Power Stations

Load Curves
 Energy Requirements
• For Power plant design the first step is to
define the Energy Requirements that the plant
must meet.

• The conditions are:

1. Maximum demand
2. Total energy requirements and
3. Distribution of energy demand
 Maximum Demand
• The capacity of a plant depends upon the
maximum power demand made by the consuming
devices.

• Power consuming devices are of different types

including the machines, lights, heaters,
processors, energy converters etc.

• Loads are connected to the distribution side of the

power grid.
 Single Line Diagram
• Single Line Diagram of Power System
• Prime movers – turbines
• Generators – generates electricity 4-18kV
• Station bus – where all the generators are connected to supply energy to the
feeders.
• Feeders – connecting generating station to the substations
– transmission with voltages 132/230kV
• Distribution bus – this routes the power out of the substations.
• Loads – motors, conveyors, lights, etc.
 Demand Factor
Demand Factor:
It is the ratio of maximum demand on the power station to its
connected load.
Maximum Demand
Demand Factor 
Connected Load
• If all the devices ran to their fullest extent at the same time,
the maximum demand of the consumer on the system would
equal his connected load.

• Experience demonstrates that generally

Maximum Demand < Connected Load.

• Value is always less than or equal to 1

Consider a building having the following connecting loads:
No. of lamps = 400 each of 60 W = 24 kW
Power points = 100 each of 500 W = 50 kW
Lift = 16 kW
Total = 90 kW
The total connected load of the building is 90 kW or we can say that the maximum
demand of the building is 90 kW.

Demand Factor
The building may not be using all the light points, power points and the lift at a time in
practice.
Assume that 300 lamps and 50 power points are working at a time.
So, the average load of the lamps and the power points = (300x60) + (50x500)
= 43 kW
The demand factor of the building is = (Avg.load/Max. Connected laod)
= (43 kW/90 kW)
= 0.581.
• The peak load is 13 MW but it is for around 1.5 hrs (19:00 – 20:30)
• But the load demands are different at other times of the day.
• It is correct to say that the maximum demand of the station for 1.5
hrs (19:00 – 20:30) is 13 MW. We have to mention a period for
which the load is considered.
 Diversity of Load
• Consider that, a station supplies to the following categories of load:
– Category A (Industrial) = 5000 kW
– Category B (Cinema) = 900 kW
– Category C (Commercial) = 2000 kW
– Category D (Private) = 1000 kW
– Category E (Water works) = 1100 kW

• Let, between 7 pm to 8 pm, the consumer wants power. So, their resultant
maximum demand = 10,000 kW

• So, the station has to supply this huge 10,000 kW amount of power for a
very short time. During the other times of the day, the average load on the
station may be less than 50% and the station has to remain idle.

• The capital investment of the plant has not been put to best use and the
scheme will be uneconomical.
• But if the consumers are advised to diversify their loads or to ask for their
maximum demand at different times, the station operation can be made very
economical.

• Consumer A (Industrial): They work in shifts and may be asked to fix the time of
their shifts. For e.g.,
– Shift 1 = 8 am to 8 pm not 11 am to 8 pm.
• So, at the time of peak load this category may have a maximum demand of 40%
only, i.e., 2000 kW.
• Consumer B, C and D cannot have that much of variations.
• Consumer E (Water works) can be told to fill up their tanks during 12 am to 4 am
or 12 pm to 4pm.

• Thus the new maximum demand between 7 pm to 8 pm is

– Category A (Industrial) = 2000 kW
– Category B (Cinema) = 900 kW
– Category C (Commercial) = 2000 kW
– Category D (Private) = 1000 kW
– Category E (Water works) =0 kW
– Total = 5900 kW
• Thus an alternator of 7500 kW is quite sufficient for the demand and can be put to
maximum use.
 Diversity Factor
• In the earlier example it was said that the sum of
maximum demands of individual category is
10000 kW while stations maximum demand was
5900 kW.
• Diversity factor is defined as the ratio of sum of
maximum demand of each category to maximum
demand of the station.
• Diversity factor = 10000/5900
= 1.7
• And it is always greater than 1
 Group Diversity Factor (GDF)
• Max demands of individual customers don’t occur simultaneously
but are spread out over a period of time.

• The time distribution of maximum demands for similar types of

consumers is measured by the diversity factor.
Sum Individual Maximum Demands
Group Diversity Factor 
Actual Maximum Demand of Group

• This holds for consumers whose activities and energy requirements

are very similar.

