Anti Icing Deicing Oxyen Pneumatic

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TECHNICAL RESEARCH CELL
Lesson 21
Distribution of pneumatic pressure
Introduction
The use of a compressed-air system to operate an aircraft’s services usually represents a saving in
weight compared to a hydraulic system, since the operating medium is freely available, no return lines are
necessary, and pipes can be of smaller diameter. Systems having operating pressure of up to 3500psi are
in use, and provide for the rapid operation of services when this is required. However, compressed air is
generally not suitable for the operation of large capacity components, leaks can be difficult to trace and
the results of pipeline or component failure can be very serious.
Extensive high pressure pneumatic systems powered by engine-driven compressors are

generally fitted on the older types of piston-engine aircraft and are used to operate services such as the
landing gear, wing flaps, wheel brakes, radiator shutters and, at reduced pressure, de-icing shoes.
There are some modern aircraft which also use a high-pressure pneumatic system, however, and there are
many aircraft which use pneumatic power for the emergency operation of essential services; the latter
type of system is usually designed for ground-charging only.
Low-pressure pneumatic systems such as are used on most turbine-engine aircraft for engine
starting, de-icing, and cabin-pressurization, are supplied with compressed air tapped from the engine
compressor.
Description
The system contains two separate power circuits, each of which is supplied by a four-stage
compressor driven from gearbox of one main engine, and a common delivery pipe to the high-pressure
storage bottles and system services. A multi-stage cooler attached to each compressor when the system is
not being used. The bleed valve, controlled by compressor lubricating oil pressure, directs the compressed
air to the compressor circuit relief valve and unloading valve. In the event the compressor oil pressure
drops below 40 psi, the bleed valve will direct compressed air from the fourth stage overboard.
A shuttle valve in the line between the compressor and the main system makes it possible to
charge the system from a ground source. When the engine is not running and air pressure is supplied
from the external source, the shuttle slides over and isolates the compressor.
Air is drawn through an inlet filter into each compressor, and discharged through an oil-and-
water trap, a chemical dehydrator, a filter and a non-return valve, to the main storage bottle and
system. Overall control of main system pressure is provided by means of a pressure regulator, but
pressure relief valves are included to prevent excessive pressures in the system, which may be caused by
regulator failure or by an increase in temperature in the pipelines and components. Pressure reducing
valves are used to reduce the pressure supplied to some components.
A storage bottle for the emergency system is pressurized through a non-return valve from the
main system supply, and maintains an adequate supply of compressed air to enable the landing gear and
flaps to be lowered, and the brakes to be applied a sufficient number of times to ensure a safe landing.
Isolation valves are fitted to enable servicing and maintenance to be carried out without the need
to release all air from the system, and pressure gauges are provided to indicate the air pressure in the main
and emergency storage bottles.
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Oil and water trap (Moisture separator )
The oil-and-water trap is designed to remove any oil or water which may be suspended in the air
delivered by the compressor. It consists of a casing with inlet and outlet connection at the top and a drain
valve at the bottom. Air entering the trap does so through a stack pipe, which includes a restriction and a
baffle to prevent the air flow stirring up any liquid or sediment in the bottom of the container. Air leaving
the trap also passes through a stack pipe, to prevent liquid or sediment entering the system during aircraft
manoeuvres.
Dehydrator (Desiccant Or Chemical dryer )
To protect pneumatic systems from malfunctioning due to moisture freezing in the components
and pipelines, the compressed air may be dehydrated by a substance such as activated alumina. After the
air leaves the moisture separator with about 98% of its moisture removed, it passes through a desiccant,
or chemical dryer, to remove the last traces of moisture. Before the air enters the operating portion of the
pneumatic system, or it may be inhibited by a small quantity of methanol vapour. The handling of
methanol presents some difficulties, however, and because of its corrosive nature systems must be
specially designed for its use; activated alumina is, therefore, more generally used.
Activated alumina is housed in a container through which the compressed air passes after leaving
the oil- and-water trap, and which generally contains a filter at the outlet end. The charge of alumina in
the container will gradually become saturated with moisture, and should be changed at specified intervals.
The number of flying hours at which the alumina charge is changed is normally determined by the aircraft
manufacturer through practical experience.
Storage Bottle
It provides the reservoir of compressed air which operates all services, the compressors being used
to build up system pressure when it falls below the normal level. The volume of the actuators and
pipelines determines the size of the bottles required for the normal and emergency operation of the
pneumatic services.
Storage bottles are generally made of steel, and may be of wire-wound construction for
maximum strength. Bottles are generally mounted in an upright position, and a fitting screwed into the
bottom end contains the supply connection and, usually, a connection to an associated pressure gauge,
together with a drain valve by means of which any moisture or sediment may be removed. Stack pipes
are provided at the supply and gauge connections in the fitting, to prevent contamination passing to the
system or pressure gauge. Pressure testing of high-pressure storage bottles is required at specified
periods, and the date of testing is usually stamped on the neck of the bottle.
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Lesson 22
SOURCES OF AIR PRESSURE
Introduction
Aircraft pneumatic systems are primarily used as emergency sources of pressure for hydraulically
operated subsystem. Since air is the main source for transmitting power in a pneumatic system, there is no
requirement of return system. Some aircraft use low pressure whereas some use high pressure pneumatic
system. The type of system required to be used is determined by the air pressure requirements. The
pneumatic system supplies air for the following:
air conditioning and
pressurization,
engine starting
anti-icing/de-icing.
hydraulic reservoir
pressurization,
emergency lowering of landing
gear and braking,
nose wheel steering,
passenger doors, etc
The sources of pneumatic power
engine bleed air,
auxiliary Power Unit (APU )
Ground source.
Engine Bleed Air
In general, there is one bleed air

system for each engine. The engine
bleed air system controls bleed air
temperature and pressure. Engine bleed
air is tapped from the appropriate stage
of a high pressure compressor. A bleed
air regulator and pressure regulation shut-off valve control the flow of bleed air to the pneumatic
manifold. A pre-cooler system controls the engine bleed air temperature. Pre-cooler system, which is
generally automatic, cools the engine bleed air. It is a cross flow type heat exchanger. It uses engine fan
air to cool the engine bleed air. The pre-cooler system controls engine bleed air temperature to 199°-
227°C (390°-440°F). As the engine bleed air moves through the pre-cooler, the bleed air gives up heat to
the walls of the pre-cooler. The walls are made of plates and fins. Engine fan air that goes through the
pre-cooler on the other side of the walls removes the heat and carries it away. Heat transfer goes from the
bleed air to the pre-cooler walls and to the fan air. The fan air then flows over the engine case and
overboard through the vent lines.
APU Bleed Air
Auxiliary power-units (APUs) are employed in many types of transport aircraft, their purpose being to
provide a source of electrical power and pressurized air (e.g. for air conditioning and main-engine
starting) thereby rendering aircraft less dependent on ground support equipment. Operation of an APU is
based on a small turbine engine which, not infrequently, is left running unattended for prolonged periods
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between flights. In addition, the installation design of some systems may require in-flight operation of an
APU. The integrity and satisfactory operation of APUs must, therefore, be ensured by regular monitoring,
and by observing maintenance practices which, in many
respects, are similar to those applied to the main power-
units of an aircraft.
The APU compressor discharges air into a plenum

