PIA B2 - Module 2 (PHYSICS) SubModule 2.3 (Thermodynamics) Fi

PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 2 – PHYSICS
Category - B2 Sub Module 2.3 – Thermodynamics
MODULE 2
Sub Module 2.3
THERMODYNAMICS
ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

PTC/CM/B2Basic/M2/01 Rev. 01
2.3 - i Nov, 2017
Contents
HEAT AND TEMPERATURE ------------------------------------------- 1

MEASURING TEMPERATURE ---------------------------------------- 6
HEAT TRANSFER-------------------------------------------------------- 10
HEAT CAPACITY ---------------------------------------------------------12
THERMAL EXPANSION ------------------------------------------------ 14
THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES ----------------------------------17
HEAT CYCLES ------------------------------------------------------------ 27
LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS-------------------------------------- 29

2.3 - i Nov 2017
Page Intentionally Left Blank

2.3 - ii Nov 2017
2.3.1 – HEAT AND TEMPERATURE

Heat is energy in transit. The transfer of energy as heat,
however, occurs at the molecular level as a result of a
Heat temperature difference. The symbol Q is used to denote heat.
The amount of heat transferred depends upon the path and not
Heat is a form of energy which is transferred from one body (at simply on the initial and final conditions of the system.
a higher temperature) to another body (at a lower temperature).
Also, it is important to distinguish between heat added to a

For example, when a body ‘A’ at a certain temperature, say system from its surroundings and heat removed from a system
20oC, is brought into contact with a body ‘B’ at a lower to its surroundings. A positive value for heat indicates that heat
temperature, say 18oC, then there will be a transfer of heat from is added to the system by its surroundings. This is in contrast to
‘A’ to ‘B’ until the temperature of the both are equal, as shown in work that is positive when energy is transferred from the system
the figure 2.58. and negative when transferred to the system. Everyone is
familiar with the physical phenomena that when a substance is
heated, its temperature increases, and when it is cooled, its
temperature decreases. The heat added to or removed from a
substance to produce a change in its temperature is called
sensible heat. The units of heat are often defined in terms of the
changes in temperature it produces.
Latent Heat
The amount of heat added to or removed from a substance to

produce a change in phase. When latent heat is added, no
temperature change occurs. There are two types of latent heat.
The first is the latent heat of fusion. This is the amount of heat
added or removed to change phase between solid and liquid.
Fig. 2.58

2.3 - 1 Nov 2017
The second type of latent heat is the latent heat of
vaporization. This is the amount of heat added or removed to
change phase between liquid and vapour. The latent heat of
vaporization is sometimes called the latent heat of
condensation.
Heat Capacity
When a given amount of heat is added to different substances,

their temperatures increase by different amounts. The ratio of
the heat (Q) added to or removed from a substance to the
change in temperature (ΔT) produced is called the heat
capacity (Cp) of the substance.
Specific Heat
The heat capacity of a substance per unit mass is called the

specific heat (Cp) of the substance. The subscript p indicates
that the heat capacity and specific heat apply when the heat is
added or removed at constant pressure.

2.3 - 2 Nov 2017
Temperature There are formulas that allow us the conversion among the
temperature scales. These are:
Temperature is a measure of degree of hotness or coldness of
a body.
o
i. F = 1.8 × oC + 32
When a beaker of cold water is placed over a flame, the water

gradually becomes hot. The water is said to develop a certain ii. K = oC + 273.15
degree of hotness. This degree of hotness is termed as
temperature. Thus, a hot body is at a higher temperature than
one which is cold. Temperature rises or falls as the body gets
hotter or colder respectively. iii. R = F + 460
The absolute minimum temperature of any object in the Figure 2.59 shows comparison between the basic temperature
universe is -273.15oC. This is called absolute zero. In scales.
engineering it is often necessary to use temperatures in the
Kelvin scale, which uses absolute zero as its base point.
Absolute zero = -273.15oC = 0 K. (Kelvin temperatures are
written without a symbol for degrees.)
The Celsius scale of temperature uses the freezing point of

water (0oC) and the boiling point of water at standard pressure
(100oC) as its defining points.
The Fahrenheit scale depicts the freezing point of water as 32

oF and the boiling point as 212 oF (0oC = 32 oF; 100C = 212
oF).

