Aircraft Fire Detection Systems

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TECHNICAL RESEARCH CELL
Lesson 61
Hand-Held Fire Extinguishers
Federal Aviation Regulations Part 135 Commuter and On-Demand Operations require that
passenger-carrying aircraft operated under this part have at least one hand-held fire extinguisher located on
the flight deck and at least one in the passenger compartment. For years, the most popular extinguishers
have been CO2 type, but modem developments have made Halon 1301 and Halon 1211 the
extinguishers of choice. These extinguishing agents are the least toxic of all and they are effective on
almost all types of fire likely to be encountered in an aircraft cabin. These extinguishers are available in
small, medium, and large sizes. The small extinguishers are adequate for fires of up to one square foot in
area, medium extinguishers are adequate for fire up to two square feet in area, and the large sizes are
adequate for fires up to five square feet.
Extinguishers using Halon 1211 use compressed nitrogen for a propellant, but Halon 1301 has enough
pressure that it does not require a separate propelling agent. All Halon extinguishers have built-in pressure
gages to indicate the pressure of the extinguishing agent.
Hand-held CO2 extinguishers are still used in many aircraft. The two pound size is usually installed in
aircraft cabins. The state of charge of a CO2 extinguisher is determined by weighing it. The weight of the
empty container and nozzle is stamped on the valve.
Dry chemical fire extinguishers use compressed nitrogen to expel a dry powder such as sodium
bicarbonate or potassium bicarbonate. Dry powder is an effective extinguishing agent, but should never
be used in an aircraft cockpit in-flight, as the loose powder in the air obstructs visibility.
Installed Fire-Extinguishing Systems
Aircraft use two types of installed fire-extinguishing systems: the Conventional (CO2) systems
installed in the engine compartments of older aircraft, and the high rate-discharge (HRD) systems used on
most modern jet transport aircraft.
Carbon Dioxide Extinguishing Systems
CO2 is carried in steel bottles and is often pressurized with compressed nitrogen to aid in expelling the
CO2 under very low temperature conditions. The bottles have a remotely operated valve and are connected
to a selector handle that allows the pilot to select the engine into which the CO2 will be discharged. When
the engine is selected, the T -shaped handle is pulled. The bottle is emptied into the power section of the
engine through a perforated aluminium tube that surrounds the engine. Some of the larger systems had
two bottles that allowed the pilot to release the second bottle into the fire if it was not extinguished by the
first one.
CO2 systems have two indicator disks, one red and one yellow, located on the outside of the fuselage
near the bottles. If the bottles are discharged by the pilot actuating the T-handle, the yellow disk will blow
out. If the area around the bottles becomes overheated enough to raise the pressure of the gas to a dangerous
level, the red disk will blow-out and the system will automatically discharge. On the normal walk-around
inspection, the flight crewmember can tell, from these disks, the condition of the CO2 system.
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HIGH RATE OF DISCHARGE EXTINGUISHING SYTEM
INTRODUCTION
In an aircraft, it is important that the type of fire-extinguishing

system be appropriate for the class of fire that is likely to occur.
There are two basic categories of fixed fire extinguishing system:
conventional system and high-rate-of-discharge (HRD) system.
Both systems utilize one or more containers of extinguishing agent
and a distribution system that releases the extinguishing agent
through perforated tubing or discharge nozzles. As a general rule, the
type of system installed can be identified by the type of
extinguishing agent used. For example conventional systems employ
“carbon dioxide” as the extinguishing agent while HRD system
usually utilizes “halogenated hydrocarbons”.
HIGH-RATE DISCHARGE SYSTEMS
High rate of discharge (HRD) is the term applied to the fire-

extinguishing systems found in most modern turbine engine aircraft. A typical HRD system consists of a
container to hold the extinguishing agent, at least one bonnet assembly and series of high-pressure feed
lines.
The containers used in an HRD system are typically made of steel and spherically shaped. There are
four sizes commonly in use today ranging from 224 cubic inches to 945 cubic inches. The smaller
containers generally have two opening, one for the bonnet assembly or operating head, and the other for
fusible safety plug. The larger containers are usually equipped with two bonnet assemblies.
Each container is partially filled with an extinguishing agent, such as Halon 1301, and sealed with a
frangible disk. Once sealed, the container is pressurized with dry nitrogen. A container pressure gauge is
provided so you can quickly reference the container pressure. The bonnet assembly contains an electrically
ignited discharge cartridge or squib, which fires a projectile into the frangible disk. Once the disk breaks,
the pressurized nitrogen forces the extinguishing agent out of the sphere. A strainer is installed in the
bonnet assembly to prevent the broken disk fragments from getting into the distribution lines. The entire
contents of the bottle are discharged within about 0.08 second after the agent discharge switch is
closed. As a safety feature, each extinguishing container is equipped with a thermal fuse that melts and
releases the extinguishing agent if the bottle is subjected to high temperatures. If a bottle is emptied in this
way, the extinguishing agent will blow out a red indicator disk as it vents to the atmosphere, on the other
hand, if the bottle is discharged normally, a yellow indicator disk blows out, like a conventional system, the
indicator disks are visible from the outside of the fuselage for easy reference in figure.
When installed on a multi-engine aircraft, the fire extinguishing-agent containers are typically
equipped with two firing bonnets. The two discharge ports allow one container to serve both engines.
On large, multi-engine aircraft, two extinguishing agent containers are generally installed,
each with two firing bonnets. This allows twin-engine aircraft to have dedicated container for each engine.
In addition the two discharge ports on each bottle provide a means of discharging both containers into one
engine compartment.
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Lesson 62
FIRE DETECTION SYSTEMS
Introduction
A fire detection system should signal the presence of a fire. Units of the system are Installed In locations
where there are greater possibilities of a fire. Three detector systems in common use are
(1) Thermal switch system,
(2) Thermo-couple system, and
(3) Continuous loop detector system.
Thermal switch system
A thermal switch system consists of one or

more lights energized by the aircraft power
system and thermal switches that control
operation of the light(s). These thermal switches
are heat sensitive units that complete electrical
circuits at a certain temperature. They are
connected in parallel with each other but in series
with the indicator Lights. If the temperature rises
a over a set value parallel in anyone section of the
circuit, the thermal switch will close, completing
the light circuit to indicate the presence of a fire
or overheat condition No set number of thermal
switches is required; the exact number is usually
determined by the aircraft manufacturer. On some installations several thermal detectors are connected to
one light; on ethers there may be only one thermal switch for an indicator light.
Some warning lights are the "push-to-test" type. The bulb is tested by pushing it in to complete an
Auxiliary test circuit. The circuit includes a test relay. With the relay contact in the position shown, there are
two possible paths for current flow from the switches to the light. This is an additional safety feature.
Energizing the test relay completes a series circuit and checks all the wiring and the light bulb.
Also included in the circuit shown in figure is a dimming relay. By energizing the dimming relay, the
circuit is altered to include a resistor in series with the light. In some installations several circuits are wired
through the dimming relay, and all the warning lights may be -dimmed at the same time.
Thermocouple systems (Rate-of temperature rise)

The thermocouple fire warning system operates on an entirely different principle than the thermal switch
system. A thermocouple depends upon the rate of temperature rise and will not give a warning when an
engine 'slowly overheats or a short circuit develops. The system consists of a relay box, warning lights and
thermocouples. The wiring system of these units may be divided into the following circuits:
1. The detector circuit,
2. The alarm circuit, and
3. The test circuit.
The relay box contains two relays, the sensitive relay and the slave relay, and the thermal test unit.
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Such a box may contain from one to eight identical circuits, depending on the number of potential fire
zones. The relays control the warning lights. In turn, the
thermocouples control the operation of the relays. The circuit
consists of several thermocouples in series with each other and
with the sensitive relay.
The thermocouple is constructed of two dissimilar such
as chromel and constantan. The point where these metals are
joined and will be exposed to the heat of a fire is called a hot
junction. There is also a reference junction enclosed in a dead
air space between two insulation blocks. A metal cage surrounds
the thermocouple to give mechanical protection without
hindering the free movement of air to the hot junction.
If the temperature rises rapidly, the thermocouple produces a
voltage because of the temperature difference between the-
reference junction and the hot junction. If both junctions are
heated at the same rate, no voltage will result and no warning
signal is given.
If there is a fire, however, the hot junction will heat more rapidly than the reference junction. The
ensuing voltage causes a current to flow within the detector circuit. Any time the current is greater than 4
miliampere (0.004 ampere), the sensitive relay will close. This will complete a circuit from the aircraft
power system to the coil of the slave relay which closes and completes the circuit to the fire' warning light.
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Lesson 63
CONTINUOUS-LOOP DETECTORS
Introduction
Engine compartments, APU installations, and wheel wells are difficult locations to monitor for fire, and
continuous-loop-type detectors are often used in these areas rather than individual detectors such as thermos
witches or thermocouples. There are two types of continuous-loop fire and overheat detection systems:
thermistor and pneumatic.
Thermistor- Type Continuous-Loop Systems
There are two configurations of thermistor-type continuous loop elements (1) Fenewl (single-
conductor) and (2) Kidde (two-conductor elements.)
Fenewl system
The single-conductor element has a center conductor

supported in a thin wall Inconel tube by ceramic beads. An
electrical connection is made to the conductor, and the outside tube
is grounded to the airframe. The space between the beads is filled
with a eutectic (low melting-point) salt whose resistance drops
drastically when it melts. When any portion of the tube gets hot
enough to melt the salt, the resistance between the center conductor
and the outside tube drops, and signal current flows to initiate a fire
warning. When the fire is extinguished, the molten salt solidifies
and its resistance increases enough that the fire-warning current no
longer flows.
Kidde system
The two-conductor loop is also mounted in an Inconel tube,