chamber which is connected, via ducting, to the air
conditioning system and the main-engine air-starting
system of the aircraft. The bleed air thus supplied, is
automatically regulated to provide the correct amount
without overloading the APU. The bleed-air system of
some types of APU is also designed to by-pass air not
required by the aircraft, into the engine exhaust duct. In
addition to supplying bleed air, the plenum chamber also
serves to distribute air to the engine combustion system, in which a mixture of air and fuel is burned to
drive the turbine. The APU supplies bleed air to the pneumatic manifold. For aircraft having an APU, a
check valve is installed, which protects the APU from engine bleed air flow.
The pneumatic manifold system gets bleed air from the engines, APU, or ground source. A bleed
air isolation valve divides the pneumatic manifold into left and right sides. The normal position of this
valve is closed and as a result, a single duct failure cannot cause a loss of pressure to the whole pneumatic
manifold.
Ground source
A pneumatic system is fitted with one or more

charging valves, by means of which the system may be
fully pressurized from an external source. These valves
also act as, or include, a non-return valve, and are fitted
with a dust cap which must be removed when
connecting an external supply. Any external supply,
whether from high-pressure storage bottles or a mobile
compressor, must be fitted with oil-and-water traps, and,
preferably, a dehydrator, to ensure that the air supplied
is clean and dry. The supply hose should be capped
when not in use, and should be blown through with
compressed air before being connected to the charging
valve, to prevent the introduction of moisture or dirt into
the aircraft system. Care should be taken to turn off the
external supply and to release air pressure from the
supply hose before disconnecting it from the aircraft.
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Lesson 23
FOUR STAGE AIR COMPRESSOR
Introduction
A positive displacement pump is necessary to raise the air pressure sufficiently for the operation of a
pneumatic system, and a piston-type pump is generally used. Some older types of aircraft are fitted with a
single-cylinder piston pump, which provides two stage of compression and raises the working pressure to
approximately 450psi. To obtain higher working pressure further compression stages are required. The
compressor described is capable of raising air pressure in four compression stages 3500psi
Description
The air compressor is supplied with supercharged air from the engine bleed air system. This ensures an
adequate air supply to the compressor at all altitudes. The air compressor may be driven either by an
electric motor or a hydraulic motor. The system described here is hydraulically driven.
The compressor inlet air is filtered through high-temperature, 10 micron filter and the air pressure is
regulated by an absolute pressure –regulator to provide a stabilized source of air for the compressor.
The aircraft utility hydraulic system provides power to operate the hydraulic motor drive air
compressor. The air
compressor hydraulic actuating
system consists of a solenoid-
operated selector valve, flow
regulator, hydraulic motor, and
motor bypass (case drain) line
check valve. When energized,
the selector valve allows the
system to be pressurized to run
the hydraulic motor; when de--
energized the valve blocks off
utility system pressure,
stopping the motor. The flow
regulator, compensating for the
varying hydraulic system flow
and pressures, meters the flow
of fluid to the hydraulic motor
to prevent excessive speed
variation and/or over speeding
of the compressor. A check
valve in the motor bypass line
prevents system return line
pressures from entering the
motor and stalling it.
The air compressor
is the pneumatic system's
pressurizing air source. The
compressor is activated or
deactivated by the manifold pressure-sensing switch, which is an integral part of the moisture
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separator assembly.
The moisture separator assembly is the pneumatic system's pressure· sensing regulator and relief
valve. The manifold (system) pressure switch governs the operation of the air compressor. When the
manifold pressure drops below 2,750 p.s.i., the pressure-sensing switch closes, energizing the
separator's moisture dump valve and the hydraulic selector valve which activates the air compressor.
When the manifold pressure builds up to 3,150 p.s.i., the pressure· sensing switch opens, de-
energizing the hydraulic selector valve to deactivate the air compressor and dump valve, thus
venting overboard any moisture accumulated in the separator.
The thermostatically controlled wraparound-blanket type heating element prevents freezing of the
moisture within the moister separator due to low-temperature atmospheric conditions. The thermostat
closes at 40° F. and opens at 60° F.
Indication and warning
A pressure transmitter senses and electrically transmits a signal to the pneumatic pressure
indicator located in the cockpit. The indicating system is an "autosyn" type that functions exactly
like the hydraulic indicating systems.
An air charge valve provides the entire pneumatic system with a single external ground
servicing point. An air pressure gage, located near the air-charge valve, is used in servicing the
pneumatic system. This gage indicates the manifold pressure.
Electrically operated pressure switches are used in pneumatic systems with electrically driven
pumps to maintain system pressure within set limits. The pressure switch is set to open the electrical
circuit to the pump motor when system pressure builds up to correct values, causing the pump to stop. As
pressure drops to a lower value, the pressure switch closes the circuit to start the pump operating again.
Pressure switches are also used in pneumatic systems to control the operation of warning and
protective devices. The switch may turn on a light to warn the pilot of insufficient pressure, or in
excessive pressure.
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Lesson 24
PRESSURE CONTROL
Introduction: Pneumatic system pressure must be regulated in order to use it to perform the
desired task. Pressure regulating systems will always use four elemental devices; a pressure relief valve,
a pressure regulator, pressure reducing valve and a pressure gauge.
PRESSURE REGULATOR (PNEUMATIC)
PURPOSE
The pressure regulator is fitted to control the maximum pressure in the system and to offload the
compressor when the system is
idle.
Description
With the regulator illustrated in
figure, system pressure is fed to
the top connection and acts on a
piston, the lower end of which is in
contact with the ball of a spring
loaded ball valve. At the pre
determined maximum system
pressure, the air pressure on the
piston overcomes spring pressure
and the ball valve is opened,
releasing third-stage compressor
pressure to atmosphere and
allowing the pump to operate at
second-stage pressure only. If any
pneumatic services are operated, or
a leak exists in the system, the air
pressure trapped in the storage
bottle and pipelines will drop, and
the ball valve in the pressure
regulator will close. The
compressor will thus be brought
back on line until the maximum
system pressure is restored.
PRESSURE REDUCING VALVE (PNEUMATIC)
Purpose of pressure reducing valve
Some services operate at lower than the pressure available in the bottle, and are supplied through a
pressure reducing valve. This low pressure is, in some instances, further reduced for the operation of, for
example, the wheel brakes, by the fitting of a second pressure reducing valve.
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Description
When pressure in the low-pressure system is below the valve setting, the compression spring
extends and, by the action of the bell-crank mechanism, moves the inlet valve plunger to admit air from
the high- pressure system. As the pressure in the low-pressure system increases, the bellows compresses
the spring and return the inlet valve plunger to the closed position. The inside of the bellows is vented to
atmosphere, and the valve thus maintains a constant difference in pressure between the low-pressure
system and atmospheric pressure.
Pressure maintaining valve
Purpose
It is designed to conserve air pressure for the operation of essential services (e.g. landing gear
extension and wheel brake operation), in the event of the pneumatic system pressure falling below a
predetermined value.
Description
Under normal condition air pressure is sufficient to open the valve against spring pressure and
allow air to flow to the non-essential services. Should the pressure in the storage bottle fall below a value
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pre-set by the valve spring, however, the valve will close (as shown in figure) and prevent air passing to
the non-essential services.
Pressure Relief Valves
A pressure relief valve is used to limit the amount of