• This value is always greater than the unity. For example, factors for
residential consumers are usually highest at about 5.0, whereas for
industrial consumers may have values as low as 1.3.
• Greater the GDF the lesser is the cost of the generation of power.
Because it refers lesser maximum demand which indicates lesser
plant capacity is required means capital investment on the plant is
reduced
 Peak Diversity Factor (PDF)
• The peak demand of a system is made up of the individual
demands of the devices that happen to be functioning at the
time of the peak.

• At the time of the system peak demand, the demand of a

particular group of similar consumers is seldom at the
maximum value that it may reach at some other time of the
year.
Maximum demand of consumer group
Peak Diversity Factor 
Demand of consumer group at time of system peak demand
 Maximum Demand Determination
• The method of determining the max demand to be
expected on a system when the foregoing data are
available is:

• Let,
– C1, C1’, C1” … C1n = individual connected loads of group 1
– C2, C2’, C2” … C2n = individual connected loads of group 2
– d1 = demand factor of group 1
– d2 = demand factor of group 2
– D1 = GDF among the consumers of group 1
– D2 = GDF among the consumers of group 2
– M1 = max demand of group 1
– M2 = max demand of group 2
– r1 = PDF for group 1
– r2 = PDF for group 2
– Lm = system max demand
– L1, L2, L3, … Ln = demands of each type of consumers at
the time of system max demand.
Sum of Individual Maximum Demands
Group Diversity Factor 
Actual Maximum Demand of Group

So, D1 = (C1d1 + C1’d1’ + … + C1nd1n) / M1

or, M1 = ∑C1d1 / D1 and similarly, M2 = ∑C2d2 / D2
 Maximumdemand of consumer group
Peak Diversity Factor 
Demand of consumer group at time of system peak demand

– r1 = M1 / L1
– So, L1 = M1 / r1
– Similarly, L2 = M2 / r2
– and LM = L1 + L2 + L3 + … Ln
 Mathematical Problem
Example 30.1: A new housing development is to be added to the
lines of a public utility. There are 1000 apartments each having a
connected load of 4 kW, also stores and services are included of
the characteristics shown in the following tabulation.
Store or Service Connected kW Demand Factor (%)
1 Laundry 20 68
2 Churches 10 each 56
1 Restaurant 60 52
1 Bookstore 5 66
1 Dry Goods Store 7 76
2 drugstores 10 each 79
2 grocery stores 5 each 73
1 shoe store 2 67
1 clothing store 4 53
1 theater 100 49
• The demand factor of the apartments is 45%. The
GDF of residential load is for the system is 3.5,
the PDF is 1.4. The commercial load group GDF
is 1.5 and the peak diversity factor is 1.1.

• Find the increase in the peak demand on the total

system delivery from the station bus from
addition of this development of the distribution
system. Assume line losses at 5% of delivered
energy.
 Solution of Ex: 30.1
• Max demand per apartment = 4 * 0.45 = 1.8
kW

• Actual Max demand of 1000 apartments =

(1.8 * 1000 / 3.5 ) = 514 kW

• Demand of 1000 apartments at time of system

peak = 514 / 1.4 = 367 kW
 • Commercial loads as in the following tabulation:
Maximum Demand = Connected Total Load *DF

Number of Connected kW per Total Demand Factor Maximum

Store or Service
units unit Load (%) Demand
Laundry 1 20 20 68 13.6
Churches 2 10 20 56 11.2
Restaurant 1 60 60 52 31.2
Bookstore 1 5 5 66 3.3

Dry Goods Store 1 7 7 76 5.32

Drugstores 2 10 20 79 15.8
Grocery stores 2 5 10 73 7.3
Shoe store 1 2 2 67 1.34
Clothing store 1 4 4 53 2.12
Theater 1 100 100 49 49
140.1
• Actual Max demand of the commercial group =
140.1 / 1.5 = 94 kW

• Commercial demand at time of system peak =

94 / 1.1 = 86 kW

• So, demand at point of consumption at time of system

maximum demand = 367 + 86 = 453 kW

• So, Total increase in max demand at station bus = {453

+ (453 * 0.5)} = 476 kW.
 Load Curves
• The chronological variation in demand for
energy on the source of supply is plotted
graphically for study and easy comprehension.
Such graphs for electrical energy demands are
generally termed as load curves.
Load Curves
Load Curves
 Load Curve Variations
• Weekdays and weekend variation
• Seasonal variation
• Weather Effect
• Variation due to special occasions
• Variation in urban and rural areas
• Variation in types of services ( e.g. inter-city
trains and intra-city trains)
 Load Curve Analysis
• The area under the curve of a daily
chronological load curves measures the total
energy consumed by the load during the day.
24

This energy is evaluated by  kWdt , the unit

0

being the kilowatt-hour (kWh).