and it has two parallel wires embedded in a thermistor material
whose resistance decreases as its temperature increases. One of the
wires is grounded to the outer tube, and the other terminates in a
connector and is connected to a control unit that continuously
measures the total resistance of the sensing loop. By monitoring
the resistance, this unit will detect a general overheat condition as
well as a single hot spot.
Pneumatic- Type Continuous-Loop System
The pneumatic fire detection system also uses a continuous loop for the detection element, but this loop
is made of a sealed stainless steel tube that contains an element which absorbs as when it is cold, but
releases this gas when it is heated.
One type of pneumatic fire detection system is the Lindberg system. The stainless steel tube which
makes up the loop contains the gas-absorbing element and the gas, and is connected to a pressure switch.
When the loop, which is installed around the monitored area, is heated in a local area by a fire or by a
general overheat condition, the gas is released and its pressure closes the pressure switch. Closing this
switch completes the circuit and illuminates the fire-warning light and sound the fire-warning bell.
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The Systron-Donner pneumatic fire detection system also uses a continuous loop for the detection
element, but this loop contains two gases and a titanium centre wire with the capacity to absorb an
amount of hydrogen gas that is proportional to its temperature.
The tube is filled with helium gas under pressure, and at normal temperature, the helium produces a
pressure that is proportional to the average temperature of the entire tube. When the average temperature of
the tube reaches the value for which the warning system is set, the pressure of the helium gas becomes great
enough to close a set of normal 0 en contacts in the detector housing and initiate a fire warning signal.
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Lesson 63A
Smoke and Flame Detectors
Introduction
Certain areas in an aircraft can produce a great deal of smoke before any flames actually appear, and it is
important in these areas to detect the first indication of smoke. Baggage and cargo compartments are
typically protected by smoke detectors, of which there are four types: CO detectors, photoelectric
detectors, ionization-type detectors;' and visual detectors. CO detectors measure the level of carbon
monoxide in the air. Photoelectric detectors measure the amount the smoke in a sample of air obstructs or
refracts a beam of light. Ionization-type detectors measure the current that flows through ionized air, and
visual detectors detect the presence of smoke by actually viewing samples of air that are drawn through the
smoke detector chamber.
Flame detectors are usually light detectors that are sensitive to infrared radiation. These detectors are
mounted in an electrical circuit that amplifies their voltage enough to initiate a fire-warning signal.
A smoke detection system monitors the cargo and baggage compartments for the presence of smoke,
which is indicative of a fire condition. Smoke detections instruments, which collect air for sampling, are
mounted in the compartments in strategic locations. A smoke detection system is used where the type of fire
anticipated is expected to generate a substantial amount of smoke before temperature changes are sufficient
to actuate a heat detection system.
Smoke detection instruments are classified by method of detection as follows:

Type I - Measurement of carbon monoxide gas (CO detectors)
Type II - Measurement of light transmissibility in air (photoelectric devices), and
Type III - Visual detection of the presence of smoke by directly viewing air samples (visual
devices).
To be reliable, smoke detectors must be maintained so that smoke in a compartment will be

indicated as soon as it begins to accumulate. Smoke detector louvers, vents, and ducts must not be
obstructed.
Carbon Monoxide Detector
The CO detectors, which detect concentrations of carbon monoxide gas, are rarely used to monitor
cargo and baggage compartments. However, they have gained widespread use in conducting tests for the
presence of carbon monoxide gas in aircraft cabins and cockpits.
Carbon monoxide is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, nonirritating gas. It is the byproduct of
incomplete combustion, and is found in varying degrees in all smoke and fumes from burning carbonaceous
substances. Exceedingly small amounts of the gas are dangerous. A concentration of .02% (2 parts in
10,000) may produce headache, mental dullness, and physical loginess within a few hours. There are
several types of portable testers (sniffers) in use. One type has a replaceable indicator tube which contains a
yellow silica gel, impregnated with a complex silico-molybdate compound and is catalyzed using palladium
sulfate. In use, a sample of air is drawn through the detector tube. When the air sample contains carbon
monoxide, the yellow silica gel turns to a shade of green. The intensity of the green color is proportional
to the concentration of carbon monoxide in the air sample at the time and location of the tests. Another type
indicator may be worn as a badge or installed on the instrument panel or cockpit wall. It is a button using a
tablet which changes from a normal tan color to progressively darker shades of gray to black. The transition
time required is relative to the concentration of CO. At a concentration of 50 ppm CO (0.005%), the
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indication will be apparent within 15 to 30 minutes. A concentration of 100 ppm CO (0.01%) will
change color of the tablet from tan to gray in 2-5 minutes, from tan to dark gray in 15 to 20 minutes
Photoelectric Smoke Detectors

Air from the monitored compartment is drawn through the detector
chamber and a light beam is shone on it. A photoelectric cell
installed in the chamber senses the light that is refracted by smoke
particles. The photocell is installed in a bridge circuit that measures
any changes in the amount of current it conducts. When there is no
smoke in the air flowing through the chamber, no light is refracted,
and the photocell conducts a reference amount of current. When
there is smoke in the air, some of the light is refracted and sensed
by the photocell, and its conductivity changes, changing the amount
of current. These changes in current are amplified and used to
initiate a smoke warning signal.
Ionization-Type Smoke Detectors

Ionization-type smoke detectors work on the basic principle of those
detectors found in many homes. A tiny amount of radioactive
material is mounted on one side of the detector chamber. This
material bombards the oxygen and nitrogen molecules in the air
flowing through the chamber and ionizes it to the extent that a
reference amount of current can flow across the chamber through the
ionized gas to an external 'circuit. Smoke flowing through the
chamber changes the level of ionization and decreases the current.
When the current is reduced to a specific amount, the external circuit
initiates a smoke-warning signal.
Visual Smoke Detectors

Some jet transport aircraft have visual-type smoke detectors
similar to the one in Figure installed on the flight engineer's
panel. The inside of the chamber is painted non reflective black,
and glass observation windows let the flight engineer see inside
the chamber. A light shines across the chamber in such a way that
it will illuminate any smoke that is present. Air, pulled from the
compartments that are being monitored, flows through the detec-
tion chamber. When there is no smoke in this air, no light is
visible in the window, but when there is smoke, the light strikes
it, and can be seen in the window.
Since no light is visible when there is no smoke, a green
indicator light on the front of the detector illuminates to show the
flight engineer when the light is on.
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Lesson 64
Fuel system layout
Introduction
The fuel system is an arrangement of fuel tanks and component systems which ensure that the
engines are supplied with fuel in the proper amount at all times. The fuel is distributed in our main tanks,
two outboard reserve tanks, and a center-wing tank. The fuel tanks and all system components are
suitable for use with any acceptable fuel that conforms to the engine manufacturer's specifications.
All the fuel tanks are located in the inter spar area of the wing structure between the front and rear
spars. The wing skin and ribs form the walls of the tanks, and the intermediate ribs serve as baffle plates to
prevent excessive sloshing and rapid weight-shifting of the fuel. The four main tanks and two reserve tanks
are completely integral with the wing structure. The center-wing tank consists of two integral sections at the
wing roots and a center-wing cavity containing bladder-type fuel cells. All fuel tanks are made fuel tight by
the use of sealing compound and sealed fasteners. The basic components of a fuel system include tanks,
lines, valves, pumps, filtering units, gages, warning signal, and primer. Some systems will include
central refuelling provisions, fuel dump valves, and a means for transferring fuel. In order to clarify the
operating principles of complex aircraft fuel systems, the various units are discussed in the following
paragraphs.
Fuel tanks
The location, size, shape, and construction of fuel tanks vary with the type and intended use of the
aircraft. In some aircraft, the fuel tanks arc integral with the wing or other structural portions of the aircraft.
Fuel tanks arc made of materials that will not react

chemically with any aviation fuel: Aluminium alloy is
widely used and synthetic rubber bladder type fuel
cells are used in some installations.
Usually a sump and a drain are provided at the lowest

point in the tank .When a sump or low point is provided
in the tank, the main fuel supply is not drawn from the
bottom of the sump, but from a higher point in the tank.
The top of each tank is vented to the outside air in

order to maintain atmospheric pressure within the tank.
Air vents are designed to minimize the possibility of their
stoppage by dirt and ice formation. In order to permit
rapid changes in internal air pressure, the size of the vent
is proportional to the size of the tank, thus preventing the
collapse of the tank in a steep dive or glide. All except
the very smallest of tanks are fitted with internal baffles to resist fuel surging caused by changes in the
attitude of the aircraft. Usually an expansion space is provided in fuel tanks to allow for an increase in fuel
volume due to expansion.
The filler neck and cap are usually located in a recessed well, equipped with a scupper and drain. The
scupper is designed to prevent overflowing fuel from entering the wing or fuselage structure. Fuel caps
have for locking device to prevent accidental loss during flight. Filler openings are clearly marked with
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the word "FUEL", the tank capacity, and the type of fuel to be used. Information concerning the
capacity of each tank is usually posted near the fuel selector valves, as well as on the tank filler caps.
Some fuel tanks are equipped with dump valves that make it possible to jettison fuel during flight in
order to reduce the weight of the aircraft to its specified maximum landing weight. In aircraft equipped with
dump valves, the operating control is located within reach of the pilot, co-pilot, or flight engineer. Dump
valves are designed and installed to afford safe, rapid discharge of fuel.
Strainers
Strainers are installed in the tank outlets and frequently