pressure being exerted on a confined liquid. This is necessary to
prevent failure of components or rupture of hydraulic lines under
excessive pressures. The pressure relief valve is, in effect, a system
safety valve.
The design of pressure relief valves incorporates adjustable spring-
loaded valves. They are installed in such a manner as to discharge
fluid from the pressure line into a reservoir return line when the
pressure exceeds the predetermined maximum for which the
valve is adjusted.
The relief valve protects the system against over pressurization

(thermal expansion). The relief valve opens when the system
pressure reaches 3,750 p.s.i. and re-seats at 3,250 p.s.i.
The thermostatically controlled wraparound-blanket type heating element prevents freezing of the
moisture within the moister separator due to low-temperature atmospheric conditions. The thermostat
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closes at 40° F. and opens at 60° F.
ACTUATOR
Purpose
The purpose of an actuator is to transform the energy of the compressed air into linear or rotary
motion.
Description
Actuators in pneumatic
systems are normally of the linear
type, and are similar in
construction and operation to
those described in hydraulic
systems. Because of the nature of
the operating medium, however,
actuators in pneumatic systems
are often DAMPED to prevent
violent operation of the services.
A typical damped actuator is illustrated in given figure, the damping in this case being obtained by
forcing grease through the annular space between the inner wall of the piston rod and a stationary damper
piston; an orifice and plate valve in the damper piston provide less damping action when the piston rod
retracts than when it extends. This type of actuator could be used, for example, to operate the landing gear
and to restrict the rate of extension. When piston rod extends, plate valve closes orifice of damper piston
giving damping action during extension of piston rod.
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Lesson 25
SOURCES OF AIR SUPPLY FOR CABIN PRESSURIZATION & AIR-CONDITION
Introduction
The air conditioning system of an aircraft is designed to maintain selected temperature conditions
within flight crew, passenger and other compartments, and comprises five principal sections: air supply,
heating, cooling, temperature control, and distribution. In some aircraft a humidity control section also
forms part of the air conditioning system.
In pressurized aircraft, the air conditioning and pressurization systems are intrinsically linked, and it is the
controlled discharge of pressurized and conditioned air, which maintains the selected cabin altitude.
Air supply
The source of air supply and arrangement of essential components depends on the type of aircraft
and air conditioning system employed, but in general one of the methods described in the following
paragraphs may be adopted.
Ram Air:
This method is adopted
in certain small types of
unpressurised aircraft utilizing
either combustion heating or
engine exhaust heat exchanger
systems. A typical system is
diagrammatically illustrated in
Figure. Typical locations for a
ram air intake are at the nose of
an aircraft or in a dorsal fairing
at the base of the fin or vertical
stabilizer. The air, after
circulating through the cabin, is
discharged to atmosphere via a
spill vent.
Engine Bleed Air:

This method is adopted
in certain types of turbo-jet
aircraft, in which hot air, readily available from main engine compressors is tapped off and supplied to
the cabin. Before the air enters the cabin it is passed through appropriate control valves and a temperature
control system to reduce its pressure and temperature .With gas turbine engines the cabin can be
pressurized by bleeding air from the engine compressor. Usually the air bled from an engine compressor
is sufficiently free from contamination and can be used safely for cabin pressurization. Even so; there are
several disadvantages when using bleed air from turbine engine compressors. Among these disadvantages
are: (1) The possibility of contamination of the air from lubricants or fuel in the event of leakage, and (2)
dependence of the air supply on the engine performance.
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Auxiliary Power Unit (APU):

The auxiliary power unit, where fitted, is an independent source of pressurized air. Operation of the
APU is, however, subject to certain limitations.
Cabin supercharger
Reciprocating engine internal
superchargers provide the simplest means of
cabin pressurization. This is accomplished by
ducting air from a manifold which supplies
compressed air from a supercharger to the
pistons. This arrangement can be used only
when the engine carburetor is downstream of
the supercharger. When the carburetor is
upstream of the supercharger, as is often the
case, this method cannot be used since the
compressed air contains fuel. Air for cabin
pressurization can also be ducted from a
turbocharger used with a reciprocating
engine.
There are several disadvantages in using these
two methods. The cabin air becomes
contaminated with fumes from lubricating oil,
exhaust gases, and fuel. Also, cabin
pressurization at high altitude becomes
impossible as the discharge pressure of the supercharger decreases to nearly ambient. A third
disadvantage is the decrease in engine performance near its design ceiling due to the air loss for cabin
pressurization.
Compressors or Blowers:
This method is utilized in some types of turbo-jet, turbo propeller and piston-engine aircraft, the
compressors or blowers being driven by the engines via accessory drives, gear boxes or bleed air.
Air is drawn in through a ram air intake located in a wing leading edge or an engine nacelle fairing.
A filter unit may be provided to protect the blower rotors from foreign matter and to ensure a clean air
supply. In order to reduce the level of noise emanating from the blower, silencers are incorporated in the
main supply ducting.
Heating
The method of heating the air depends on the type of air supply system and one of the methods
outlined in the-following paragraphs may be adopted.
Combustion Heating
This method is normally associated with a direct type of ram air ventilating system, and depends for its
operation on the combustion of a fuel and air mixture within a special cylindrical combustion chamber.
Air for combustion is obtained from a blower and the fuel is metered from the aircraft fuel system by a
solenoid-operated control valve. A filter and safety valve are also incorporated in the fuel supply line to
the combustion chamber. The fuel-air mixture is ignited by a spark plug, the burning gases travelling the
length of the combustion chamber and passing through transfer passages to an exhaust outlet. Ventilating
air from the ram air intake passes through the heater and is heated by contact with the outer surfaces of
the combustion chamber.
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Blower operation and supply of fuel is normally controlled by a single switch.