2.3 - 3 Nov 2017
Fig. 2.59

2.3 - 4 Nov 2017
Problems
Answers
1. Change 20°C to degrees F.
1. 68°F
2. Change -15 °C to degrees F. 2. 5°F
3. 30°C
3. Change 86°F to degrees C. 4. -20°C
5. 560°R
4. Change -4°F to degrees C. 6. -10°F
7. 373 K
8. 110°C
5. Change 100°F to degrees R.
9. 15°C
10. 752°F
6. Change 450°R to degrees F.
7. Change 100°C to degrees K.
8. Change 383 K to degrees C.
9. Gas turbine engine performance is very sensitive to

variations in the temperature of the air. All engines are rated
with the air at a standard temperature of 59°F. What is the
equivalent Centigrade temperature?
10. On some large commercial turbojet engines, the

temperature at the front end of the combustion section is
approximately 400°C. What is this temperature on the
Fahrenheit scale?

2.3 - 5 Nov 2017
2.3.2 – MEASURING TEMPERATURE calibrated to read temperature, as shown in the figure 2.60.
Thermometers are devices that measure temperature. Thermocouple
A practical thermometer must have a thermometric property, A temperature difference across the junctions results in a small
which varies smoothly with temperature. Accurate measurement voltage which is measured on the voltmeter. The voltage
of the thermometric property is usually required, so the depends on the types of metals used but is typically about 20
thermometer must be sensitive to small changes of microvolts per degree Celsius.
temperature.
Figure 2.61 shows a typical thermocouple.

In some situations, a thermometer must respond quickly to
changes of temperature, and it may be necessary to read the
thermometer with remotely placed measuring equipment. For Thermistor
example, the temperature inside a nuclear reactor is read from
instruments in one building connected to the temperature probe
in the reactor in a different building.
The electrical conductivity of materials varies with temperature.
A thermistor is an electronic component where the change in
resistance with temperature is used to measure temperature.
There are various types of thermometer used for measuring
temperature.
A typical thermistor is shown in the figure 2.62.
Gas Pressure Thermometer
The pressure of fixed masses of gas in a fixed volume depends

on its temperature. A pressure gauge could be

2.3 - 6 Nov 2017
Fig. 2.60
Fig. 2.62
Fig. 2.61
2.3 - 7 Nov 2017
Mercury-in-glass Thermometer So, what would be the most suitable instrument for measuring
temperatures in a gas turbine aircraft engine?
The commonest type of thermometer is the mercury in glass

thermometer. The change in the volume of mercury, due to Firstly, the instrument needs to produce an electrical signal so
change in temperature, results in a proportional change in that the information can be fed into the aircraft’s electronic
length of the mercury column. This is measured on a scale systems. Secondly, the instrument has to be capable of working
marked in units of temperature, as shown in the figure 2.63. across a wide range of temperatures. For these reasons
thermocouples are used.
Since the freezing point of mercury is about -39C, and the

boiling point +357C at standard pressure, this thermometer is
not used for temperatures much above 300C or below -
30C.For temperatures below -39C, thermometers containing
alcohol may be used.
Pyrometer
Pyrometer (figure 2.64) is used to measure very high

temperatures.
For example, pyrometers are used to measure the temperature

inside a furnace. The thermal radiation from the furnace is
compared in terms of color with the thermal radiation from a
lamp filament in the pyrometer. Very hot objects emit light as
well as infrared radiation, and the color changes with increased
temperature.