in the tank finer necks. These are of fairly coarse mesh and
prevent only the larger particles from entering the fuel
system. Other, fine-mesh, strainers are provided in the
carburetor fuel inlets and in the fuel lines.
The function of the main strainer is important: it not
only prevents foreign matter from entering the carburetor,
but also, because of its location at the low point of the fuel
system, traps any small amount of water that may be present
in the system. In multiengine aircraft, one main strainer is
usually installed in each engine nacelle.
A main fuel strainer for a light airplane consists of a
cast metal top, a screen, and a glass bowl. The bowl is
attached to the cover by a clamp and thumb nut. Fuel
enters the unit through the inlet port, tilters through the
screen, and exits through the outlet port. At regular intervals
the glass bowl is drained, and the screen is removed for inspection and cleaning.
The main fuel strainer is so installed that the fuel flows through it before reaching the engine-driven
pump. It is located at the lowest point in the fuel system. The shape and construction of the fine-mesh screen
provides a large screening surface encased in a compact housing. Rein forcing the screen is a coarse, heavy
wire mesh.
Auxiliary Fuel Pumps
The electrically driven centrifugal booster pump, shown in figure,

supplies fuel under pressure to the inlet of the engine-driven fuel pump.
This type of pump is an essential part of the fuel system, particularly at
high altitudes, to keep the pressure on the suction side of the engine-
driven pump from becoming low enough to permit the fuel to boil. This
booster pump is also used to transfer fuel from one tank to another,
to supply fuel under pressure for priming where starting the engine,
and, as an emergency unit, to supply fuel to the carburetor in case
the engine driven pump fails. To increase the capacity of the pump
under emergency conditions, many pumps are equipped with a two-
speed or variable-speed control so that the recommended fuel inlet pres-
sure to the carburetor can be maintained. As a precautionary measure,
the booster pump is always turned on during takeoffs and landings to
ensure a positive supply of fuel.
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Fuel lines & fittings
In an aircraft fuel system, the various tanks and other components are usually joined together by fuel
lines made of metal tubing connected, where flexibility is necessary, by lengths of flexible hose. The metal
tubing usually is made of aluminium alloy, and the flexible hose is made of synthetic rubber or Teflon.
The diameter of the tubing is governed by the fuel flow requirements of the engine.
Each fuel line is identified by a colour-coded band near each end. Except for short lines between
flexible connections, tubing should be properly supported by clamping to structural members of the aircraft.
A special heat-resistant hose is used where the flexible lines will be subjected to intense heat. For all
flexible fuel lines located forward of the firewall, fire-resistant hose is used.
In many installations, the fuel lines are designed to be located within the tanks. Therefore, minor leaks
occurring within the tank are classified as internal leaks and will not cause fire hazards.
Engine-Driven Fuel Pump
The purpose of the engine-driven fuel pump is to deliver a continuous supply of fuel at the proper pressure
at all times during engine operation. The pump widely used at the present time is the positive-
displacement, rotary-vane-type pump.
The engine-driven pump is usually mounted on the
accessory section of the engine. The rotor, with its sliding
vanes, is driven by the crankshaft through the accessory
gearing. Note how the vanes carry fuel from the inlet to
the outlet as the rotor turns in the direction indicated. A
seal prevents leakage at the point where the drive shaft
enters the pump body, and a drain carries away any
fuel that leaks past the seal. Since the fuel provides
enough lubrication for the pump, no special lubrication is
necessary.
Since the engine-driven fuel pump normally
discharges more fuel than the engine requires, there must
be some way of relieving & excess fuel to prevent
excessive fuel pressures at the fuel inlet of the carburettor.
This is accomplished through the use of a spring-
loaded relief valve that can be adjusted to deliver fuel
at the recommended pressure for a particular carburettor. The pressure relief valve in operation by-
passing excess fuel back to the inlet side of the pump. Adjustment is made by increasing or decreasing t he
tension of t he spring.
The relief valve 'of the engine-driven pump is designed to open at t he set pressure regardless of the
pressure of the fuel entering the pump. To maintain the proper relation between fuel pressure and carburetor
inlet air pressure, the chamber above the fuel pump relief valve is vented either to the atmosphere or through
a balance line to carburetor air inlet pressure. The combined pressures of spring tension and either
atmospheric or
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Lesson 65
Construction of Wing Fuel Tanks
Introduction
Fuel tanks are used to store the fuel for the aircraft until it is used by the engine and supply fuel to
engine irrespective of flying attitude. Large fuel tanks have baffle plates to keep the fuel from surging back
and forth, which could cause aircraft control difficulties. All fuel tanks have a low point, called a sump or
drain point, to remove contamination from fuel tank.
All tanks must be vented to atmosphere, to prevent the vapor lock and to allow rapid relief of
excessive pressure between the interior and exterior of the tank.
Type of Fuel Tanks:
1. Integral Fuel Tank: It is a tank that is part of the basic structure of the aircraft. Integral fuel tank
has commonly being located in the wing or
fuselage. Integral fuel tanks are formed by using
structural members of the wing to form a fuel tight
tank. This accomplished through the use of the
wing skin, spars, ribs and stiffeners and stringers to
form the tank and by applying sealing material
(sealant) to the areas where these members are
joined.
Note
(1) Before repair integral fuel tank inside the
tank must be thoroughly inerted or purged of
any fuel vapors, with carbon dioxide (co2) or
Argon. Integral Fuel Tank
(2) When new rivets joint are made in a fuel
tank, the parts are fabricated, all rivet holes are
drilled, and metal parts cleaned with methyl
ethyl ketone (MEK) or acetone.
(3) Leaks are repaired by removing all of the
old sealant from the area of leaking. This is
done by using Aluminium Wool.
2. Rigid Removable Tanks: It is one that is

installed in a compartment designed to hold the
tank. The tank must be fuel tight and it is made of
aluminium components welded together. The
tanks are normally held in the compartment by
several padded straps. The tank includes fuel feed
lines near the bottom on the inboard side or on the
bottom, a fuel drain fitting as a tank low point
when the aircraft is in the ground attitude, a fuel
vent line near the top of the tank, a filler cap and
provision for a quantity indicator. This type of fuel
tank is found on light aircraft.
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Note
(1) Before a fuel tank is welded, it should be thoroughly washed out with hot water and a detergent.
(2) After welding an aluminium tank remove all the welding flux by scrubbing the welded area with
5% solution of either sulphuric acid or nitric acid.
3. Bladder Fuel Cells: It is a reinforced rubberized bag placed in a non-fuel tight compartment. Bladder
incorporates all the components required for removable rigid fuel tank, such as vent, drain, quantity
indicator. The airframe compartment for the bladder is structural and a fairly small opening is provided for
the insertion of the bladders. The bladder must be rolled-up,
inserted into the compartment and then un-rolled. The
bladder is held in the place by several buttons or snaps,
which attach the bladder to the top, bottom and sides of the
compartment. This type of fuel tank is found in many
medium to high performance light aircraft and some turbo-
prop and turbine powered aircraft.
Note: Leaks in bladder cells (tank) are located by
plugging all of the holes, inserting ammonia gas into the
cell. Place a white cloth saturated with a
phenolphthalein solution over the cell. If there are any
leaks, the ammonia gas will escape and react with the
phenolphthalein and produce a bright red mark on
white cloth.
4. Surge Tank: Surge fuel tanks are normally located on the transport category aircraft and are constructed
the same as integral fuel tank, are designed to contain fuel over flow and prevent fuel spillage, particularly
when fuelling the aircraft. Surge tanks are also an integral part of the fuel tank venting system.
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Lesson 66
DIFFERENT TYPE OF FUEL PUMP
Introduction
Fuel pumps are used to move fuel through the fuel system when gravity flow is insufficient. These
pumps are used to move fuel from the tanks to the engines, from tanks to other tanks, and from the
engine back to the tanks.
The principle of operation of fuel pumps is the same as for hydraulic and other types of pumps.
However, because of the flammability of the fluid being pumped, the materials and design of the pumps are
such as to all but eliminate the danger or fuel ignition.
Fuel pumps are often classified as to the purpose of the pump such as boost pump, scavenge
pump, or cross-feed pump. In the following discussion we look at pumps and classify them according to
their method of operation.
Fuel-Pump Requirements
Fuel systems for reciprocating engines and turbine engines require main pumps and emergency pumps.
Reciprocating-engine systems that are not gravity-fed require at least one main pump for each engine, and
the pump must be driven by the engine. The pump capacity must be such that it supplies the required fuel
flow for all operation.
For turbine-engine fuel systems, there must be at least one main pump for each turbine engine. The
power supply for the main pump for each engine must be independent of the power supply for each main
pump for any other engine.
An emergency pump must be immediately available to supply fuel to the engine if any main pump
fails. The power supply for each emergency pump must be independent of the power supply for each
corresponding main pump. If both the normal pump and emergency pump operate continuously, there must
be a means to indicate to the appropriate flight crew members a malfunction
of each pump.
Vane-type Fuel Pump
One of the most satisfactory pumps for positive delivery of fuel is the
vane pump. This is similar to the hydraulic vane pump .A schematic
diagram of such a pump is shown in Fig. The rotor holds the sliding vanes
and is installed in the liner with its axis of rotation eccentric to the axis
of the liner. When the rotor is turning, the vanes maintain a constant
contact with the surface of the liner. Fuel enters the inlet port and is forced
by sliding vanes through the outlet port. The floating pin aligns the sliding
vanes against the surface of the liner. In one position the two lower vanes
extend from the rotor, while the two upper vanes are forced into the rotor by the surface of the liner.
Variable-Volume Pumps
The pump shown in Fig. is known as a variable volume vane-type pump.