Regulation of the cabin temperature is carried out by the manual setting of a mechanically controlled
switch installed in the ducting downstream of the heater.
Engine Exhaust Heating:
This method is also associated with ram air ventilating systems, but heating of the air supply is
affected in a simpler and more direct manner. Air enters through an intake connected to a heater muff
which surrounds the exhaust pipe of a piston engine exhaust system. After heating, the air passes into the
cabin via a chamber through which cold air also flows from an intake situated either in the fuselage or in
the wing depending on the installation. Mechanically operated valves are provided to control the mixing
of the air flows and so regulate the temperature.
Compression Heating :
This system of heating relies on the principle whereby the air temperature is increased by
compression and forms the basis of the heating method employed in air supply systems utilizing engine
driven compressors or engine bleed air
.
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Lesson 26
CABIN ATMOSPHERE CONTROL SYSTEM
Introduction
Oxygen is essential for most living processes. The sluggish condition of mind and body caused by a
deficiency or lack of oxygen is called hypoxia. From sea level to 8000 ft. above sea level, the oxygen
content and pressure in the atmosphere remain sufficiently high to maintain almost full saturation of the
blood with oxygen and ensure normal body and mental functions. At 10000 ft above sea level oxygen
saturation of the blood is about 90%. Oxygen saturation drops to 81 % at 15000 ft. above seal level. At
22,000 ft. above sea level the blood saturation is 68 % and convulsions are likely to occur. Remaining
without oxygen supply at 25,000 ft for 5 minutes where the blood saturation is down to 55 to 50 % will
cause unconsciousness.
Composition of the atmosphere
The mixture of gases commonly called air but more technically termed atmosphere is composed
principally of nitrogen and oxygen and nitrogen, but there are smaller quantities of other important gases,
notable carbon dioxide, water vapour, and ozone. Atmosphere consists 21 % oxygen, 78% Nitrogen
and 1 % other gases.
Pressure of the Atmosphere
The gases of the atmosphere although invisible have

weight just like a solid matter. The weight of a column of
air stretching from the surface of the earth out into space
is called the atmospheric pressure. Atmospheric pressure
decreases with increasing altitude.
Temperature and Altitude
The atmosphere is being made up of several layers.

The lowest layer is called the troposphere. The air
temperature decreases with increasing altitude in the
troposphere and reaches a definite minimum at the top of
the layer. The top of the troposphere is called the
tropopause. The tropopause marks the point at which air
temperature stops decreasing with increasing altitude,
and remains essentially constant.
The atmospheric layer above the tropopause is called the stratosphere. The lower stratosphere is an
isothermal (constant temperature) region in which the temperature does not vary with altitude. The
isothermal region continues up to 82,000 to 115,000 ft. altitude. Above this level the temperature
increases sharply at the rate of about t.5 deg cent. per 1,000 ft. The temperature reaches a peak at about
164,000 to 197,000 ft. altitude. Above the 197,000 ft., the temperature decreases again up to about
230,000 to 262,000 ft. Above this level, the temperature again increases and apparently continues to
increases until the edge of space.
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PRESSURISATION SYSTEM
Pressurisation
Introduction
Most of the aircrafts are air-conditioned and pressurised today for the comfort of crew and
passengers. Aircraft are required to fly at high altitudes to avoid bad weather and turbulence of air.
Aircraft burns less fuel for a given airspeed than it does for the same speed at a lower altitude.
Purposes
(i) It assures adequate passenger comfort and safety.

(ii) It must be capable of maintaining a “cabin pressure altitude” of approximately 8000 ft at
the maximum designed cruising altitude of the aircraft.
(iii) System must be designed to prevent rapid changes of cabin altitude which may be
uncomfortable or injurious to passengers and crew.
(iv) To eliminate odour and stale air from cabin to atmosphere.
Major components used in pressurization system
1) Pressure controller
2) Outflow valve
3) Pressure relief valve
4) Negative pressure relief valve or Vacuum relief valve
5) Dump valve
Description of components
i) Pressure controller: This is the source of control signals for pressurisation system. It sends
either pneumatic or electrical signals (as per design) to out-flow valve to keep cabin
differential pressure at desired value. Cabin pressure controller operation may be automatic
or manual. In normal condition, it controls outflow valve automatically by selection of
desired cabin altitude and rate of change of cabin pressure.
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ii) Out flow valve: This valve vents cabin

air overboard through suitable openings in the
wing fillet or the fuselage skin. Small aircraft
uses one outflow valve. Large aircraft may use
more number of outflow valves which work in
unison to provide required volume of outflow of
air and maintains required cabin pressure
differential. Outflow valves may be operated
electrically or pneumatically. In many aircraft
outflow valve will be held fully opened on the
ground by landing gear operated switch. During
flight, as altitude is gained the valve closes
gradually to make greater restriction to the
outflow of cabin air. The cabin rate of climb or
descent is determined by the rate of closing or
opening of the outflow valves. During cruising
flight, the cabin altitude is directly proportional
to the degree of out flow valve opening.
iii) Safety valve or Positive Pressure relief