2.3 - 8 Nov 2017
Fig. 2.63
Fig. 2.64

2.3 - 9 Nov 2017
2.3.3 – HEAT TRANSFER

rising) to stay in the air longer.
Heat tends to move from a hot place to a cold place. This

phenomenon is known as heat transfer. “Free” convection occurs when a fluid moves only because of
the heating effect itself. “Forced” convection occurs when a fluid
is driven by separate means such as a pump or fan. Air flowing
through a car’s radiator is heated by forced convection.
There are three modes of heat transfer; conduction, convection,
and radiation.
Radiation
Conduction
Warm objects radiate infra-red radiation. This is part of the
electromagnetic spectrum (see later). Infra-red radiation is
Conduction is the heat transfer through a material by the
invisible and it is the only way for heat to travel through a
vibrations of its particles. Some materials are very good thermal
vacuum. Thermal imaging cameras detect different wavelengths
conductors (for example silver and copper), while others are
of radiation to make a visible image.
poor thermal conductors (asbestos, wood, ceramic materials). A
material which is used to inhibit the flow of heat is called an
insulator.
Figure 2.65 shows all modes of heat transfer.
Convection
Convection currents arise in fluids. In convection, the particles

carry the energy which is to be transferred. If a region in a fluid
becomes warmer it expands. This makes it less dense than the
neighbouring fluid so it rises through the body of the fluid.
Glider pilots use “thermals” (convection currents of warm air

2.3 - 10 Nov 2017
Fig. 2.65

2.3 - 11 Nov 2017
2.3.4 – HEAT CAPACITY
Specific Heat Capacity

When a body is supplied with heat energy one of two things
may happen: the temperature of the body increases; or the
state of the body changes from solid to liquid (melting) or from The property of a material that determines the rise in
liquid to gas (vaporisation). temperature is called the specific heat capacity. It is the
amount of heat energy that is required to raise the temperature
through 1 degree Celsius (or Kelvin).
The graph G-2.1 shows different phases of water with respect to
the temperature.
∆Q = m × C × ∆T
Water in solid form is known as ice. As the temperature of ice

increases as heat energy is supplied to it, the melting point of where: ∆Q = heat energy supplied
ice i.e. 0oC is reached. Once ice starts to melt, the heat energy
supplied to it changes it from a solid to a liquid. When it is all in m = mass
the liquid state, any more energy supplied to it again causes its
temperature to rise. Eventually the water reaches its boiling C = specific heat capacity
point. At the boiling point, energy supplied causes it to change
state into a gas i.e. vapour. Bonds between the liquid particles ΔT = change in temperature
are broken. This happens at constant temperature. Energy
supplied to gas causes its temperature to rise.
The heat capacity of a body is the product of its mass and the
specific heat capacity of its material. The units of heat capacity
As we’ve seen, if a body is supplied with energy its temperature are JK-1.
may rise. This rise in temperature depends on the amount of
energy supplied, the mass of the body and its material. This
type of heat is sometimes called sensible heat because we can
detect it with our sense of touch.

2.3 - 12 Nov 2017
G – 2.1

2.3 - 13 Nov 2017
2.3.5 – THERMAL EXPANSION
Linear Expansion
The temperature of a body is a measure of the average kinetic
energy of the molecules of that body. It follows that molecules of
warm liquids and gases move around faster in their containers A rod of a substance will increase its length for a given
than molecules of cool liquids and gases. As a solid is heated temperature change. The increase in length depends on the
its molecules vibrate faster about their equilibrium positions. As original length of the rod, the temperature change, and the
a result of this increased motion of molecules as they are material of the rod. The increase in size of the object comes
heated, solids, liquids and gases expand as the temperature is about by the fact that an increase in temperature results in an
raised. increase in kinetic energy of the molecules or atoms which
make up the material. Increasing the movement of the
molecules forces it to occupy more space. Linear expansion is
Property of a substance which changes uniformly with the calculated from the formula:
change of temperate is called thermometric property.
∆L = Lo α ∆T
Examples
1. Volumes of liquids in a vessel
Where: ∆L = Change in length
2. Volume of a fixed mass of gas at constant pressure
3. Pressure of fixed mass of gas at constant volume Lo = Original length
4. Electrical resistance of metal α = Coefficient of linear expansion
ΔT = change in temperature