This pump delivers varying amounts of fuel under constant pressure to
the carburetor. The amount of fuel is regulated to meet the demands of the
carburetor.
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This type of pump is designed to deliver much more

fuel than the amount normally needed by the engine.
Fuel enters the pump at the inlet side and is forced
around the housing to the outlet side by the action of the
sliding vanes. The spring-loaded relief valve is adjusted
so that it releases at a specific pressure. When the pump
pressure is above the predetermined setting, the relief
valve is forced up from its seat and the excess fuel is
relieved to the inlet side of the pump.
Centrifugal Pumps
Most of the larger aircraft that operate at high

altitude use centrifugal boost pumps in the fuel tanks.
These pumps supply fuel under positive pressure to the
inlet of the engine-driven fuel pumps under conditions
where the ambient pressure is too low to ensure a
positive supply. Pressurizing the fuel lines prevents
vapor lock at high altitude. Many of these boost pumps
have a two speed motor. Low speed is used to supply fuel to the
engine for starting and as a backup for takeoff and landing.
High speed is used to transfer fuel from one tank to another.
These pumps are electrically operated and may be designed to
operate at one speed or may be designed for the crew member to
select one of several speeds, depending on the operational situation.
The centrifugal pump pressurizes the fuel by drawing fuel into
the center inlet of a centrifugal impeller and expelling it at the outer
edge of the impeller as shown in Fig. This type pump may be
designed to be mounted with the electric motor on the outside of
the fuel tank or for the entire pump and motor to be located inside
the fuel tank in which case it is referred to as a submerged pump.
A centrifugal boost pump is a variable-displacement pump, and
it does not require a relief valve; its output pressure is
determined by the impeller speed. Centrifugal boost pumps have
a small agitator built onto the impeller that agitates the fuel before
it enters the pump impeller. This causes the pump to release
much of its vapors before it enters the fuel lines.
For ease of pump maintenance, most pumps are
installed in or on the fuel tank with a mechanism that allows
the pump to be removed and installed without draining the fuel
tank. The mechanisms that close off the fuel lines
and allow pump removal may be automatically
operated as the pump is removed or may have to
be activated by the mechanic prior to pump
removal.
Ejector Pump
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It is extremely important that submerged boost pumps always be completely covered with fuel. To
prevent fuel flowing away from the pump in any flight attitude, some aircraft are equipped with boost
pump sumps that are kept filled by an ejector pump system. The fuel tank has a surge box and a sump.
The boost pump is installed in the sump, and some of its discharge is routed back into the tank through three
ejector pumps.
An ejector pump is a type of jet pump that produces a low pressure when fuel from the boost pumps flows
through a venturi, some of the fuel is taken from the discharge of the boost pump and directed through the
ejector pump. This fuel flows through the venturi in the pump at high velocity, and the resulting low
pressure draws fuel from the tank and from the surge box and discharges it into the boost pump sump.
The bulkhead between the surge box and the fuel tank has several flapper type check valves
that allow fuel to flow from the tank into the surge box, but prevent it from flowing in the opposite
direction. These flapper valves ensure that fuel cannot flow away from the boost pump in any normal flight
attitude. Some aircraft also equip the boost pump sump with pump-removal flapper type check valves that
allow you to remove a booster pump from
the tank without having to drain the tank
first.
An ejector pump is used to
scavenge fuel from remote areas of fuel
tanks and to provide fuel under pressure to
an operating engine fuel-control unit. This
type of pump has no moving parts but relies
on the flow of returned fuel from the
engine-driven pump to pump fuel .The
ejector pump works on the venturi
principle.
If the ejector pump is used as a fuel
scavenge pump, the induced flow is
delivered to an area of the fuel tank next to
the tank outlet. Centrifugal pumps are used
in conjunction with ejector pumps to start
the engine. After the engines are started the centrifugal pumps are turned off and the ejectors maintain the
required flow.
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Lesson 67
Aircraft fuel system (Types of fuel)
Introduction
Fuel is a substance that, when combined with oxygen will burn and produce heat. Fuel may be classified
according to their physical state as solid, gaseous, or liquid. Aviation fuel is a liquid containing chemical
energy that, through combustion, released as heat energy and then converted to mechanical energy by the
engine. This mechanical energy is used to produce thrust, which propels the aircraft. Gasoline and
kerosene (ATF) are the two most widely used aviation fuels.
1. Solid fuels
Solid fuels are used extensively for external combustion engines, such as a steam engine, where the
burning takes place under boilers or in furnaces. Solid fuels include such fuel as wood and coal. Solid fuels
are not used in reciprocating engines, where the burning takes place inside the cylinder.
2. Gaseous fuels
Gaseous fuels are used to some extent for internal combustible gas is readily available.
Natural gas and liquefied petroleum gas are two of the more common types. Gaseous fuels can be
disregarded for use in aircraft engines.
3. Liquid fuels
Liquid fuels, in many respects, are the ideal fuel for use 'in internal combustion engines.
Liquid fuels are classified as either non-volatile or volatile. The non-volatile fuels are the heavy oils used in
diesel engines. The volatile class includes those fuels that are commonly used with a fuel metering device
and are carried into the engine cylinder or combustion chamber in a vaporized or partially vaporized
condition. Liquid fuels are alcohol, benzol, kerosene and gasoline.
Fuel additives of gasoline
Aviation gasoline consists almost entirely of hydrocarbons, namely, compounds consisting of hydrogen
and carbon. Some impurities in the form of sulphur and dissolved water will be present. The water cannot be
avoided, since the gasoline is exposed to moisture in the atmosphere. A small amount of sulphur always
present in crude petroleum is left in the process of manufacture.
Tetraethyl lead (TEL) is added to the gasoline to improve its performance in the engine.
Organic bromide and chlorides are mixed with TEL so that during combustion volatile lead halides will be
formed. TEL if added alone, would bum to a solid lead oxide and remain in the engine cylinder.
Aviation gasoline is a highly refined hydrocarbon fuel obtained by fractional distillation of crude
petroleum. Its important characteristics are: purity, volatility, and anti-detonation qualities.
Purity
Every precaution is taken to ensure purity of aviation gasoline, but certain contaminants do get into it.
The most prevalent contaminant is water. Fortunately water heavier than aviation gasoline and it settles to
the bottom of the tank and to the lowest point in the fuel system. Aircraft fuel tanks are required to have a
sump, or low, area, where the water can collect and these sumps are fitted with quick drain valve so the pilot
on a pre-flight inspection can drain water from these low points.
Jet engine higher viscosity than aviation gasoline, and they hold contaminants in suspension better than
gasoline, so water contamination causes additional problems with jet aircraft fuel systems.
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Volatility
Liquid gasoline will not burn. It must be vaporized so it will mix with oxygen in the air and combustible
mixture. Aviation gasoline must be volatile enough to completely vaporize in the engine induction system.
If it does not vaporize readily enough, it can cause hard starting poor acceleration, uneven fuel distribution
and excessive dilution of the oil in the crankcase. If it vaporizes too readily it cause vapor lock, which
prevents the flow fuel to the engine.
The measure of ease with which fuel vaporizes is the Reid vapor pressure this a pressure of vapor above the
fuel required to prevent further vaporization at a specified temperature.
Maximum vapor pressure allowed for aviation gasoline is 7 p.s.i. at 100 degree F, which is lower than that
of most automotive gasoline. If the vapor pressure of the fuel is too high, it is likely to vaporize in the lines
in hot weather or high altitude and starve the engine of fuel.
Note:
Vapor lock: A condition in which vapors form in the fuel lines and block the flow of fuel to the
carburettors
Vapor pressure: The pressure of the vapor above a liquid needed to prevent the liquid evaporating.
Vapor pressure is always specified at a specific temperature.
Anti detonation qualities
Detonation occurs in an aircraft engine when the fuel-air mixture inside the cylinder reaches its critical
pressure and temperature and explodes rather than burning smoothly. The extreme pressures produced by
detonation can cause severs structural damage to the engine
Aviation gasoline is rated according to its anti detonation characteristics by its octane rating or performance
number. This procedure compares the performance of the rated fuel to that of a fuel made up of a mixture of
iso-octane and normal heptanes. Grade 80 fuel has characteristics similar to that of a mixture of 80% octane
and 20% heptanes, and grade 100 and LL have the same anti detonation characteristics as iso-octane
Note:
Detonation: An explosion or uncontrolled burning inside the cylinder of a reciprocating engine.

