 6 35 0.0007 15068824 78567111 42968092
90
0.005 70 200 100 6 239 0.0703 3540125 61283555 19617637
0.005 70 200 120 6 148 0.0393 5248373 65540267 24467416
0.005 70 200 140 6 92 0.0064 7349863 69796978 29570612
0.005 70 200 160 6 64 0.0033 9870134 74053689 34926005
0.005 70 200 180 6 46 0.0013 12834728 78310400 40532898
0.005 70 200 200 6 35 0.0006 16269184 82567111 46390866
0.005 70 100 100 8 111 0.0086 2724234 41283555 14816807
0.005 70 100 120 8 61 0.0021 4122818 45540267 18919870
0.005 70 100 140 8 51 0.0014 5885724 49796978 23359963
0.005 70 100 160 8 43 0.0012 8047006 54053689 28135783
0.005 70 100 180 8 36 0.0008 10640718 58310400 33246584
0.005 70 100 200 8 30 0.0004 13700913 62567111 38691904
0.005 70 120 100 8 112 0.0083 3125087 45283555 16997003
0.005 70 120 120 8 63 0.0022 4699672 49540267 21567086
0.005 70 120 140 8 52 0.0016 6670578 53796978 26474982
0.005 70 120 160 8 43 0.0012 9071860 58053689 31719110
0.005 70 120 180 8 36 0.0008 11937571 62310400 37298560
0.005 70 120 200 8 29 0.0004 15301766 66567111 43212776
0.005 70 140 100 8 112 0.0081 3525941 49283555 19177200
0.005 70 140 120 8 64 0.0022 5276525 53540267 24214302
0.005 70 140 140 8 53 0.0017 7455431 57796978 29590001
0.005 70 140 160 8 44 0.0013 10096713 62053689 35302436
0.005 70 140 180 8 36 0.0008 13234425 66310400 41350537
0.005 70 140 200 8 29 0.0004 16902619 70567111 47733647
0.005 70 160 100 8 113 0.0080 3926794 53283555 21357397
0.005 70 160 120 8 66 0.0024 5853378 57540267 26861518
0.005 70 160 140 8 54 0.0018 8240284 61796978 32705021
0.005 70 160 160 8 44 0.0013 11121566 66053689 38885762
0.005 70 160 180 8 36 0.0008 14531278 70310400 45402514
0.005 70 160 200 8 29 0.0004 18503473 74567111 52254518
0.005 70 180 100 8 115 0.0080 4327647 57283555 23537594
0.005 70 180 120 8 67 0.0025 6430232 61540267 29508734
0.005 70 180 140 8 55 0.0018 9025138 65796978 35820040
0.005 70 180 160 8 44 0.0014 12146420 70053689 42469089
0.005 70 180 180 8 36 0.0008 15828131 74310400 49454491
0.005 70 180 200 8 29 0.0003 20104326 78567111 56775390
0.005 70 200 100 8 93 0.0054 4728501 61283555 25717790
0.005 70 200 120 8 68 0.0026 7007085 65540267 32155950
0.005 70 200 140 8 55 0.0019 9809991 69796978 38935059
0.005 70 200 160 8 44 0.0014 13171273 74053689 46052415
0.005 70 200 180 8 35 0.0007 17124985 78310400 53506468
91
0.005 70 200 200 8 29 0.0003 21705179 82567111 61296261
0.005 70 100 100 10 74 0.0042 3415686 41283555 18239765
0.005 70 100 120 10 49 0.0009 5165395 45540267 23339640
0.005 70 100 140 10 41 0.0006 7370507 49796978 28862904
0.005 70 100 160 10 35 0.0005 10073588 54053689 34807209
0.005 70 100 180 10 30 0.0003 13317206 58310400 41171194
0.005 70 100 200 10 25 0.0002 17143928 62567111 47954017
0.005 70 120 100 10 73 0.0038 3917353 45283555 20918665
0.005 70 120 120 10 50 0.0009 5887062 49540267 26600463
0.005 70 120 140 10 42 0.0008 8352173 53796978 32707111
0.005 70 120 160 10 36 0.0006 11355255 58053689 39235745
0.005 70 120 180 10 30 0.0003 14938873 62310400 46184705
0.005 70 120 200 10 25 0.0002 19145595 66567111 53552964