Load Duration Curve
 Energy-Load Curve
• Energy-load curve plots the cumulative
integrations of the area under the load curve
starting at zero load vs a particular load.
• It is the plot of vs kW.
 Load Factor
Load Factor:

The degree of variation of load over a period of time is measured by the load factor
which may defined as
L avg E / h
Load factor  
L max L max

Where Lmax = Peak load for period

Lavg = Average load for period
E = Total Energy in load curve for period
h = total number of hours in period

• Measures the variation of the load

• Doesn’t provide the exact shape of the load duration curve
• Always less than 1 because the average load is smaller than the maximum load
• Higher load factor means lesser maximum demand indicating reduced cost per
unit generated
 Load Factor

• if a load factor => 0 the curve approaches to L shape with very low or no load
during the major portion of time
• if a load factor => unity the curve approaches to a rectangular shape indication
high sustained load
 Capacity Factor
Capacity Factor:

The extent of use of the generating plant is measured by the capacity factor also
called plant factor or use factor

• If during a given period a plant is kept fully loaded it is evident that it is used to the
maximum extent or operated at 100% capacity factor
• If no energy was produce the capacity factor would be 0%

L avgL max
Capcity Factor  ( )  Load factor  Utilizatio n Factor  Load factor
Cap Cap
 Utilization Factor
Utilization Factor:

The utilization factor measures the use made of the total installed capacity of the
plant
L
Utilizatio n Factor  max
Cap
• A low utilization factor may mean that the plant is used only for standby purpose or
that the capacity has been installed well in advance of need
• A high utilization factor indicates the plant is probably most efficient in the system
• In an isolated system a high utilization factor refers a good design with some
reserve capacity allowance
• It might be higher than unity which pointing towards that the loads have been
carried in excess of the rated capacity of the equipment
 Mathematical Problem
Exercise: 30.4
The yearly duration curve can be considered as a straight line from 20,000 to
3,000kW. To meet this load 3 turbine generator units, 2 rated at 10,000kW each and
1 at 5,000kW are installed. Determined:

i. Installed Capacity
ii. Plant Factor
iii. Maximum demand
iv. Load factor
v. Utilization Factor
 Mathematical Problem
Solution:
The time has to be converted into hour format

Load Curve
25,000

20,000

15,000
Load (kW)

10,000

5,000

3000

0
0 8760

i. Installed Capacity = (10,000 x 2) + 5,000 = 25,000kW

ii. Plant Factor:
Total load should be area under the above curve
 Mathematical Problem
Total load = (1/2 x 8760 x 17,000) + (8760 x 3000) = 100,740 kWh
Lavg = (100,740 / 8760) = 11,500kW
So the plant factor = (11,500/25,000) = 0.46 = 46%

iii. Maximum Demand:

From the graph the we can observe that the maximum load is 20,000kW (Lmax)

iv. Load Factor:

Load factor = Lavg /Lmax = 11,500/20,000 = 0.575

v. Utilization Factor

Utilization Factor = Lmax /Cap = 20,000/25,000 = 0.8

 Mathematical Problem
30.5 Determine the maximum demand for the group of energy consumers shown in
the following table:
Class of Service Total Connected Load (kW) Demand Factor (%) Group Diversity Factor Peak Diversity Factor

Public Building 100 35 1.6 1

Apartment 1000 55 4 1.2

Hospital 200 45 1.5 1.05
Theater 150 60 1.6 1
Laundries 50 70 1.8 1.05
Residence 3000 40 4.5 1.2
Stores 500 65 1.6 1.05
Offices 100 70 1.8 1.05
Lighting (Street) 600 100 1 1
Foundry 3500 80 1.1 1.05
Boiler Factory 4000 90 1.1 1.05
Hotel 700 25 1.8 1.2
Motor Factory 5000 75 1.1 1.05
 Mathematical Problem
Total Connected Load X Demand Factor
(kW)

Class of Total Connected Demand Group Diversity Peak Diversity Maximum Maximum
Service Load (kW) Factor (%) Factor Factor Demand Demand Group
Public
100 35 1.6 1 35 21.88
Building
Apartment 1000 55 4 1.2 550 137.50
Hospital 200 45 1.5 1.05 90 60.00
Theater 150 60 1.6 1 90 56.25
Laundries 50 70 1.8 1.05 35 19.44
Residence 3000 40 4.5 1.2 1200 266.67
Stores 500 65 1.6 1.05 325 203.13
Offices 100 70 1.8 1.05 70 38.89
Lighting
600 100 1 1 600 600.00
(Street)
Foundry 3500 80 1.1 1.05 2800 2545.45
Boiler
4000 90 1.1 1.05 3600 3272.73
Factory
Hotel 700 25 1.8 1.2 175 97.22
Motor
5000 75 1.1 1.05 3750 3409.09
Factory
13320 10728.24
 Mathematical Problem
/
Maximum Load (kW) Group Diversity Factor