Detonation occurs when the pressure and temperature inside the cylinder become higher than the
critical pressure and temperature of the fuel.
Octane rating: A rating of the antidetonation characteristics of a reciprocating engine fuel. It is
based on the performance of the fuel in a special test engine. When a fuel is given a dual rating such
as the first number is its antidetonating rating with a lean fuel-air mixture and the higher number is
its rating with a rich mixture.
Performance number: The anti detonation rating of a fuel that has a higher critical pressure and
temperature than iso-octane (a rating of 100). Iso-octane that has been treated with varying amounts
of tetraethyl lead is used as the reference.
Iso-octane: A hydrocarbon, which has a very high critical pressure and temperature. Iso-octane is
used as the high reference for measuring the antidetonation characteristics of a fuel.
Normal heptane: A hydrocarbon, with a very low critical pressure and temperature. Normal heptane
is used as the low reference in measuring the antidetonation characteristics of a fuel.
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Fuel Identification
Gasoline containing TEL must be colored to confirm with the law. In addition, gasoline may be
colored for purposes of identification. Grade 100 low lead aviation gasoline is blue, grade 100 is green
and grade 80 is red.
A change in color of an aviation gasoline usually indicates contamination with another product or a loss
of fuel quality. A color change can also be caused by chemical reaction that has weakened the lighter dye
component. This color change in itself may not affect the quality of the fuel. A color change can also be
caused by the preservative in a new hose.
Turbine Engine Fuel
The aircraft gas turbine is designed to operate on a distillate fuel, commonly called jet fuel. Jet fuels are
also composed of hydrocarbons with a little more carbon and usually higher sulphur content than gasoline.
Inhibitors may be added to reduce corrosion and oxidation. Anti-icing additives are also being blended to
prevent fuel icing.
Two types of jet fuel in common use today are: (l) Kerosene grade turbine fuel, now named Jet A,
and (2) a blend of gasoline and kerosene fractions, designated Jet B. There is a third type called Jet A-I,
which is made for operation at extremely low temperatures.
Jet A having a higher a flash point and lower freezing point than most kerosene. Jet B is similar to Jet
A. It is blend of gasoline and kerosene fractions. Most commercial turbine engines will operate on either Jet
A or Jet B fuel.
Fuel system contamination
There are several forms of contamination in aviation fuel. The higher the viscosity of the fuel, the
greater is its 'ability to hold contaminants in suspension. The principle contaminates that reduce the quality
of both gasoline and turbine fuels are other petroleum products, water, rust or scale, and dirt.
Water
Water can be present the fuel in two forms: (1) Dissolved in the fuel, (2) Entrained or suspended in the fuel.
Entrained water can be detected with naked eye. The finely divided droplets reflect light and in high
concentrations give the fuel a dull, hazy or cloudy appearance. Fuel can be cloudy for d number of reasons.
If the fuel is cloudy and the cloud disappears at the bottom, air is present. If the cloud disappears at the top
water is present. A cloud usually indicates water -in-fuel suspension.
Foreign particles
Most foreign particles are found as sediment in the fuel. They are composed of almost any material with
which the fuel comes into contact. The most common types are rust, sand, aluminium and magnesium
compounds, brass shavings, and rubber. Rust is found in two forms: (1) Red rust, which is nonmagnetic and
(2) black rust, which is magnetic. They appear in the fuel as red or black powder, rough, or grains. Sand or
dust appears in the fuel in a crystalline, granular, or glasslike form. Aluminium or magnesium compounds
appear in the fuel as a form of white or grey powder or paste.
Contamination with other grade of fuel
The unintentional mixing of petroleum products can result in fuels that give unacceptable performance in
the aircraft. An aircraft engine is designed to operate most efficiently on fuel of definite specifications. The
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use of fuel that differs from these specifications reduces operating efficiency and can lead to complete
engine failure.
Microbial growth
Microbial growth is produced by 'various forms of micro-organisms that live and multiply in the water
interfaces of jet fuels. These organisms may form slime in appearance to the deposits found in stagnant
water. The color of this slime growth may be red, brown, grey, or black.
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Lesson 68
FUELSUPPLY SYSTEM FOR SMALL & LARGE AIRCRAFT
Introduction
A simple fuel system may consist of a gravity feed tank, a filter, a shut-off valve, and suitable
rigid and flexible pipes between these components and the engine. The tank would be vented to
atmosphere, and a means of indicating the fuel quantity, would be provided. This type of system is adequate
for a single piston-engine, high wing aero plane, and is often used. However, larger, multi-engine aircraft,
particularly those fitted with turbo-propeller or turbo-jet engines; require a more sophisticated system, with
facilities to enable transfer of fuel, electronic control of refuelling and defuelling, and controls and
indicators for many functions not necessary in a simple system.
FUEL SYSTEMS FOR SMALL AIRCRAFT
Figure illustrates a simple fuel system such as may be used on a modern light aircraft. A rigid
aluminium alloy tank, or a flexible tank, is housed in each wing, and feeds fuel to a selector valve, the
control for which is located in the cabin. From this point fuel is fed through a filter and booster pump to the
engine carburettor.
Each fuel tank is fitted with a vent pipe, which has its open end outside the wing structure, in order to
ensure that atmospheric pressure is maintained in the tank. 'A non-return valve (NRV) in the tank prevents
fuel from siphoning through the vent pipe, and a bleed hole in the NRV prevents the build-up of pressure as
a result of fuel expansion, when the NRV is closed.
A drain valve, fitted to the lowest point in each tank, is used to drain off fuel and any water which
may have collected through condensation, or have been introduced during refuelling. The fuel tanks of
light aircraft should be filled as soon as possible after a flight, to minimize condensation; a small
quantity of liquid should be drained off through the tank and main filter drain valves before flight, in order
to remove any water which may have accumulated. Tanks are fitted with a contents gauge, which may be a
float operated mechanical unit; a float operated electrical unit, or an electrical capacitance type unit.
The selector valve enables the engine to be fed from individual tanks, or both tanks together, and an
OFF position is also usually provided to enable the supply to be turned off. Selector valves are usually
rotary valves, and the operating lever may be mounted directly on the valve, or located remote from the
valve and connected to it by mechanical linkage. In either case it is important that the operating lever is
accurately aligned with the valve, and represents the true position of the valve at all selected positions; a
detent at each position assists proper selection.
In some systems an additional valve may be fitted in the fuel feed line, to isolate the tanks for
maintenance purposes. This valve will usually be wire locked to the ON position for normal operations.
The main fuel filter is usually fitted to the lowest point in the system, so that water and sediment, being
heavier than fuel, will collect at this point. The filter is designed to remove both water and dirt from the fuel
by trapping them in the sediment bowl. The sediment bowl is attached to the body of the filter by a quick-
release fitting, thus assisting easy removal for cleaning and examination of the filter element.
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The booster pump is electrically operated, by direct current, and is fitted to ensure a positive fuel
supply to the engine for starting, take-off, climb, high altitude, flight through turbulence, and landing, and to
safeguard the engine in the event of engine driven pump failure.
Different types of pumps are used in some instances, but the inherent advantages of centrifugal
pumps, are that they separate fuel and vapour, thus providing a vapour free fuel supply, and they do not
require pressure relief or by-pass valves.
Fuel pipelines in British aircraft (except those inside the tanks) are labelled, for recognition purposes, in
accordance with British Standard M23. The marking consists of an adhesive label wrapped around the
pipe at intervals, with the word FUEL in black, on a red background, and a symbol in the form of a
black four pointed star on a white background. In addition, the word FLAM (flammable) and the
purpose of the pipe (e.g. VENT) may be added.
Fuel tanks are marked, adjacent to the filling point, with the type of fuel required and the usable
tank capacity. The filling points of other systems are also marked, in order to prevent a system from
being filled with the incorrect fluid.
FUEL SYSTEMS FOR MULTI·ENGINED AIRCRAFT
A fuel system for a typical multi-engine aircraft is illustrated in Figure. The basic requirements for
the system are the same as gravity feed those described in, but the multiplicity of engines necessitates
additional tanks, piping, valves and pumps. In addition, different venting and refuelling systems are
necessary, and additional functions such as fuel jettisoning, fuel heating, cross-feeding, and
instrumentation have to be provided for.
Fuel Feed - In modem turbine-powered aircraft, the fuel is usually contained in a number of integral
tanks, in the wings and centre section, and, occasionally, in the fin. Individual engines are usually
fed from an associated tank, or group of tanks, but cross-feed and inter-engine valves may be
provided to enable the engines to be fed from any desired group of tanks, and also to permit fuel
transfer between tanks. Fuel supplies for auxiliary power-units and combustion heaters where fitted,
are normally taken direct from a suitable tank or from a feed line.
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Pumps. In the fuel system, two booster pumps are fitted in each tank. These pumps are designed
for continuous operation, and either pump can supply the needs of anyone engine. In the event of
failure of both pumps in a tank, fuel is drawn from that tank by the associated engine-driven,
low-pressure pump, via the suction valve, but in some cases this may be inadequate to provide
full engine power at high altitude, and operating limitations may be imposed. The booster
pumps are electrically operated, but, unlike the pumps fitted to light aircraft, may be operated by
alternating current. They vary considerably in design, but are usually powered by induction motors,
and may include a two stage impeller. In some instances the motor is of the flooded type, in which
the motor runs submerged in fuel, thus obviating the need for seals. Overheat protectors are usually
fitted, which cut off power to the motor when the pump temperature rises above a predetermined
value. Pumps are often fitted in isolation chambers within the fuel tank, which enables them to
be removed and re-fitted without draining the tank.
Valves. Low-pressure valves cross feed valves and inter-engine valves, are usually ball-type, full-
flow valves, and may be either mechanically or electrically operated. A typical valve is illustrated
in Figure 3; in this type a form of pressure relief is provided, to bleed off excess pressure which may
occur, through variations of temperature downstream of the valve, when the valve is closed. This is
a two position valve only, and either internal or external mechanical stops are provided, to
limit movement to 90°; a visual indication of valve position is also provided. When the valve is
electrically operated, a reversible electric motor, equipped with an electromagnetic brake, is
mounted on the valve casing, and .drives the valve through a gear train. Limit switches cut off power
to the motor at the fully-open and fully-closed positions, and the brake operates automatically as the
motor is de-energized; the brake is magnetically released when a reverse selection is made. The limit
switches may also be used to operate position indication lights or magnetic indicators in the crew
compartment.
BALL TYPE VALVE
Suction valves are fitted to enable fuel to be drawn from the tanks by the engine driven, pumps; they
are closed when booster pumps are operating normally. A suction valve is a simple flap type valve,
which closes when a pressure exists in the pipeline, and opens when suction is applied to the
pipeline.
Non-return valves may be fitted in several places in the fuel system, to