0.005 70 140 100 10 72 0.0036 4419020 49283555 23597565
0.005 70 140 120 10 50 0.0010 6608729 53540267 29861286
0.005 70 140 140 10 43 0.0009 9333840 57796978 36551318
0.005 70 140 160 10 36 0.0006 12636921 62053689 43664280
0.005 70 140 180 10 30 0.0004 16560540 66310400 51198215
0.005 70 140 200 10 25 0.0002 21147262 70567111 59151912
0.005 70 160 100 10 71 0.0034 4920686 53283555 26276465
0.005 70 160 120 10 51 0.0011 7330395 57540267 33122109
0.005 70 160 140 10 43 0.0009 10315507 61796978 40395524
0.005 70 160 160 10 36 0.0007 13918588 66053689 48092815
0.005 70 160 180 10 30 0.0004 18182206 70310400 56211726
0.005 70 160 200 10 25 0.0002 23148928 74567111 64750860
0.005 70 180 100 10 70 0.0032 5422353 57283555 28955365
0.005 70 180 120 10 52 0.0011 8052062 61540267 36382932
0.005 70 180 140 10 44 0.0010 11297173 65796978 44239731
0.005 70 180 160 10 37 0.0007 15200255 70053689 52521351
0.005 70 180 180 10 30 0.0004 19803873 74310400 61225236
0.005 70 180 200 10 25 0.0002 25150595 78567111 70349807
0.005 70 200 100 10 64 0.0024 5924020 61283555 31634265
0.005 70 200 120 10 52 0.0012 8773729 65540267 39643755
0.005 70 200 140 10 44 0.0011 12278840 69796978 48083938
0.005 70 200 160 10 37 0.0007 16481921 74053689 56949886
0.005 70 200 180 10 30 0.0004 21425540 78310400 66238747
0.005 70 200 200 10 25 0.0002 27152262 82567111 75948755
0.005 80 100 100 6 157 0.0155 2014362 40308532 11162605
0.005 80 100 120 6 76 0.0037 3044947 44370239 14195252
0.005 80 100 140 6 58 0.0020 4341753 48431945 17468122
0.005 80 100 160 6 47 0.0015 5929151 52493652 20980623
92
0.005 80 100 180 6 38 0.0009 7831511 56555358 24732418
0.005 80 100 200 6 31 0.0005 10073204 60617064 28723300
0.005 80 120 100 6 168 0.0166 2314722 44308532 12827053
0.005 80 120 120 6 83 0.0044 3477307 48370239 16210873
0.005 80 120 140 6 61 0.0024 4930113 52431945 19835264
0.005 80 120 160 6 49 0.0016 6697511 56493652 23699507
0.005 80 120 180 6 39 0.0010 8803871 60555358 27803194
0.005 80 120 200 6 31 0.0005 11273564 64617064 32146074
0.005 80 140 100 6 179 0.0178 2615082 48308532 14491501
0.005 80 140 120 6 89 0.0049 3909667 52370239 18226494
0.005 80 140 140 6 65 0.0027 5518473 56431945 22202405
0.005 80 140 160 6 50 0.0017 7465871 60493652 26418391
0.005 80 140 180 6 39 0.0010 9776231 64555358 30873969
0.005 80 140 200 6 31 0.0005 12473924 68617064 35568848
0.005 80 160 100 6 190 0.0190 2915442 52308532 16155948
0.005 80 160 120 6 94 0.0054 4342027 56370239 20242116
0.005 80 160 140 6 68 0.0029 6106833 60431945 24569547
0.005 80 160 160 6 51 0.0017 8234231 64493652 29137274
0.005 80 160 180 6 40 0.0010 10748591 68555358 33944745
0.005 80 160 200 6 31 0.0005 13674284 72617064 38991622
0.005 80 180 100 6 211 0.0464 3215802 56308532 17820396
0.005 80 180 120 6 100 0.0059 4774387 60370239 22257737
0.005 80 180 140 6 71 0.0032 6695193 64431945 26936688
0.005 80 180 160 6 53 0.0018 9002591 68493652 31856158
0.005 80 180 180 6 40 0.0010 11720951 72555358 37015521
0.005 80 180 200 6 31 0.0005 14874644 76617064 42414396
0.005 80 200 100 6 239 0.0718 3516162 60308532 19484844