valve: It may be integral part of outflow valve
or a separate unit. Pressure relief valve
automatically opens when cabin differential
pressure reaches a preset value.
iv) Negative pressure relief valve: It is a simple hinged flap valve which allows outside air to come
into cabin when cabin pressure is less then outside pressure. During steep descent of aircraft outside
pressure becomes more drastically. This causes negative pressure relief valve to come into operation.
V) Dump valve: A dump valve is used to release all cabin pressurization when the aircraft lands. This
valve is commonly controlled by a landing gear squat switch. When L/G is compressed the squat switch
causes dump valve to open and equalizes the cabin and ambient atmospheric pressure. This valve may be
operated either from cockpit by electrical switch or manually. It dumps cabin air to atmosphere when
switch is put to RAM position. Dump valve is a type of butterfly valve incorporated in pressurisation
system of aircraft. It is used to release cabin pressure in a controlled way by the pilot either electrically by
a switch or mechanically by a handle provided in the cockpit.
Functions
1) In case pressurisation system of aircraft fails, dump valve can be operated manually by pilot to
maintain cabin pressurisation until emergency landing is made.
2) In case of fire or other emergency, it can be used to de-pressurise cabin.
3) As a routine procedure, dump valve is used to depressurise the cabin before landing.
Dump valve is located on fuselage skin at the belly of fuselage or in the wing fillet to release cabin air
pressure overboard.
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Description
In the typical pressurization system, the cabin, flight compartment, and baggage compartments are
incorporated into a sealed unit which is capable of containing air under a pressure higher them outside
atmospheric pressure. Pressurized air is pumped into this sealed fuselage by cabin superchargers which
deliver a relatively constant volume of air at all altitudes up to a designed maximum. Air is released from
the fuselage by a device called an outflow valve. Since the superchargers provide a constant inflow of air
to the pressurized area, the outflow valve, by regulating the air exit, is the major controlling element in
the pressurization system.
The flow of air through an outflow valve is determined by the degree of valve opening. This valve
is ordinarily controlled by automatic system which can be set by the flight crewmembers. In the event of
a malfunction of the automatic controls, manual controls are also provided.
The degree of pressurization and. therefore, the operating altitude of the aircraft are limited by
several critical design factors. Primarily the fuselage is designed to withstand a particular maximum
cabin differential pressure. Cabin differential pressure is the ratio between inside and outside air
pressure and is a measure of the internal stress on the fuselage skin. If the differential pressure
becomes too great, structural damage to the fuselage may occur. In addition, pressurization is limited by
the capacity of the superchargers to maintain a constant volume of airflow to the fuselage. As altitude is
increased, the pressure of the air entering the supercharger becomes less; consequently, the
superchargers have to work harder to accomplish their part of the job. Eventually at some high attitude
the superchargers will reach their designed limit of speed, power absorbed, or some other operating
factor. The aircraft will normally not be flown higher than these limits allow.
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Lesson 27
Terms Related to Pressurization
(l) Absolute pressure. Pressure measured along a scale which has zero value at a complete vacuum.
(2) Absolute temperature. Temperature measured along a scale which has zero value at that point where
there is no molecular motion (-273.10 C. or -459.60 F.).
(3) Adiabatic. A word meaning no transfer of heat. The adiabatic process is one in which no heat is
transferred between the working substance and any outside source.
(5) Ambient temperature. The temperature in the area immediately surrounding the object under
discussion.
(6) Ambient pressure. The pressure in the area immediately surrounding tile object under discussion.
(7) Standard barometric pressure. The weight of gases in the atmosphere sufficient to hold up a
column of mercury 760 millimetres high (approximately 30 in.) at sea level (14.7 p.s.i.). This pressure
decrease with altitude.
(8) Cabin altitude. Used to express cabin pressure in terms of equivalent altitude above sea level.
(9) Differential pressure. The difference in pressure between the pressure acting on one side of a wall
and the pressure acting on the other side of the wall. In aircraft air conditioning and pressurizing systems,
it is the difference between cabin pressure and atmospheric pressure.
(10) Gage pressure. A measure of the pressure in a vessel, container, or line, as compared to ambient
pressure.
(11) Ram-air temperature rise. The increase in temperature created by the ram compression on the
surface of an aircraft travelling at a high rate of speed through the atmosphere. The rate of increase is
proportional to the square of the speed of the object.
(12) Mode of Pressurisation

Isobaric range: maintains the cabin at constant pressure altitude during flight at various
levels. It is used until aircraft reaches the altitude at which the difference between cabin
pressure & outside pressure is equal to highest differential pressure for which fuselage
structure is designed.
Differential range: is used to prevent maximum differential pressure for which aircraft
fuselages was designed from being exceeded.
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Lesson 28
PRESSURE CONTROLLER AND OUT FLOW VALVE
Introduction
Pressurisation of aircraft is maintained by controlled release of air from cabin through outflow
valve. Outflow valve gets operated by signals (either electrical or pneumatic) from pressure controller.
Pressure controller may either produce electrical signals or pneumatic signals. The signals are
amplified and sent to outflow valve. If electrical signals are sent to outflow valve, an electrical motor
opens the outflow valve as per requirement. Degree of opening of outflow determines cabin altitude.
Pressure controller
It has three knobs

1) Barometric setting knob
2) Cabin altitude knob
3) Cabin rate of climb and descent knob
There are two dial-segments and a dial gauge.

The dial is graduated in cabin altitude increments up to approx 10000 ft. Usually there is one pointer
which can be adjusted to the desired cabin altitude by the cabin altitude set knob. In some cases there is
another pointer or a rotating scale which
also indicates the corresponding aircraft
pressure altitude. A separate knob
adjusts the control to the existing
altimeter setting (or sea level
barometric pressure). The barometric
setting selected is indicated on a
separate dial segment. The third knob
on controller adjusts the cabin rate of
altitude change. This adjustment cab be
made on a separate control in some
installation.
When the controller knobs are
set, adjustments are made on either an
electric or a pneumatic signalling
device inside the controller. The
settings are compared to the existing
cabin pressure by an aneroid or
evacuated bellows, if the cabin altitude
does not correspond to that which is set
by the knobs, the bellows causes the
appropriate signal to go to the outflow
valve. When the bellows determines
that the cabin altitude has reached that
which has been set, the signals to the
outflow valve are stopped. As long as
other factors do not change, the outflow
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valve is held at the setting to maintain desired cabin pressure. The controller can sense any change such
as variance of aircraft altitude or loss of one super charger, and re-adjust the outflow valve as necessary.
Rate control determines how fast the controller sends signals to the outflow valve. In some
controllers the rate signal is partially automatic.
Barometric setting
a) Compensates the controller for normal errors in altimetry.

b) Improves the accuracy of the controller.
c) Protects the cabin from being partially pressurised while a landing is made.
Note: Signals (electric or pneumatic) originated from pressure controller are weak. These weak signals
are amplified and sent-to outflow valve.
Outflow valve
Outflow valve opening and closing is controlled by signals received from pressure controller. It
may be incorporated with positive pressure relief valve or it may be externally connected to outflow valve
by plumbing. Like wise it may be incorporated with negative pressure relief valve also. Negative pressure
relief valve allows outside atmospheric pressure to come into cabin when atmospheric pressure exceeds
cabin pressure. Degree of opening of outflow valve determines cabin altitude.
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Lesson 29
PRESSURISATION INDICATORS AND WARNINGS
Introduction
Aircrafts which are required to be flown to high altitudes need pressurisation. Aircraft
pressurisation needs to be monitored by pilot continuously. Continuous monitoring of aircraft
pressurisation requires certain instruments (indicators) in cockpit.
Important instruments fitted in cockpit for keeping tab on aircraft pressurisation are as follows.
1) Cabin differential pressure gauge

2) Cabin altimeter
3) Cabin rate of climb or descent
Cabin differential pressure gauge indicates the difference between inside and outside pressure.
This gauge should be monitored to assure that the cabin is not approaching the maximum allowable
differential pressure.
Cabin altimeter is also provided as a check on the performance of the system.
Note: In some cases, these two instruments are combined into one unit. Outer dial reeds cabin differential
pressure and inner dial of small hand reads cabin pressure altitude.
Cabin rate of climb or descent
Indicator has “O” marking in the middle left side of dial. Above “O” marking “UP” readings is
shown on gauge. Below “O” marking down scale readings are shown by gauge. It is in multiples of
1000 Ft/Minutes. “Up readings” are for ascent of aircraft and “Down readings” are for descent of
aircraft.
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Lesson 30
AIRCONDITIONING SYSTEM
Introduction :
The function of air-conditioning system is to maintain a comfortable air temperature within

aircraft fuselage. The system will increase or decrease the temperature of the air as needed to obtain the
desired value. In some aircraft a humidity control section also forms part of air condition system.
Air-conditioning system is designed to perform any or all of the following functions:
(1) Supply Ventilation Air