provide flow in one direction only. A typical non-return valve is illustrated
in Figure .The casing is marked with an arrow to show the direction of flow,
and, in the valve illustrated; an interference spider is fitted to the inlet
side, in order to prevent the valve from being fitted the wrong way round.
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Venting. The tank venting system provides positive venting of the tanks during flight. A ram air
intake maintains a slight positive pressure in the vent system, thus decreasing fuel vaporization,
and preventing negative pressures in the tanks through changes in aircraft attitude and fuel
usage. In some aircraft, the vent system also prevents the building up of dangerous pressures in the
tanks during refuelling, should the automatic cut-off fail, by dumping excess fuel. Generally,
there are two vent pipes in each tank, the inboard vent is open-ended, but the outboard vent is
fitted with a float valve, the purpose of which is to minimize fuel transfer both between tanks and
into the vent/surge tank during changes of aircraft attitude. Fuel which is spilled into the venting
system collects in the vent/surge tank. On some aircraft the vent/surge tank drains under gravity into
the main tanks, but on other aircraft an automatic pumping system is used. The pumping system may
operate on a continuous basis, using 'jet' pumps, or on an intermittent basis using float switches
and a separate electrically-operated pump. In a jet pump, output from a normal booster pump
passes through a jet nozzle, which is contained within a concentric pipe leading from the vent/ surge
tank. The flow of fuel through the jet nozzle automatically draws fuel from the vent/surge tank. With
an intermittent system, a high-level float switch switches the transfer pump on, thus transferring fuel
from the vent/surge tank to a main tank, and a low-level float switches the transfer pump off. A time-
delay may be incorporated in the pump circuit, to prevent intermittent operation as a result of fuel
surge.
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Lesson 69
FUEL JETTISONING (DUMPING) SYSTEM
Introduction
For transport-type aircraft, if the maximum takeoff weight for which the aircraft is certified is greater than
105 percent of the certified landing weight, provision must be made to jettison enough fuel to bring the
weight of the airplane down to the certified landing weight. The average rate of fuel jettisoning must be 1
percent of the maximum takeoff weight per minute, except
that the time required to jettison the fuel need
not be less than 10 min.
The fuel jettisoning system must be so
designed that its operation is free from fire
hazards and the fuel must discharge clear of
any part of the aircraft. The system must be
so designed that fuel or fumes will not enter
any part of the airplane, and the jettisoning
operation must not adversely affect the
controllability of the airplane.
Fuel dumping operations are coordinated with
air traffic control, and precautions are taken to
keep other aircraft clear of such areas. Fuel
dumping is usually accomplished at a high
enough altitude where the fuel will dissipate
before reaching the ground. Fuel leaves the aircraft through a specific point on each wing, usually closer to
the wingtips and further away from engines, and
initially appears as more liquid than vapor.
Description
Transport category aircraft and general aviation

aircraft are both allowed to have a higher takeoff
weight than landing weight if they have a fuel
jettisoning system. The jettisoning system allows
the flight crew to dump enough fuel to lower the
gross weight of the aircraft to its maximum
allowable landing weight.
A fuel jettisoning system consists of lines,
valves, dump chutes, and the chute operating
mechanism, and the fuel is pumped overboard
by boost pumps located inside the fuel tanks.
The controls allow the flight personnel to close
the dump valve to stop dumping during any
part of the jettisoning operation.
Fuel is pumped or drained from each tank through a stand pipe, which ensures that a pre-
determined quantity of fuel remains. Fuel tanks whose fuel can be jettisoned are equipped with a dump
limit switch that will shut off the flow to the dump chute if the pressure drops below that needed to supply
the engine with adequate fuel, or when the tank level reaches a preset dump shutoff level. This prevents
more fuel from being jettisoned from any tank than is allowed by Federal Aviation Regulations.
One type of system makes use of the refuelling gallery pipe, which is extended outboard to a
position near each wing tip, and terminates in a large diameter open-ended pipe at each trailing edge. One
of the booster pumps in each tank, which may be run at a higher speed for the jettisoning operation,
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is used to off-load the fuel, and the fuel feed to the engines is protected by non-return valves. Individual
jettison valves are located at selected tank outlets, and a master jettison valve is located adjacent to
each discharge nozzle;
In another type of system, fuel is jettisoned through a pipe in each wing, the pipe being lowered into
the airstreams by an electrically operated actuator. A short manifold is fitted between the main tanks in
each wing, and a jettison valve controls flow from each tank into the manifold; auxiliary tanks are fed into
the main tanks by the normal transfer
valves, the transfer pumps being
interconnected with the circuits
operating the jettison valves. When
the jettison pipe is in the retracted
position it forms a seal at the
manifold, and acts as a master
jettison valve; the circuits to the
jettison valves are not armed until
this pipe is locked in the extended
position. Both types of systems are
controlled from a special panel at the
crew station, which contains switches
for the pumps and valves, and
warning lamps or magnetic indicators
to show the positions of the valves
and the jettison pipes.
Lateral stability of the aircraft

is maintained while dumping fuel by having two separate and independent jettisoning systems, one
for each side of the aircraft.
Drains
Aircraft fuel systems must be provided with drains such that the entire system can be drained with the
airplane in its normal ground attitude. Drains are available at fuel strainers and at sumps as well as at other
locations.
Each drain must be located so that it will discharge clear of all parts of the airplane. The drains must
have manual or automatic means for positive locking in the closed position. Each drain must have a
drain valve that is readily accessible and can be opened and closed easily. The drains must be located or
protected to prevent fuel spillage in the event of a landing with landing gear retracted.
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Lesson 70
FUEL CROSS FEED & TRANSFER
Introduction
Fuel cross feed systems is also unique to multiengine airplanes. Using cross feed, an engine can
draw fuel from a fuel tank located in the opposite wing.
On most multiengine airplanes, operation in the cross feed mode is an emergency procedure used to
extend airplane range and endurance in OEI (one engine inoperative) flight. There are a few models that
permit cross feed as a normal, fuel balancing technique in normal operation, but these are not common. The
AFM/POH will describe cross feed limitations and procedures, which vary significantly among
multiengine airplanes.
Checking cross feed operation on the ground with a quick repositioning of the fuel selectors does
nothing more than ensure freedom of motion of the handle. To actually check cross feed operation, a
complete, functional cross feed system check should be accomplished. To do this, each engine should be
operated from its cross feed position during the run-up. The engines should be checked individually, and
allowed to run at moderate power (1,500 r.p.m. minimum) for at least 1 minute to ensure that fuel flow can
be established from the cross feed source. Upon completion of the check, each engine should be operated
for at least 1 minute at moderate power from the main (takeoff) fuel tanks to reconfirm fuel flow prior to
takeoff.
Twin-Engine Cross-Feed Fuel System
The fuel system in Figure has two fuel tanks, two shutoff valves, and two cross-feed valves. Either
engine can draw fuel from either tank, or the tanks can be connected.
Each of these tanks has a
boost-pump sump and a fuel
transfer ejector to keep the
boost-pump sumps full.
Part of the boost-pump
discharge flows through the
ejector and creates a low
pressure which pulls fuel
from the tank into the sump.
Flapper valves in the sump
prevent fuel flowing from
the sump back into the
tank.
If either of the boost pumps
should fail, the other pump
can supply both engines
through the pump cross-feed
valve. The check valve
prevents fuel from the tank
with the functioning pump from flowing into the other tank under these conditions.
Four-Engine Manifold Cross-Feed Fuel System

Large aircraft have a number of fuel tanks that may be filled, drained, or used from a manifold that connects
all tanks and all engines.
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The characteristics of a manifold cross-feed fuel system are:

1. All tanks can be serviced through a single refuelling receptacle. This pressure fuelling reduces the
chances of fuel contamination, as well as reducing the danger of static electricity igniting fuel
vapors.
2. Any engine can be fed from any tank. This lets the pilot balance the fuel load to maintain good
stability of the aircraft.
3. All engines can be fed from all tanks simultaneously.
4. A damaged tank can be isolated from the rest of the fuel system
Each tank has a boost pump and a tank shutoff valve, and each engine has a firewall shutoff valve.
There is a manifold valve for each of the engines
By opening the tank shutoff valve and the firewall shutoff valve, each engine is fed from its own fuel
tank. And, by opening the manifold valve for any engine, the boost pump in the tank feeding that engine can
pressurize the manifold. This allows pilot or flight engineer to balance the load in flight to maintain good
stability.
This fuel system allows for single-point pressure fuelling and defuelling.
This reduces the chances of fuel contamination, as well as reducing the danger of static electricity igniting
fuel vapors.
Pressure fuelling is done through an under wing fuelling and defuelling receptacle and a fuel control
panel that contains all of the controls and gages necessary for a person to fuel or defuel any or all of the
tanks. When the aircraft is being refuelled, the fuelling hose is attached to the refuelling receptacle on the
manifold. All the
manifold valves and tank
valves are open and the
firewall shutoff valves
are closed. The valve on
the fuelling hose is
opened and fuel flows
into all the tanks. When
a tank is full, or when it
reaches the level preset
on the fuel control panel,
the valve for that tank
shuts off. When all the
tanks have the correct
amount of fuel in them,
the system automatically
shuts off.
Cross-feed valve
A valve in a fuel system that allows all engines of a multiengine aircraft to draw fuel from any fuel tank
and to transfer fuel from one tank to other tank. Cross-feed systems are used to allow a multi-engine aircraft
to maintain a balanced fuel condition.
Ejector
A form of jet pump used to pick up a liquid and move it to another location. Ejectors are used to ensure
that the compartment in which the boost pumps are mounted is kept full of fuel. Part of the fuel from the
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boost pump flowing through the ejector produces a low pressure that pulls fuel from the main tank and
forces it into the boost-pump sump area.
Boost pump.
An electrically driven centrifugal pump mounted in the bottom of the fuel tanks in large aircraft. Boost
pumps provide a positive flow of fuel under pressure to the engine for starting and serve as an emergency
backup in the event an engine-driven pump should fail. They arc also used to transfer fuel from one tank to
another and to pump fuel overboard when it is being dumped. Boost pumps keep pressure on the fuel in the
link to the engine-driven pump, and in doing this Prevent vapor Jock from forming in these lines.
Manifold cross-feed fuel system.
A type of fuel system commonly used in large transport category aircraft. All fuel tanks feed into a
common manifold, and the dump chutes and the single-point fuelling valves are connected to the manifold.
Fuel lines to each engine are taken from the manifold.
Engine fuel-feed system
The engine fuel-feed system consists of fuel lines, pumps, and valves, which distribute the fuel to the
engines. This system includes four tank-to-engine fuel feed systems that are interconnected by a fuel mani-
fold such that fuel may be delivered from any main tank or the center-wing tank to any or all engines. The
two reserve tanks store fuel and supply the fuel by gravity flow to main tanks Nos. 1 and 4 through
electrically operated transfer valves. The fuel-feed line from each main tank is pressurized by two boost
pumps that are controlled by separate switches and independent circuits so that engine operation will not be
affected by power failure to any single
boost pump. The center-wing-tank boost
pumps, known as the fuel boost-override
pumps, will override the main-tank boost
pumps to supply fuel through the
manifold to the engines. The distribution
of fuel to the engines is controlled by
electric-motor-driven slide valves in the
fuel lines. The valves are classified into
three groups: (1) engine fuel-shutoff
valves, which shut off fuel to the engines;
(2) fuel-manifold valves, which control
manifold distribution; and (3) reserve-
tank-transfer valves, which control fuel
from the reserve tanks to main tanks Nos. I
and 4. All these valves are controlled by
manually operated switches located on the
flight engineer's panel in the cabin.
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Lesson 71
Fuel Indication & warning system
Introduction
All aircraft, regardless of their size, must have some means of indicating the quantity of fuel in each
tank. Other information that fuel system instrumentation must provide is fuel pressure, fuel flow, and fuel
temperature.
Fuel quantity measuring systems range from extremely simple floats riding on the surface of the fuel to
electronic systems that compensate for fuel temperature and indicate the number of pounds of fuel on board
the aircraft.
Each fuel quantity indicator must be calibrated to read zero during level flight when the quantity of the
fuel remaining in the tank is equal to the unusable fuel supply.
Direct Reading Fuel Gages
One simple type of direct-reading fuel quantity indicating system is a sight glass. A transparent tube
connected between the top and the bottom of the fuel tank shows the level of the fuel in the tank. To make
the level of the fuel easier to read, some of the tubes for shallow tanks are slanted, and the quantity is
indicated against a calibrated scale behind the tube.
A combination of sight glass and cork has been used for fuel tanks in the wings of high-wing airplanes
and in the upper wing of biplanes. A transparent tube,
whose length is the same as the depth of the fuel tank,
sticks out below the wing. A cork float rides on the top of
the fuel in the tank and a wire protrudes from the bottom
of the float. This wire rides inside the transparent tube and
a knob, or indicator, on the end of the wire shows the
level of the fuel in the tank.
Some fuel tanks have a float mounted on a wire arm
that rides on the top of the fuel. The wire arm moves a
bevel gear which drives a pinion. Attached to the pinion is
a pointer which rides over a dial to indicate the level of
the fuel in the tank. All of this mechanism is sealed inside
the fuel tank
A similar type of indicator to that in Figure 8-36 mounts
the pointer on the outside of the tank. A magnet on the pointer is magnetically coupled to a magnet inside
the tank that is moved by the float arm mechanism. Movement of the float arm rotates the pointer, and there
is no possibility of fuel leaking through this type of indicator.
Electrical Resistance-Type Fuel Quantity Indicating System For many years the most widely used
fuel quantity measuring system has been the electrical resistance-type system. These systems use a
sender, or transmitter, that consists of a variable resistor mounted on the outside of the fuel tank and
operated by an arm connected to a float that rides on the surface of the fuel in the tank. Movement of the
arm is transmitted through a metal bellows-type seal to operate the wiper of the resistor.
The indicator used with this system is a current-measuring instrument calibrated in fuel quantity.
When the tank is empty, the float is on the bottom and the resistance is maximum. This drives the indicator
pointer to the EMPTY mark on the dial. When the tank is full, the float is near the top of the tank, the
resistance is minimum, and the pointer is driven to the FULL mark.
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Capacitance-Type Electronic Fuel Quantity Measuring System
The electronic (capacitance-type) fuel-quantity-indicating system has no

moving parts inside the tank, and is more accurate than other types of systems
used for measuring fuel quantity.
These systems use several capacitor-type probes extending across each
tank from top to bottom. When the attitude of the aircraft changes, fuel rises
in some probes and lowers in others, and the total capacitance of all probes
remains constant. This makes the fuel-quantity indication independent of
attitude changes.
The dielectric constant of the fuel changes with its temperature and thus
its density. The system measures the weight, actually the mass, of the fuel
rather than its volume. Cold fuel is denser than warm fuel, and there are more
pounds in one gallon of cold fuel than there are in a gallon of warm fuel.
Knowing the number of pounds of fuel available is more important than
knowing the number of gallons, because the power produced by an aircraft
engine is determined by the pounds of fuel burned, not the gallons.
By measuring the total capacitance of all of the capacitors in all of the
fuel tanks, a totalizing system can indicate, on one instrument, the total
number of pounds of fuel on board the aircraft.
The components in electronic (capacitance-type) fuel-quantity-indicating systems are:
• Capacitor probes mounted in the fuel tanks
• A bridge circuit to measure the capacitance of the probes
• An amplifier to increase the amplitude of the signal from the bridge
circuit to a value high enough to drive the indicator
• An indicator mounted in the instrument panel to show the amount of
fuel in the tanks
A capacitor is an electrical component made up of two conductors separated