Class of Total Connected Demand Group Diversity Peak Diversity Maximum Maximum
Service Load (kW) Factor (%) Factor Factor Demand Demand Group
Public
100 35 1.6 1 35 21.88
Building
Apartment 1000 55 4 1.2 550 137.50
Hospital 200 45 1.5 1.05 90 60.00
Theater 150 60 1.6 1 90 56.25
Laundries 50 70 1.8 1.05 35 19.44
Residence 3000 40 4.5 1.2 1200 266.67
Stores 500 65 1.6 1.05 325 203.13
Offices 100 70 1.8 1.05 70 38.89
Lighting
600 100 1 1 600 600.00
(Street)
Foundry 3500 80 1.1 1.05 2800 2545.45
Boiler
4000 90 1.1 1.05 3600 3272.73
Factory
Hotel 700 25 1.8 1.2 175 97.22
Motor
5000 75 1.1 1.05 3750 3409.09
Factory
13320 10728.24
 Mathematical Problem
Exercise 30.2: An electrical railway system has such severely fluctuating loads that instantaneous
wattmeter reading do not define its load curve adequately. The readings of the following table
has taken from the station totalizing watt-hour meter at the times indicated. The station meter
constant is 10,000 to convert to kilowatt-hours.
Time Meter Reading Time Meter Reading
12pm 5595 2pm 5639
1am 5597 3 5643
6 5602 4 5648
7 5605 5 5654
8 5611 6 5661
9 5618 7 5667
10 5624 8 5672
11 5629 9 5676
12m 5633 10 5678
1pm 5636 12 5682
a. Plot the average hourly chronological and load duration curve
b. Plot the load-energy curve for the average hourly loads
c. Find the load factor based on the average hourly peak
d. If the instantaneous peak is 85MW, what is the load factor?
e. What is the utilization factor and capacity factor of the plant serving this load if its capacity
is 100MW?
 Mathematical Problem
kWhr = ( Present Reading – Previous Reading ) x Meter Constant
MW = kWhr / (1000 x hour duration)
Time Meter Reading Duration (Hours) kWhr MW
12pm 5595 0 0 0
1am 5597 1 20000 20
6 5602 5 50000 10
7 5605 1 30000 30
8 5611 1 60000 60
9 5618 1 70000 70
10 5624 1 60000 60
11 5629 1 50000 50
12m 5633 1 40000 40
1pm 5636 1 30000 30
2pm 5639 1 30000 30
3 5643 1 40000 40
4 5648 1 50000 50
5 5654 1 60000 60
6 5661 1 70000 70
7 5667 1 60000 60
8 5672 1 50000 50
9 5676 1 40000 40
10 5678 1 20000 20
12 5682 2 40000 20
 Mathematical Problem
Time MW
12pm 0
1am 20
6 10
7 30
8 60
9 70
10 60
11 50
12m 40
1pm 30
2pm 30
3 40
4 50
5 60
6 70
7 60
8 50
9 40
10 20
12 20
Mathematical Problem
Mathematical Problem
10 => 10 X 24 = 240

20 => 19 X10 = 190

240 + 190 = 430

30=> 15 X 10 = 150
430 + 150 = 580

40=> 10 X 12 = 120
580 + 120 = 700

50=> 10 X 9 = 90
700 + 90 = 790

60=> 10 X 6 = 60
790 + 60 = 850

70=> 10 X 2 = 20
850 + 20 = 870
 Mathematical Problem
10 => 10 X 24 = 240

20 => 19 X10 = 190

240 + 190 = 430

30=> 15 X 10 = 150
430 + 150 = 580

40=> 10 X 12 = 120
580 + 120 = 700

50=> 10 X 9 = 90
700 + 90 = 790

60=> 10 X 6 = 60
790 + 60 = 850

70=> 10 X 2 = 20
850 + 20 = 870
 Mathematical Problem
c. Load Factor = Lavg/ Lmax

Lavg = 870/24 = 36.25 MW and Lmax = 70MW

Load Factor = 36.25 / 70 = 0.5178 = 51.78%

d. If Lmax = 85MW

Load Factor = 36.25/85 = 0.4267 = 42.67%

e. Utilization Factor = Lmax / Cap

Utilization Factor = 85/100 = 85%

Capacity Factor = Lavg/ Cap = 36.25/100 = 36.25%