2.3 - 14 Nov 2017
Volume Expansion
Area Expansion
Three-dimensional solid bodies experience volume expansion.
Two-dimensional solid bodies also experience thermal area The formula is as follows:
expansion. The formula is as follows:
ΔV = 3α V0 ΔT
ΔA = 2α A0 ΔT
Where: ∆V = Change in volume

Where: ∆A = Change in area
Vo = Original volume
Ao = Original area
α = Coefficient of linear expansion
α = Coefficient of linear expansion
γ=3α
β=2α
Where ‘γ’ is called the coefficient of cubical expansion.
Where‘β’ is called the coefficient of superficial expansion.

2.3 - 15 Nov 2017
Heat of combustion
When a fuel is burned thermal energy is released. The amount

of heat energy released when 1 kg of a fuel is burnt is given by
its heat of combustion (or energy of combustion). The old term benzene 40.33
for this is calorific value. The table T-2.5 shows the heats of
combustion of some fuels.
methanol 15.63
Problem 2.5
An aircraft fuel tank is holding 500 litres of kerosene at

25oC.What will be the volume of the fuel at -30oC. diesel oil 43.0
paraffin (kerosene) 43.5
petrol (gasoline) 43.0
Table T-2.5

2.3 - 16 Nov 2017
2.3.6 – THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES
(the “working fluid”) may be trapped in a cylinder (the

Thermodynamics “environment”). If a piston compresses the gas, we can say that
the environment has done work on the gas and some of the
properties of the gas will change.
It is the science of relationship between heat, work and the
properties of system. It is concerned with the means necessary
to convert heat energy from available sources such as fossil Engines and some other devices operate on thermodynamic
fuels into mechanical work. cycles. In a cycle the working fluid repetitively undergoes a
number of different processes.
A heat engine is the name given to a system which by

operating in a cyclic manner produces net work from a supply of If we were to measure the properties of air before it enters a gas
heat. turbine and again at the exhaust we would expect most
properties to have changed substantially. These differences
might tell us something about the power the engine is
producing.
A system may be defined as a collection of matter within
prescribed and identifiable boundaries, as shown in the figure
2.66. The boundaries of a system are not necessarily inflexible.
For instance, the fluid in the cylinder of a reciprocating engine According to the first law of thermodynamics, energy is
during the expansion stroke may be defined as a system whose conserved. In other words, energy cannot be created or
boundaries are the cylinder walls and the piston crown. As the destroyed, only changed from one form into another. In
piston moves, the boundaries of the system move. This type of thermodynamics we are always looking to balance three things:
system is called a closed system. Whereas, an open system the internal energy of the working fluid (this is its heat energy,
is one in which there is a transfer of mass across the and depends on its temperature); the heat transfer to or from
boundaries. The fluid in a turbine at any instant may be defined the working fluid; and the work done on or by the working fluid.
as an open system. A fluid has many properties that can be
measured, such as temperature, pressure and density. In a
thermodynamic process heat or work is transferred between a
fluid and its surroundings. For example, a mass of gas
2.3 - 17 Nov 2017
Fig. 2.65

2.3 - 18 Nov 2017
Kinetic theory of gases
Perfect gas
The kinetic theory of gases relates the macroscopic properties
of a gas (pressure, density, temperature etc.) to the microscopic
behaviour of its particles (speed, mass, kinetic energy etc.). A “perfect” gas is one that behaves in an idealised way. For
Certain assumptions are made about gas molecules. These example, if a perfect gas is cooled at constant pressure, its
assumptions lead to a model of a perfect (idealised) gas that volume is proportional to its absolute temperature. For many
helps us to understand the behaviour of real gases like air. The purposes air and other common gases can be regarded as a
assumptions include: perfect gases. Vapours such as steam cannot.
There are no bonds between gas molecules. The only force For a fixed mass of perfect gas:
exerted by one gas molecule on another occurs when two
molecules collide.
pV = mRT
The molecules are so tiny in comparison with the space

occupied by the gas that we can ignore the volume of the Where: p = pressure (Pa)
molecules.
V = volume (m3)
m = mass (kg)
Collisions between molecules are so short-lived that we can R = gas constant (287 Jkg-1K-1 for air)
assume that the molecules spend their entire time moving at
constant velocity. T = temperature (K)
Even in a small volume of gas there is very large number of Note that temperatures MUST be written in the Kelvin scale.
molecules. Even in a very short period of time a great many Likewise, all other quantities should be written in SI units.
collisions occur between molecules.