(2) Supply Heated Air
(3) Supply Cool Air
Ventilation Air:
Ventilation air is obtained through ram air ducts installed in the leading, lower, or upper
surfaces of the aircraft or through other vents in the aircraft skin. Air entering these opening usually passes
into and through the same duct system that is used for heating and cooling.
Heating Systems:
A large part of the heating requirements for the conditioned air is accomplished
automatically when the air is compressed by the cabin superchargers. In many cases additional heat need
not to be added. Compression of the air often provides more than the necessary heating. Consequently,
cooling, to some degree, is required even when the outside air temperature is not high.
When a degree of heating in addition to that obtained from the “heat of compression” is needed,
one of the following types of systems is put into operation:
(1) Gasoline Combustion Heaters

(2) Electric Heaters
(3) Re-cycling of Compressed Air
(4) Exhaust Gas Air to Air Heat Exchanger.
Cooling System:
Air cooling system is installed to provide a comfortable atmosphere within the aircraft
both on ground and at all altitudes.
Two of the more common types cooling systems are used in aircraft:
(1) Air Cycle System

(2) Vapour Cycle System
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Lesson 31
Air Cycle Cooling System :
Modern large turbine powered aircraft make use of air-cycle machines to adjust the temperature of
the air directed into the passenger and crew compartments of these large aircraft. The large aircraft utilize
air-cycle cooling machines because of its simplicity, freedom from troubles, and economy.
The principle of cooling by means of gas is rather simple. When a gas (air) is compressed, it
becomes heated, and when the pressure is reduced, the gas becomes cool.
Air Cycle System Components :
The major components of air cycle system are Primary heat exchanger, Secondary heat exchanger,
Air cycle machine (compressor and turbine), Water separator, Thermostat and Cabin temperature
control valve.
System Operation :
The turbine-compressor unit by which air is cooled is called an air-cycle machine.

Hot compressed air from the compressor of engine turbine flows through the primary heat exchanger. The
heat exchanger is exposed to ram air, which removes heat from the air. The cooled but still compressed
air is then ducted to compressor inlet of ACM. The compressor further compresses the air and causes it to
rise in temperature. This air
is directed to the secondary
heat exchanger which,
being exposed to ram air,
removes heat from
compressed air. The
compressed air is then
directed to the expansion
turbine. The expansion
turbine absorbs energy
from the air and utilizes
this energy to drive the
compressor. As the air
exits the expansion turbine,
it enters a large chamber
which allows the air to
expand and cause a further
reduction in the air
temperature. Thus the air
living the turbine is cooled
by the loss of heat energy
and by the expansion that
takes place. The great
reduction in temperature
causes the moisture in the
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air to condense, and this moisture is removed by means of a water separator.

The water separator (coalesces) is installed downstream of CAU to extract a percentage of free
moisture from the air which subsequently ventilates & pressurises the cabin. Air from the CAU (Cold Air
Unit) turbine enters the separator and passes through an assembly in which the moisture in the air
coalesces into large water droplets.
The droplets are then carried by the air to a separator assembly which extracts the water. The
water is then drained away though a drain line to an over board vent, or into the heat exchanger RAM air
supply to provide additional cooling. To ensure that the flow of air to the cabin is maintained in the event
of the water separator assembly becoming obstructed by ice, a safety valve is normally provided.
The dried cool air is then routed to ducting to be utilized as required to provide the desired temperature in
the cabin. A bypass duct with the cabin temperature control valve will bypass air around the cooling
system, when cooling is not required.
As air leave ACM, it is so cold that the water may freeze in water separator and shut off flow of cooling
air. To prevent this thermostat senses the temperature of air leaving the water separator. If the
temperature drops below 38o F the water temperature control valve opens and lets warm air from primary
heat exchanger mix with cold air to raise the temperature that the moisture will not freeze.
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Lesson 32
AIR Conditioning Cooling (Vapour Cycle)
Introduction
Air conditioning cooling is affected by evaporation and condensation of low boiling point liquid
like Freaon (CCl2F2) which is dichloro difluoro methane used on large transport aircraft.
Advantages
1) Greater cooling capacity than air cycle system.

2) Can be used on ground when the engines are not operating.
Principle Used
Evaporation (Vaporisation) of low boiling point refrigerant absorbs heat from heat source (Here it
is cabin air). Condensation of vapour evolves heat to heat sink (atmosphere)
Components
(a) A Liquid Receiver: to provide a storage area for the liquid refrigerant.
(b) A Thermostatic Expansion Valve: to control and meter the liquid refrigerant into the evaporator.
(c) An Evaporator: which is a form of heat exchanger designed to extract heat from the main air supply
prior to distribution into the aircraft.
(d) A Compressor: to provide the motive force for refrigerant re-circulation, and in conjunction with the
thermostatic expansion valve, maintain the pressure differential between the condenser and evaporator.
The effect of this differential improves both vaporization and condensation of the refrigerant as follows.
The compressor in drawing vapour from the evaporator assembly, decrease~ Ute effective pressure acting
upon it, the consequence of which reduces the boiling point of the refrigerant. Conversely, on the
discharge side of the compressor, vapour pressure is increased. This has the effect of increasing the
boiling point and condensation point of the refrigerant, which returns to a liquid state when the latent heat
is removed in the condenser.
NOTE: The coupled turbine of the compressor may be driven by an independent air supply (e.g. a
tapping from a wing de-icing system), the main air supply, or electrically.
(e) A Condenser: which is a form of heat exchanger designed to extract heat from the vaporized
refrigerant?
(f) A Condenser Fan: which provides (in the absence of ram air), cooling air for the condenser.
(g) The Refrigerant: which is a low boiling point volatile liquid such as; ammonia, sulphur dioxide, or
dichlorodifluoromethane generally referred to by the trade name of 'Freon'.
Refrigeration Cycle or Vapour Cycle
(a) Liquid refrigerant passes from the liquid receiver to the thermostatic expansion valve for controlled
release into the matrix of the evaporator.
(b) Heated air from the main air supply system (prior to entry into the cabin distribution system) passes
through the evaporator matrix and by induction releases heat into the liquid refrigerant.
NOTE: The main air supply entering the distribution system is now at a reduced temperature.
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(c) As a consequence, the liquid refrigerant boils to a vapour.