0.005 80 200 120 6 106 0.0071 5206747 64370239 24273358
0.005 80 200 140 6 74 0.0035 7283553 68431945 29303830
0.005 80 200 160 6 54 0.0018 9770951 72493652 34575041
0.005 80 200 180 6 40 0.0010 12693311 76555358 40086296
0.005 80 200 200 6 32 0.0005 16075004 80617064 45837170
0.005 80 100 100 8 84 0.0052 2692711 40308532 14645353
0.005 80 100 120 8 52 0.0011 4067829 44370239 18667524
0.005 80 100 140 8 43 0.0008 5797910 48431945 23011436
0.005 80 100 160 8 36 0.0006 7915447 52493652 27675794
0.005 80 100 180 8 30 0.0003 10452932 56555358 32659854
0.005 80 100 200 8 25 0.0002 13442861 60617064 37963156
0.005 80 120 100 8 85 0.0051 3093564 44308532 16825550
0.005 80 120 120 8 54 0.0013 4644683 48370239 21314740
0.005 80 120 140 8 45 0.0010 6582764 52431945 26126455
93
0.005 80 120 160 8 38 0.0007 8940300 56493652 31259121
0.005 80 120 180 8 31 0.0004 11749786 60555358 36711830
0.005 80 120 200 8 25 0.0002 15043714 64617064 42484028
0.005 80 140 100 8 87 0.0052 3494417 48308532 19005747
0.005 80 140 120 8 56 0.1038 5221536 52370239 23961956
0.005 80 140 140 8 46 0.0011 7367617 56431945 29241475
0.005 80 140 160 8 38 0.0008 9965153 60493652 34842447
0.005 80 140 180 8 31 0.0004 13046639 64555358 40763807
0.005 80 140 200 8 26 0.0002 16644568 68617064 47004899
0.005 80 160 100 8 89 0.0052 3895271 52308532 21185944
0.005 80 160 120 8 57 0.0016 5798389 56370239 26609172
0.005 80 160 140 8 48 0.0013 8152470 60431945 32356494
0.005 80 160 160 8 39 0.0009 10990007 64493652 38425774
0.005 80 160 180 8 32 0.0005 14343492 68555358 44815784
0.005 80 160 200 8 26 0.0002 18245421 72617064 51525770
0.005 80 180 100 8 91 0.0054 4296124 56308532 23366140
0.005 80 180 120 8 59 0.0019 6375243 60370239 29256388
0.005 80 180 140 8 49 0.0015 8937324 64431945 35471513
0.005 80 180 160 8 40 0.0010 12014860 68493652 42009100
0.005 80 180 180 8 32 0.0005 15640346 72555358 48867761
0.005 80 180 200 8 26 0.0002 19846274 76617064 56046642
0.005 80 200 100 8 93 0.0054 4696977 60308532 25546337
0.005 80 200 120 8 61 0.0020 6952096 64370239 31903604
0.005 80 200 140 8 50 0.0016 9722177 68431945 38586532
0.005 80 200 160 8 40 0.0010 13039713 72493652 45592427
0.005 80 200 180 8 32 0.0005 16937199 76555358 52919738
0.005 80 200 200 8 26 0.0002 21447128 80617064 60567513
0.005 80 100 100 10 65 0.0030 3376969 40308532 18033015
0.005 80 100 120 10 43 0.0005 5097484 44370239 23032785
0.005 80 100 140 10 35 0.0002 7261701 48431945 28436822
0.005 80 100 160 10 30 0.0001 9910238 52493652 34242787
0.005 80 100 180 10 25 0.0001 13083711 56555358 40449326
0.005 80 100 200 10 21 0.0001 16822738 60617064 47055601
0.005 80 120 100 10 64 0.0028 3878636 44308532 20711915
0.005 80 120 120 10 44 0.0005 5819151 48370239 26293608
0.005 80 120 140 10 37 0.0004 8243368 52431945 32281028
0.005 80 120 160 10 31 0.0002 11191905 56493652 38671322
0.005 80 120 180 10 26 0.0001 14705378 60555358 45462836
0.005 80 120 200 10 22 0.0001 18824405 64617064 52654549
0.005 80 140 100 10 64 0.0026 4380302 48308532 23390815
0.005 80 140 120 10 45 0.0007 6540817 52370239 29554431
94