2.3 - 19 Nov 2017
Notes:

2.3 - 20 Nov 2017
Problem 2.6
Constant volume process
Estimate the mass of air in the room.

The volume of a gas held in a rigid container does not change
significantly. If the gas is heated or cooled its pressure will
Problem 2.7 increase or decrease. This is also known as an isometric, iso-
volumetric or isochoric process.
A mass of air (R = 287Jkg-1K-1) is contained within a cylinder

and has the following initial conditions: Sometimes a process may be usefully approximated as
constant volume, even if we know it isn’t. For example, in a
volume V1 = 9 litres piston engine the piston is on the move all the time and so the
temperature T1 = 20C volume of the gas is changing continuously. However, the
piston is moving relatively slowly at the top and bottom of its
pressure P1 = 103 kPa stroke and the processes taking place at that time are
approximately constant volume.
Determine the mass of air. The air is heated until it reaches a

temperature of 60C. It expands to a volume of 10 litres. What The P-v diagram for a constant volume heating process is
is the new pressure? shown in the figure 2.66.
Thermodynamic Processes As there is no change in the volume, the net work done in a
constant volume process is equal to zero.
Although the general gas equation can be applied to any gas

process, there are a number of special cases.

2.3 - 21 Nov 2017
Fig. 2.66

2.3 - 22 Nov 2017
Constant pressure process

pressure. This moves the piston until the pressure inside the
cylinder balances the atmospheric pressure outside. Since the
The figure 2.67 shows the P-v diagram for a constant pressure piston has been moved by the gas, work has been done BY the
process. This is also known as an isobaric process. gas on the environment.
In this case the gas has been heated. It might be useful to think Constant temperature
of the gas as being trapped in a cylinder by a moveable piston.
If we pump up a bicycle’s tyre fairly vigorously we often feel the

When the gas is heated its molecules gain kinetic energy. This pump getting warm. However, if we do this very slowly the
will tend to increase the pressure inside the cylinder. However, temperature stays more or less constant. Such a process is
if the piston is frictionless it will move to increase the volume of called an isothermal process. The P-v diagram below shows an
the gas. This in turn will cause the pressure in the cylinder to fall isothermal expansion:
until it is equalised with the atmospheric pressure.
Since the temperature is constant, the general gas equation

This is sometimes called “Charles’ Law”. becomes:
Work may be done in a constant pressure process. This is sometimes called “Boyle’s Law”.
In a constant pressure heating process, is work done ON or BY The P-v diagram below in the figure 2.68 shows the same gas
the gas? compressed (or expanded) at different temperatures. The lines
are called isotherms.
When the gas is heated its molecules gain kinetic energy. They
move around more quickly causing incremental increases in the

2.3 - 23 Nov 2017
Fig. 2.67
Fig. 2.68

2.3 - 24 Nov 2017
Adiabatic
In an adiabatic process, no heat is transferred between the Thus, the comparison of all the discussed thermodynamic
working fluid and its surroundings. process can be seen in a single P-v diagram in the figure 2.70.
It is important not to confuse adiabatic and isothermal

processes. For example, suppose gas is trapped in a cylinder
by a piston. Work may be transferred to the gas by moving the
piston to compress the gas. The temperature of the gas will rise
and, if the piston and cylinder are perfectly insulated, no heat
will be transferred to the surroundings. This is an adiabatic
process.
On the other hand, perhaps the piston is moved slowly and the
piston and cylinder are very good conductors of heat, allowing
thermal equilibrium to be maintained between and the gas and
its surroundings. They will then remain at the same
temperature. The interaction between the working fluid and its
environment is different. This is an isothermal process.
Adiabatic processes have similar P-v diagrams to isothermal

processes. The figure 2.69 shows the P-v diagram of an
adiabatic compression.