by a dielectric, or insulator. It stores an electrical charge, and the amount of
charge it can store is determined by three things: the area of the plates, the
separation between the plates, and the dielectric constant, or
characteristic, of the material between the plates.
Probes like those in Figure 8-38 extend across the fuel tanks from top to
bottom. These probes are capacitors and are made of thin metal tubes that act
as the plates. These plates have a fixed area, and they are separated by a fixed
distance. The dielectric is the fuel or air inside the tank. Air has a dielectric
constant, or K, of 1 and the fuel has a K of approximately 2, depending upon
its temperature. When the tank is full, fuel is the dielectric and the probe has a
given amount of capacity. As the fuel is used, the dielectric becomes less fuel
and more air, and the capacitance of the probe decreases.
Several probes can be installed in a fuel tank to measure the quantity of
fuel in odd-shaped tanks. These capacitors are connected in parallel and
their total capacitance is the sum of the individual capacitances. The
probes are connected into a bridge circuit and the indicator is servo-driven to
make the bridge self-balancing.
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Drip Gage and Sight Gage
The fuelling crew can use any of several types of external under wing fuel gauging devices to check the
actual level of the fuel in the tank. These gages give a purely physical indication of the fuel level in the tank
and are used to verify the indications of the electronic measuring systems.
The drip stick is a hollow tube that mounts in the bottom of the fuel tank and sticks up to the top of the tank.
To check the amount of fuel in the tank, the drip stick is unlocked and slowly pulled down until fuel
begins to drip from its open end. The fuel quantity in the tank relates to the distance the drip stick is pulled
from the tank before fuel begins to drip. Some drip sticks are graduated in inches or centimeters and a
drip-stick table is used to convert the drip stick reading into pounds of fuel.
The sight gage works on the same basic principle as a drip stick, but no fuel actually drips from it.
The gage is a long acrylic plastic rod that sticks across the tank from bottom to top. To use the gage, the
technician unlocks it and pulls it down while watching the rod through the sight window. When the quartz
tip is above the fuel, it reflects light back down the rod. As the rod is pulled and the tip enters the fuel, the
amount of reflected light decreases. When the entire tip is in the fuel, no more light is reflected. The level of
the fuel in the tank is at the point where the line of reflected light is visible, but is minimum in size. The
amount of fuel is read on the calibrated scale opposite the reference mark on the bottom of the tank.
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Lesson 72
REFUELLING/DEFUELLING PROCEDURE OF AIRCRAFT
Introduction
Light aircraft fuel tanks are usually filled through over-wing filler caps, and drained by means of
suitable cocks or plugs in the tanks or pipelines. These features are often retained on large transport aircraft
for emergency refuelling and for draining individual tanks, but as these methods are very slow, refuelling
and defuelling are normally carried out through pressure refuelling connections situated in the lower wing or
fuselage surfaces. Using a tanker or hydrant, and delivery pressures up to 50 psi refuelling rates of up
to 1,000 gal/min (4500 liters/min) may be achieved; Defuel is carried out using the same system, but
suction is then applied to the pressure connections. The system includes the pressure connections,
individual refuel/defuel valves for each tank, a load control panel, and suitable pipelines and tank
valves.
In systems fitted with electrically-operated refuel/defuel valves, the refuel/defuel valves are opened by
selector switches on the load control panel, but may be closed by these switches, by the float switches in the
tanks when the tanks are full, or by electronic controls on the load control panel when complete refuelling is
not required. In systems fitted with mechanically-operated refuel/defuel valves, the valves are opened
manually, and closed either manually, or by means of pressure operated valves in the tanks. The refuelling
discharge pipes in the tanks are usually fitted with diffuser, the purpose of which is both to prevent any
erosion of, and damage to, the sealant, which may result from a high pressure jet, and also to prevent static
discharge within the tank.
NOTE: Refuelling points should be marked with the type of fuel to be used, and over wing filling
points should also be marked with the capacity of each tank. Similarly, refuelling/defuelling
containers and storage vehicles should be identified as to the type of fuel they contain.
Refuelling procedure
1. The person assigned to the task should first see to it that the airplane is in a safe place, the wheels
carefully chocked, or the brakes set and all safety precautions observed. If fuel is to be taken from a truck, it
should be driven up carefully and positioned parallel to the wings of the airplane at a reasonable
distance from it.
2. Fire extinguishers should be placed within easy reach in case of fire.
3. Every piece of equipment used in doing the work should be absolutely clean. The refuelling hose nozzle
should be wiped clean with a cloth free of lint and dirt. The hose nozzle should never be dragged over any
part of the airplane or the ground.
4. The amount of fuel needed and the grade should be ascertained. It is very important that the airplane
be refuelled with gasoline or turbine fuel of the correct grade. Efficient performance of the engine
depends upon this. Every aircraft engine requires fuel of a specific grade, and this information will be found
marked on or near the fuel filler cap. Substitution of fuel may cause trouble that may very well prove
serious.
5. If the person refuelling the aircraft is required to stand or walk on any unprotected part of the airplane
during the operation, the part or parts of the airplane involved should be protected with canvas covers.
6. It should be understood that gasoline flowing through a hose may build up a charge of static electricity.
When the refuelling hose nozzle is withdrawn from the tank, the charge of static will ignite the fuel. For
this reason, before starting the refuelling operation, the nozzle of the hose must be grounded.
Usually refuelling hoses have ground wires attached, in which case all that needs to be done is to
connect the wire (by means of the clip provided) to some metal part of the airplane. If a ground wire is not
available, a short length of wire to which suitable clips has been soldered will serve the purpose. Two of
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these wires are needed. One end of one of the wires should be attached to the metal part of the nozzle; the
other end should be clipped to the aircraft metal structure. The remaining wire is used similarly to
"ground" the airplane to the earth in much the same manner that a fuel delivery truck is grounded
by a ground wire and clip. The airplane grounding wire should be attached to some metal part permanently
embedded in the earth.
Where fuel is drawn from a fuel pit, the same procedure of grounding the airplane is followed. In
this case there should be an electrical connection between the fuel nozzle and the underground tank and the
airplane also should be grounded to the earth.
7. Care must be exercised to avoid damaging the filler neck of the airplane fuel tank when the tank is being
filled with gasoline. The fuel-hose nozzle should be carefully supported and the fuel introduced slowly so
that there absolutely is no danger of splashing or overfilling the fuel tank.
Defueling procedure
The Defueling of aircraft is critical in that the danger of fire is increased owing to fuel tanks being filled
with flammable vapors when empty and vapors being produced by spilled fuel, particularly gasoline. The
mechanic involved with Defueling should take every precaution to reduce the possibility of fire and should
observe every rule and regulation established to prevent and combat fires. The safety of the procedure is the
prime consideration.
Defueling procedures are usually given in manufacturer's aircraft maintenance manuals; however,
these cannot always give consideration to conditions that may exist at the time and place of Defueling. The
mechanic or mechanics involved must, therefore, exercise great care in their preparations and performance
to assure that all precautions have been observed.
When an airplane is to be defueled the following general rules should be followed unless other procedures
which are just as effective have been established by the aircraft operator or operational organization:
1. Move the aircraft to be defueled to an open area at a distance from any other aircraft, structure, or vehicle
such that a fire could not
jump from the defuelling
aircraft to any other unit or
structure.
2. Provide fire extinguishers
of a type approved for oil
fires (for example, dry
chemical or CO2 types) in
sizes and numbers adequate
for the size of the aircraft and
volume of fuel involved. See
that operators attend the fire
extinguishers constantly while
the defuelling operation is
taking place.
3. If possible, provide a
supply of inert gas (nitrogen
or CO2) for purging the tank or tanks as they are being drained
4. Ground the aircraft to the earth.
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5. See that personnel in the area wear shoes with rubber or plastic soles which cannot cause sparks.
Cigarette lighters, matches, and other sources of ignition should be removed from the area.
6. Disconnect or remove
the aircraft battery.
7. Use no electrical
equipment in the area
except that which has
been certified
flameproof.
8. Provide for fuel
disposal in a fuel truck
or in clean, closed
containers. Metal fuel
containers which could
cause sparks in handling
should be avoided.
9. Do not allow fuel to
be spilled on the surface
beneath the aircraft.
10. If tools are needed to
open fuel drain valves,
use tools which cannot
cause sparks.
11. As soon as fuel
containers have been
filled, install the container covers or caps. If open containers are used, they should be emptied immediately
into containers or tanks which can be closed.
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Lesson 73
LAY OUT OF WATER & WASTE SYSTEM
Introduction
All modern airliners are required to incorporate water systems to supply the needs and comforts of
the passengers and crew. Such systems include potable (drinkable) water for the galley and drinking
fountains, water for the lavatories, and water for the toilet systems. Systems may include one or more tanks
of passenger water system as per the requirement of particular aircraft.
Potable Water Supply

The water for drinking fountains or faucets is usually drawn from main pressurized water tanks, passed
through filters to remove any impurities and solids, cooled by dry ice or other means of cooling, and
delivered to the faucets and/or drinking fountains. Disposable drinking cups are supplied at each location in
the forward and rear parts of the passenger cabin.
Lavatory Water
Water for the lavatories is also drawn from the main water tanks and passed directly through suitable
plumbing and valves to the lavatories. Hot water for washing is provided by means of electric water heaters
located beneath the lavatory bowls. A typical hot water supply is contained in tank which includes the
thermostatically controlled heating unit to maintain the water at a temperature of 110 to 120°F [43.3 to
48.9°C]. Drain water from the lavatories can be drained overboard through drain masts or can be
drained into the toilet waste tanks.
Toilet System
The toilet system is designed so there is no possible contamination of the passenger water supply from the
system. In the airplane discussed here, separate, independent toilet systems are provided in the
forward and aft passenger cabins. Toilets in each lavatory compartment are electrically powered
flushing units which collect the waste material in a waste tank and combine it with the flushing agent
by chemical and mechanical treatment. The units are primed initially with 3 gal of a concentrated
solution of disinfectant, deodorant, and dye. The toilet units are installed in each lavatory compartment
entirely above the lavatory compartment floor. Each unit consists of a toilet shroud assembly, flushing
components, and a waste tank. Toilet flushing action is initiated by turning the toilet flush handle. Waste
material and flushing liquid flow out the bottom of the bowl into the waste tank. Servicing components in
the forward and aft systems allow ground draining and cleansing of the toilet units.
The toilet waste tank assembly includes a glass-fiber tank of 17 gal [64.4 L] capacity fitted with a bulb-
type spring-loaded drain valve and a tank top. The drain valve is operated by a cable from the toilet service
panel. A rubber gasket is placed along the top edge of the tank to form a watertight seal when the tank top is
installed. Access into the tank for maintenance purposes is obtained by removing the toilet bowl and base
plate.
The drain valve, when fully open, permits unrestricted passage of waste from the tank to a service cart.
In the closed position, it forms a positive seal. The valve is spring-loaded and self-closing and does not
require lubrication. It is opened by pulling a handle on its related exterior service panel. When the handle is
in the extended position, it can be rotated to latch it. A safety valve which is operated by a control on the
service attachment is installed in the drain tube.
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Aircraft Fire Detection Systems

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Aircraft Fire Detection Systems

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TRAINING NOTES

Hand-Held Fire Extinguishers

Installed Fire-Extinguishing Systems

Carbon Dioxide Extinguishing Systems

HIGH RATE OF DISCHARGE EXTINGUISHING SYTEM

In an aircraft, it is important that the type of fire-extinguishing

HIGH-RATE DISCHARGE SYSTEMS

High rate of discharge (HRD) is the term applied to the fire-

Thermal switch system

A thermal switch system consists of one or

Thermocouple systems (Rate-of temperature rise)

Thermistor- Type Continuous-Loop Systems

The single-conductor element has a center conductor

The two-conductor loop is also mounted in an Inconel tube,

Pneumatic- Type Continuous-Loop System

Smoke detection instruments are classified by method of detection as follows:

To be reliable, smoke detectors must be maintained so that smoke in a compartment will be

Carbon Monoxide Detector

Photoelectric Smoke Detectors

Ionization-Type Smoke Detectors

Visual Smoke Detectors

Fuel tanks arc made of materials that will not react

Usually a sump and a drain are provided at the lowest

The top of each tank is vented to the outside air in

Strainers are installed in the tank outlets and frequently

Auxiliary Fuel Pumps

The electrically driven centrifugal booster pump, shown in figure,

Fuel lines & fittings

Engine-Driven Fuel Pump

Type of Fuel Tanks:

2. Rigid Removable Tanks: It is one that is

Vane-type Fuel Pump

The pump shown in Fig. is known as a variable volume vane-type pump.

This type of pump is designed to deliver much more

Most of the larger aircraft that operate at high

Fuel additives of gasoline

Anti detonation qualities

Detonation: An explosion or uncontrolled burning inside the cylinder of a reciprocating engine.

Turbine Engine Fuel

Fuel system contamination

Contamination with other grade of fuel

FUEL SYSTEMS FOR SMALL AIRCRAFT

FUEL SYSTEMS FOR MULTI·ENGINED AIRCRAFT

BALL TYPE VALVE

Non-return valves may be fitted in several places in the fuel system, to

Transport category aircraft and general aviation

Lateral stability of the aircraft

Twin-Engine Cross-Feed Fuel System

Four-Engine Manifold Cross-Feed Fuel System

The characteristics of a manifold cross-feed fuel system are:

Manifold cross-feed fuel system.

Engine fuel-feed system

Direct Reading Fuel Gages

Capacitance-Type Electronic Fuel Quantity Measuring System

The electronic (capacitance-type) fuel-quantity-indicating system has no

A capacitor is an electrical component made up of two conductors separated

Drip Gage and Sight Gage

Potable Water Supply

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