0.005 80 140 140 10 38 0.0005 9225034 56431945 36125235
0.005 80 140 160 10 32 0.0003 12473571 60493652 43099857
0.005 80 140 180 10 26 0.0002 16327044 64555358 50476347
0.005 80 140 200 10 22 0.0001 20826071 68617064 58253496
0.005 80 160 100 10 64 0.0025 4881969 52308532 26069715
0.005 80 160 120 10 47 0.0007 7262484 56370239 32815254
0.005 80 160 140 10 39 0.0006 10206701 60431945 39969442
0.005 80 160 160 10 33 0.0004 13755238 64493652 47528392
0.005 80 160 180 10 27 0.0002 17948711 68555358 55489857
0.005 80 160 200 10 22 0.0001 22827738 72617064 63852444
0.005 80 180 100 10 64 0.0025 5383636 56308532 28748615
0.005 80 180 120 10 48 0.0008 7984151 60370239 36076077
0.005 80 180 140 10 40 0.0007 11188368 64431945 43813648
0.005 80 180 160 10 33 0.0005 15036905 68493652 51956928
0.005 80 180 180 10 27 0.0002 19570378 72555358 60503368
0.005 80 180 200 10 22 0.0001 24829405 76617064 69451391
0.005 80 200 100 10 64 0.0024 5885302 60308532 31427515
0.005 80 200 120 10 49 0.0009 8705817 64370239 39336900
0.005 80 200 140 10 41 0.0008 12170034 68431945 47657855
0.005 80 200 160 10 34 0.0005 16318571 72493652 56385463
0.005 80 200 180 10 27 0.0002 21192044 76555358 65516878
0.005 80 200 200 10 22 0.0001 26831071 80617064 75050339
0.005 90 100 100 6 108 0.0081 2007200 40000000 11122918
0.005 90 100 120 6 57 0.0016 3032280 44000000 14136201
0.005 90 100 140 6 46 0.0010 4321360 48000000 17386074
0.005 90 100 160 6 38 0.0006 5898440 52000000 20871950
0.005 90 100 180 6 30 0.0003 7787520 56000000 24593491
0.005 90 100 200 6 25 0.0001 10012600 60000000 28550491
0.005 90 120 100 6 121 0.0093 2307560 44000000 12787366
0.005 90 120 120 6 62 0.0021 3464640 48000000 16151822
0.005 90 120 140 6 50 0.0014 4909720 52000000 19753216
0.005 90 120 160 6 40 0.0010 6666800 56000000 23590833
0.005 90 120 180 6 32 0.0004 8759880 60000000 27664266
0.005 90 120 200 6 26 0.0002 11212960 64000000 31973266
0.005 90 140 100 6 133 0.0121 2607920 48000000 14451813
0.005 90 140 120 6 68 0.0026 3897000 52000000 18167443
0.005 90 140 140 6 53 0.0016 5498080 56000000 22120357
0.005 90 140 160 6 42 0.0011 7435160 60000000 26309717
0.005 90 140 180 6 34 0.0006 9732240 64000000 30735042
0.005 90 140 200 6 27 0.0002 12413320 68000000 35396040
0.005 90 160 100 6 146 0.0122 2908280 52000000 16116261
95
0.005 90 160 120 6 73 0.0031 4329360 56000000 20183064
0.005 90 160 140 6 56 0.0019 6086440 60000000 24487499
0.005 90 160 160 6 44 0.0013 8203520 64000000 29028600
0.005 90 160 180 6 35 0.0006 10704600 68000000 33805817
0.005 90 160 200 6 27 0.0002 13613680 72000000 38818814
0.005 90 180 100 6 158 0.0135 3208640 56000000 17780709
0.005 90 180 120 6 78 0.0036 4761720 60000000 22198685
0.005 90 180 140 6 59 0.0021 6674800 64000000 26854641
0.005 90 180 160 6 45 0.0011 8971880 68000000 31747484
0.005 90 180 180 6 35 0.0007 11676960 72000000 36876593
0.005 90 180 200 6 28 0.0003 14814040 76000000 42241588
0.005 90 200 100 6 188 0.0507 3509000 60000000 19445157
0.005 90 200 120 6 83 0.0041 5194080 64000000 24214306
0.005 90 200 140 6 61 0.0023 7263160 68000000 29221782