(d)The vaporized refrigerant is then drawn into the compressor, compressed to a high pressure and
temperature, to enter the condenser.
(e) The condenser; cooled by ram air, reduces the temperature of the vaporized refrigerant, and as a
consequence returns the vapour back to a liquid form which then flows back into the liquid receiver to
repeat the cycle
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Lesson 33
AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM
Distribution
General description: The air used for conditioning purposes is distributed by a ducting system
the layout of which depends on the type of a/c and air conditioning system. In a basic system, such as that
employing a ram air supply and combustion heating and ducting is generally in two distinct sections and
provides air separate flows of cold and heated air. The out lets for cold air are normally of the adjustable
louver type and are installed so that air flows from such points as below “hat racks”, cockpit and cabin
side wall. Heated air is distributed through “outlet grilles” at floor level, the degree of heat being
regulated by mechanical valves directly controlled at the outlets or by control knobs in the flight
compartment heated air duct also has branch duct which directs heated air to the wind shield panels for
demisting.
In large a/c the air conditioning equipment is grouped together in its own compartment or bay.
The conditioned air is distributed to passenger cabin through under floor and hat rack ducting, the hat-
rack duct has outlet grilles and required number of adjustable cold air louvers which get supply from cold
air source. The distribution of air to flight crew compartment may, in some cases, be through separate
ducting or it may be through ducting tapped into the passenger cabin ducting. Typical locations for air
outlets are at floor or roof levels and in sidewalls.
Tapings are taken from the cabin and flight crew compartment ducting system for supplying warm
air to cabin windows and wind shield for demisting. After circulation the air is exhausted to atmosphere
through the discharge or outflow valves In the pressurisation system.
Materials used for ducting

i) Light alloy
ii) Plastic
iii) Fibreglass reinforced plastic
iv) Stainless steel (for hot air section of engines bleed air supply)
Types of joints in ducts

i) Duct to duct
ii) Duct to components
Method of joining
i) By flanges and ring clamps of V – section
ii) By rubber sleeves fitted over the ends of ducts and secured by adjustable clamps,
Rubber adhesive and bolted flanges.
Fibreglass formed into blanket section by a covering of synthetic material eg nylon is used for lagging of
duct section. To permit longitudinal movement of ducting as it expands and contracts, expansion bellows,
sliding clamps and gimbal mountings are provided in some of the larger aircraft systems.
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Lesson 34
Air condition system temperature & humidity control
General description:
Control of air temperature conditions in passenger cabin, flight crew and other
compartment is accomplished by modulating the valves installed in the air ducting of heating and cooling
sections of air condition system. The methods of control vary and depend on the type of aircraft and the
air conditioning system employed. In general two principal methods are adopted
i) Mechanical
ii) Electromechanical
Mechanical control
One mechanical method, which, for example, is employed in aircraft utilising air engine exhaust
heating system and consists of valves which can be manually positioned to regulate the temperature by
varying the proportions of hot and cold air passing through a “mixing box” before delivering it to the
cabin. In some installation, hot and cold air enters the cabin through separate valves and ducting.
Electromechanical control
(i) Electromechanical method for combustion heating system.
In combustion heating system, the electrical power supply to the solenoid valve is automatically
controlled by the duct thermostat. When the temperature of the air flowing from combustion heater
exceeds the thermostat setting, the thermostat de-energises the solenoid valve to isolate fuel supply to the
heater. As heater cools, the thermostat opens the solenoid valve to restore fuel supply to heater and
combustion process. By cycling ON and OFF the heater maintains an even temperature in the cabin.
(ii) Electromechanical method utilising

a) Compression heating
b) Air cycle system
c) Vapour cycle system
Electro mechanical temperature control system is designed to automatically modulate actuator

motors which control particular valves. A typical system comprises
a) duct temperature sensing element
b) cabin temperature sensing element
c) temperature selector
d) automatic control unit
These components are electrically interconnected to form “a resistance bridge circuit” which is
balance when cabin air temperature is at selected value.
If the bridge circuit is placed out of balance by resistance change in either of the sensing elements
due to temperature variation, or by varying the selector switch setting, an error signal is produced which
is fed to an amplifier stage of the control unit. The amplified signal is then fed to the appropriate actuator
motors which position their respective valves to adjust the air flows and so correct the temperature change
until the bridge circuit is restored to a balanced condition.
Manual controls are provided to permit overriding the automatic circuit. Low temperature and
high temperature limit control devices are provided to prevent “icing” in the water separator and ensure
that upper limits of supply air temperature are not exceeded.
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Note: In some aircraft employing compression heating, control is by manual means only and is
effected by placing a temperature control valve (TCV) switch to “cool” or “hot” position appropriately.
HUMIDITY CONTROL
Humidity control at high altitude
When aircraft is flying at higher altitude, there is a discomfort due to lower relative
humidity. Humidifier unit is installed to increase the humidity of supply air. Humidifier unit consists of
source of air supply and water supply. Water source may be an individual tank or can be tapped from
galley water system. Water and air supplies are controlled by electromagnetic valves. Water is atomized
through jet nozzles and sprayed into distribution ducting of the cabin there by increasing the moisture
content of supply air to the cabin.
Humidity control at low altitude
When aircraft flies at low altitude, it faces high relative humidity. Moisture content of
supply air is reduced by “water separator”. Water separator is fitted with coalescers which convert
moisture into water droplets. These water droplets are thrown into atmosphere. Thus cooled dry air is
supplied to the cabin.
The separators are used in the cabin air conditioning system to remove excessive moisture
from the air. In most refrigeration systems a water separator is installed in the discharge duct of the
cooling turbine.
The water separator removes excess moisture from the conditioned air by passing the air
through a coalescent bag or condenser. Very small water particles in the form of fog or mist in the air are
formed into larger particles in passing through the condenser. As the moisture laden air passes through
the vanes of the coalescent support, the water particles are carried with the swirling air and are thrown
outward against the walls of the collector. The water then drains into a collector sump and is drained
overboard.
Some water separators also contain a pressure relief and altitude sensitive bypass valve.
Since very little moisture is present in the air at high altitudes, the bypass valve in the water separator
opens at a predetermined altitude, generally 20000 ft., to permit cool air to pass directly through the water
separator, bypassing the coalescent bag and reducing system back pressure. The bypass valve will also
open if, for some reason, the coalescent bag should become obstructed.
A coalescent bag condition indicator is provided on some water separators to indicate
when the bag is dirty. The indicator senses a pressure drop across the bag and indicates when the pressure
drop is excessive. Since the indicator is pressure sensitive, the condition of the bag can be determined
only while the system is in operation.
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Lesson 35
Oxygen system
Introduction
Aircraft oxygen systems are provided to supply the required amount of oxygen to keep a sufficient
concentration of oxygen in the lungs to permit normal activity to indicated altitudes of 40000 ft. There are
two ways to provide high-flying aircraft with the oxygen needed to sustain life. The cabin can be
pressurized to increase the total pressure of the air surrounding the occupants. This raises the partial
pressure of the oxygen enough that it can enter the blood stream from the lungs. The other way is to
furnish the occupants with supple oxygen. When the percentage of oxygen in the air is increased, its
partial pressure becomes high enough to force it into the blood.
Types of Oxygen supply