2.3 - 25 Nov 2017
Fig. 2.69
Fig. 2.70

2.3 - 26 Nov 2017
2.3.7 – HEAT CYCLES

3 to 4 The air expands adiabatically in the turbine.
Engines, heat pumps and other thermodynamic machines
invariably work in thermodynamic cycles. The hot air in the exhaust cools and is drawn
4 to 1
back into the engine.
This means that the working fluid undergoes a series of

property changes before returning to its original conditions. The
cycle is repeated endlessly and useful work or heat transfer Other thermodynamic cycles include:
takes place.
Carnot cycle: theoretical only – the most efficient.

The block diagram of a gas turbine with its ideal cycle P-v and
T-s diagrams is shown below in the figure 2.71. This is the Otto cycle: used in 4 stroke petrol engines.
Joule cycle, also known as the Brayton cycle.
Diesel cycle: compression-ignition
Stirling cycle: invented by a Scottish minister, used in some

Process description submarines.
Fresh air is compressed adiabatically (no heat

1 to 2
transfer).
Fuel and air are mixed and burnt at constant

2 to 3
pressure in the combustion chamber.

2.3 - 27 Nov 2017
Fig. 2.71

2.3 - 28 Nov 2017
2.3.8 – LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS Third Law: This law states that if all thermal motion of
molecules (kinetic energy) could be removed, a state called
absolute zero would occur. Absolute zero results in temperature
of 0 K or -273.15ºC.
Thermodynamics studies the behaviour of energy flow in natural
systems. From this study a number of physical laws have been
established. The laws of thermodynamics describe some of
the fundamental truths of thermodynamics observed in our The universe will attain absolute zero when all energy and
universe. matter is randomly distributed across space. The current
temperature of empty space in the universe is about 2.7
Kelvins.
Zeroth Law: If two systems are each in thermal equilibrium i.e.
at the same temperature, with a third systems then they are in
thermal equilibrium with each other. In other words there is no
heat energy flow.
First Law: The first law is often called the Law of Conservation
of Energy. This law suggests that energy can be transferred
from one system to another; however it cannot be created nor
destroyed. Therefore the total amount of energy available in the
universe is constant.
Second Law: Heat can never pass spontaneously from a

colder to a hotter body. As a result of this fact, natural
processes that involve energy transfer must have one direction,
and all natural processes are irreversible.

2.3 - 29 Nov 2017
Notes:

2.3 - 30 Nov 2017
Refrigerators and Heat Pumps
A heat pump is a machine or device that moves heat from one Since the heat pump uses a certain amount of work to move the
location (the 'source') to another location (the 'sink’ or 'heat heat, the amount of energy deposited at the hot side is greater
sink’), using work. Most heat pump technology moves heat from than the energy taken from the cold side by an amount equal to
a low temperature heat source to a higher temperature heat the work required. Conversely, for a heat engine, the amount of
sink. Common examples are food refrigerators and freezers and energy taken from the hot side is greater than the amount of
air conditioners and reversible-cycle heat pumps for providing energy deposited in the cold heat sink since some of the heat
thermal comfort. has been converted to work.
Heat pumps can be thought of as a heat engine which is The working fluid, in its gaseous state, is pressurized and
operating in reverse. One common type of heat pump works by circulated through the system by a compressor. On the
exploiting the physical properties of an evaporating and discharge side of the compressor, the now hot and highly
condensing a refrigerant. In heating, ventilation, and cooling pressurized gas is cooled in a heat exchanger called a
(HVAC) applications, a heat pump normally refers to a vapor- condenser until it condenses into a high pressure, moderate
compression refrigeration device that includes a reversing valve temperature liquid. The condensed refrigerant then passes
and optimized heat exchangers so that the direction of heat flow through a pressure-lowering device like an expansion valve,
may be reversed. Most commonly, heat pumps draw heat from capillary tube, or possibly a work-extracting device such as a
the air or from the ground. Air-source heat pumps do not work turbine. This device then passes the low pressure, barely liquid
well when temperatures fall below around -5°C (23°F). (saturated vapour) refrigerant to another heat exchanger, the
evaporator where the refrigerant evaporates into a gas via heat
According to the second law of thermodynamics heat cannot absorption. The refrigerant then returns to the compressor and
spontaneously flow from a colder location to a hotter area; work the cycle is repeated.
is required to achieve this. Heat pumps differ in how they apply
this work to move heat, but they can essentially be thought of as In such a system it is essential that the refrigerant reaches a
heat engines operating in reverse. A heat engine allows energy sufficiently high temperature when compressed, since the
to flow from a hot 'source' to a cold heat 'sink1, extracting a second law of thermodynamics prevents heat from flowing from
fraction of it as work in the process. Conversely, a heat pump a cold fluid to a hot heat sink. Similarly, the fluid must reach a
requires work to move thermal energy from a cold source to a sufficiently low temperature when allowed to expand, or heat
warmer heat sink. cannot flow from the cold region into the fluid. In particular, the
pressure difference must be great enough for the fluid to
condense at the hot side and still evaporate in the lower

2.3 - 31 Nov 2017
pressure region at the cold side. The greater the temperature

difference, the greater the required pressure difference, and
consequently more energy is needed to compress the fluid.
Thus as with all heat pumps, the energy efficiency (amount of
heat moved per unit of input work required) decreases with
increasing temperature difference. Thus a ground-source heat
pump, which has a very small temperature differential, is
relatively efficient.

2.3 - 32 Nov 2017
A heat pump's vapour-compression refrigeration cycle:
1) Condenser, 2) Expansion valve, 3) Evaporator, 4) Compressor.

2.3 - 33 Nov 2017

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Category - B2 Sub Module 2.3 – Thermodynamics

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HEAT AND TEMPERATURE ------------------------------------------- 1

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

Page Intentionally Left Blank

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2.3.1 – HEAT AND TEMPERATURE

Also, it is important to distinguish between heat added to a

The amount of heat added to or removed from a substance to

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

When a given amount of heat is added to different substances,

The heat capacity of a substance per unit mass is called the

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

When a beaker of cold water is placed over a flame, the water

The Celsius scale of temperature uses the freezing point of

The Fahrenheit scale depicts the freezing point of water as 32

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

7. Change 100°C to degrees K.

8. Change 383 K to degrees C.

9. Gas turbine engine performance is very sensitive to

10. On some large commercial turbojet engines, the

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

Thermometers are devices that measure temperature. Thermocouple

Figure 2.61 shows a typical thermocouple.

The pressure of fixed masses of gas in a fixed volume depends

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

The commonest type of thermometer is the mercury in glass

Since the freezing point of mercury is about -39C, and the

Pyrometer (figure 2.64) is used to measure very high

For example, pyrometers are used to measure the temperature

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

2.3.3 – HEAT TRANSFER

Heat tends to move from a hot place to a cold place. This

Convection currents arise in fluids. In convection, the particles

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ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

2.3.4 – HEAT CAPACITY

Specific Heat Capacity

Water in solid form is known as ice. As the temperature of ice

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ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

2.3.5 – THERMAL EXPANSION

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

Where: ∆V = Change in volume

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

When a fuel is burned thermal energy is released. The amount

An aircraft fuel tank is holding 500 litres of kerosene at

paraffin (kerosene) 43.5

petrol (gasoline) 43.0

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

2.3.6 – THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES

(the “working fluid”) may be trapped in a cylinder (the

A heat engine is the name given to a system which by

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

Kinetic theory of gases

The molecules are so tiny in comparison with the space

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

Estimate the mass of air in the room.

A mass of air (R = 287Jkg-1K-1) is contained within a cylinder