0.005 90 200 160 6 46 0.0015 9740240 72000000 34466367
0.005 90 200 180 6 36 0.0008 12649320 76000000 39947369
0.005 90 200 200 6 28 0.0003 16014400 80000000 45664362
0.005 90 100 100 8 68 0.0034 2683733 40000000 14596527
0.005 90 100 120 8 44 0.0005 4051627 44000000 18593168
0.005 90 100 140 8 36 0.0002 5771520 48000000 22906695
0.005 90 100 160 8 29 0.0001 7875413 52000000 27535820
0.005 90 100 180 8 24 0.0000 10395307 56000000 32479804
0.005 90 100 200 8 20 0.0000 13363200 60000000 37738191
0.005 90 120 100 8 70 0.0034 3084587 44000000 16776724
0.005 90 120 120 8 47 0.0007 4628480 48000000 21240384
0.005 90 120 140 8 38 0.0004 6556373 52000000 26021714
0.005 90 120 160 8 32 0.0002 8900267 56000000 31119147
0.005 90 120 180 8 26 0.0001 11692160 60000000 36531781
0.005 90 120 200 8 21 0.0000 14964053 64000000 42259062
0.005 90 140 100 8 71 0.0035 3485440 48000000 18956921
0.005 90 140 120 8 49 0.0009 5205333 52000000 23887600
0.005 90 140 140 8 41 0.0006 7341227 56000000 29136733
0.005 90 140 160 8 33 0.0004 9925120 60000000 34702473
0.005 90 140 180 8 27 0.0001 12989013 64000000 40583758
0.005 90 140 200 8 22 0.0000 16564907 68000000 46779934
0.005 90 160 100 8 73 0.0036 3886293 52000000 21137118
0.005 90 160 120 8 51 0.0011 5782187 56000000 26534816
0.005 90 160 140 8 42 0.0008 8126080 60000000 32251753
0.005 90 160 160 8 34 0.0005 10949973 64000000 38285800
0.005 90 160 180 8 28 0.0002 14285867 68000000 44635734
0.005 90 160 200 8 22 0.0001 18165760 72000000 51300805
96
0.005 90 180 100 8 76 0.0037 4287147 56000000 23317314
0.005 90 180 120 8 53 0.0013 6359040 60000000 29182032
0.005 90 180 140 8 44 0.0010 8910933 64000000 35366772
0.005 90 180 160 8 35 0.0006 11974827 68000000 41869126
0.005 90 180 180 8 29 0.0003 15582720 72000000 48687711
0.005 90 180 200 8 23 0.0001 19766613 76000000 55821676
0.005 90 200 100 8 78 0.0038 4688000 60000000 25497511
0.005 90 200 120 8 55 0.0015 6935893 64000000 31829248
0.005 90 200 140 8 45 0.0011 9695787 68000000 38481791
0.005 90 200 160 8 36 0.0007 12999680 72000000 45452453
0.005 90 200 180 8 29 0.0003 16879573 76000000 52739688
0.005 90 200 200 8 23 0.0001 21367467 80000000 60342548
0.005 90 100 100 10 58 0.0020 3366667 40000000 17978000
0.005 90 100 120 10 37 0.0001 5078333 44000000 22946254
0.005 90 100 140 10 29 0.0000 7230000 48000000 28312680
0.005 90 100 160 10 24 0.0000 9861667 52000000 34074959
0.005 90 100 180 10 20 0.0000 13013333 56000000 40231747
0.005 90 100 200 10 17 0.0000 16725000 60000000 46782214
0.005 90 120 100 10 59 0.0020 3868333 44000000 20656900
0.005 90 120 120 10 38 0.0001 5800000 48000000 26207077
0.005 90 120 140 10 31 0.0000 8211667 52000000 32156887
0.005 90 120 160 10 26 0.0000 11143333 56000000 38503494
0.005 90 120 180 10 22 0.0000 14635000 60000000 45245258
0.005 90 120 200 10 18 0.0000 18726667 64000000 52381162
0.005 90 140 100 10 59 0.0019 4370000 48000000 23335800
0.005 90 140 120 10 40 0.0003 6521667 52000000 29467900
0.005 90 140 140 10 33 0.0001 9193333 56000000 36001093
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122

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STATUS OF THESIS

Development of Empirical Formula to Predict Maximum

WILLIAM CHIN KUAN NG

hereby allow my thesis to be placed at the Information Resource Center (IRC) of

1. The thesis becomes the property of UTP

3. This thesis is classified as

If this thesis is confidential, please state the reason:

Permanent address: Name of Supervisor

Date : __________________________ Date : _____________________

DEVELOPMENT OF EMPIRICAL FORMULA TO PREDICT MAXIMUM

DISPLACEMENT OF OFFSHORE BLAST WALLS SUBJECTED TO

WILLIAM CHIN KUAN NG

Main Supervisor: Dr. Do Kyun Kim

Co-Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Oe Ju Hwang

Head of Department: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Bashar S. Mohammed

DISPLACEMENT OF OFFSHORE BLAST WALLS SUBJECTED TO

WILLIAM CHIN KUAN NG

Submitted to the Postgraduate Studies Programme

as a Requirement for the Degree of

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI PETRONAS

BANDAR SERI ISKANDAR

Development of Empirical Formula to Predict Maximum

WILLIAM CHIN KUAN NG

Permanent address: Name of Supervisor

Date : __________________________ Date : _____________________

Dinding letupan memainkan peranan penting sekiranya berlaku letupan tidak

Institute of Technology PETRONAS Sdn Bhd.

© William Chin Kuan Ng, 2018

Institute of Technology PETRONAS Sdn Bhd

All rights reserved.

A Area subjected to blast loading

E Young’s modulus of material

k Actual spring stiffness

KL Load transformation factor

KM Mass transformation factor

MC Maximum elastic moment

P Applied external pressure

ym Maximum midspan displacement

Y Static yield strength

 Yd Dynamic yield strength

1.1 Background of Study

Of several practical measures, corrugated blast walls are commonly installed as an

1.2 Problem Statement

1.3 Objectives and Scopes of Study

• To develop a validated finite element model of corrugated blast walls subjected

1.4 Significance of Present Research

2.1 Design of Offshore Blast Walls for Accidental Explosions

These structures are normally designed by specialized subcontractors in the form

The functions of corrugated bulkheads require them to resist axial compressive

2.2 Characterization of Blast Loads

Positive phase duration Negative phase duration

Table 2.1: Structural response domains for different modes of loading

Quasi-static response domain Impulsive response domain Dynamic response domain

Time Time Time

Figure 2.3: Applied load regimes relative to structural resistance.

Figure 2.4: Idealizations of blast loading profiles for structural analyses

2.3.1 Single-Degree-of-Freedom (SDOF) Method

The single-degree-of-freedom (SDOF) method, also known as Biggs method (Biggs,

Figure 2.5: Real and equivalent SDOF spring-mass-force system

upon the attainment of the maximum displacement where the displacement.

Elastic-perfectly plastic resistance function

Figure 2.6: Bi-linear approximation of material resistance-displacement function

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The MAT_PIECEWISE_LINEAR_PLASTICITY material model, or MAT_024