1. Gaseous oxygen
2. Liquid oxygen
3. Chemical oxygen candle or solid chemical compound
Gaseous oxygen
Gaseous oxygen is 'stored in high-pressure steel cylinders that keep the oxygen under a pressure of
between 1,800 and 1850 pounds per square inch. At one time low-pressure oxygen systems were used in
which the oxygen was carried in large cylinders under a pressure of 450 psi, but since these cylinders
took up so much space in the aircraft, they are no longer used.
Oxygen used for welding and cutting, for industrial chemical processes, and for hospital and
ambulance use is not suited for use in aircraft oxygen systems because of its water content. Just a tiny
drop of moisture can freeze in the regulator and shut off the flow of oxygen to the mask. Aircraft oxygen
systems must be serviced exclusively with aviators' oxygen that meets military specifications MIL-O-
21749 or MIL-O-27210. This oxygen is at least 99.5% pure and contains no more than 0.02 milligram of
water per liter.
Liquid oxygen (LOX)

Liquid oxygen (LOX) systems are used in most modem military aircraft because of their efficiency
and small space requirements, but they find little application in civilian aircraft because of the special
handling LOX requires.
LOX is a pale Blue transparent liquid that boils under standard pressure at a temperature of about -
180°F. To keep it in its liquid form, it is stored in a vented Dewar bottle, a special double-wall, spherical
container made of steel. The inner surfaces of the container's double walls are reflective, which
minimizes the transfer of heat by radiation, and all the air is pumped out of the space between the walls
to minimize the transfer of heat by conduction.
Chemical oxygen candle

Chemical oxygen candles are used when oxygen is used only occasionally, as it is in smaller general
aviation aircraft, or when it is used as an emergency backup, as in some transport aircraft.
Sodium chlorate, mixed with a binding material, is molded into a specially shaped solid block. This
block is installed inside an insulated stainless steel fire proof case. When oxygen is needed, a spring
loaded igniter starts the sodium chlorate burning. As it bums, it releases a quantity of oxygen. Once the
candle, as this block is called, is ignited, it must bum until. It is consumed, because there is no way to
shut it off.
Chemical oxygen candles have an extremely long shelf life, they are safe to store and to handle,
they are lightweight, and in use they produce very little fire hazard. With the exception of the routine
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inspection they require for security of mounting and general condition, chemical oxygen candles require
no attention or servicing until after they have been used.
Characteristic of chemical candle system
1. Once the candle is ignited, it releases its oxygen at a predetermined rate

2. Which cannot be shut off or changed until the candle is exhausted.
3. The storage capacity is about three times that of a gaseous oxygen system.
4. The system generators are inert below 400F even under severe impact.
5. The distributing and regulating system is self-contained. It consists of a stainless steel cylinder
attached to manifold hose. The manifold hoses contain orifices that ensure an equal flow to all
masks.
Oxygen Cylinders
The oxygen supply is contained in either high- pressure or low - pressure oxygen cylinders.
High-pressure oxygen cylinders, or bottles, carried in modem aircraft may be made of either heat-
treated steel or Kevlar-wrapped aluminum alloy. These bottles must meet either DOT specification
3AA 1800 for the high pressure bottle or 3HT 1850 for the lightweight bottle. The specification
number must be stamped on the bottle.
All oxygen bottles carried in aircraft must be hydrostatically tested within the required time
interval. DOT 3AA cylinders must be tested to 5/3 of their working pressure (3,000 psi) every five years,
and DOT 3HT cylinders must be tested to a pressure of 3,083 psi every three years,
High pressures cylinders

The high pressures cylinders are manufactured from stainless steel ,heat treated alloy, or Kevlar -
wrapped aluminum alloy and are wire wrapped on the outside surface, to provide resistance to shattering.
All high pressure cylinders are identified by their green color and have the words "AVIATORS'
BREATHING OXYGEN" stenciled lengthwise in white, I-inch letters. High pressure cylinders are
manufactured in a variety of capacities and shapes. These cylinders can carry a maximum charge of 2,000
p.s.i., but are normally filled to a pressure of 1,800 to 1,850 p.s.i.
Low pressure oxygen cylinders

There are two basic types of low pressure oxygen cylinders. One is made of stainless steel, the other,
of heat treated low alloy steel. Stainless steel cylinders are made non shatterable by the addition of
narrow stainless steel bands that are seam welded to the body of the cylinder. Low alloy steel cylinders do
not have the reinforcing bands but are subjected to a heat treatment process to make non shatterable. They
have a smooth body with the word "NONSHATTERABLE" stenciled on them.
Both types of low pressure cylinders come in different sizes and are painted light yellow.
This color indicates that they are used for low pressure oxygen only. The cylinders may carry a
maximum charge of 450 p.s.i., but are normally filled to a pressure of from 400 to 425 p.s.i.
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Lesson 36
Oxygen system
Introduction
Most small general aviation aircraft only require oxygen occasionally, and use a system that meters a
continuous flow of oxygen whose amount is based on the altitude flown. Aircraft that regularly fly at
altitudes above 18,000 feet typically have a diluter-demand system that meters oxygen based on the
altitude flown, but directs it to the mask only when the user inhales. Aircraft that fly at very high
altitudes, above 40000 ft where the outside air pressure is too low to force oxygen into the lungs, use
pressure-demand systems. These systems send oxygen to the mask under a slight positive pressure that
forces it into the lungs
Types of oxygen system
1. Continuous Flow system

2. Pressure Demand System
3. Diluter Demand System
Continuous Flow system
Continuous-flow systems are usually used in passenger oxygen systems and systems where oxygen is
needed only occasionally. These
systems are wasteful of oxygen,
but because of their simplicity,
they are the type installed in most
small general aviation aircraft.
Unpressurized aircraft that fly
at high altitudes may have a
continuous flow oxygen system
for the passengers and a diluter-
demand or pressure demand
system for the pilots.
The oxygen is carried in a steel

high-pressure bottle. The pressure
is reduced from that in the bottle
to between 300 and 400 psi by a
pressure reducing valve, and the
oxygen metered by a pressure
regulator before it is delivered to
the masks. A pressure relief valve
is incorporated in the system to
prevent damage in the event of a failure of the pressure reducing valve. If the pressure is relieved by the
relief valve, a green "blow-out" disk on the outside of the aircraft will blow-out.
In continuous flow system, with the line valve turned "ON", oxygen will flow from the charged
cylinder through the high pressure line to the pressure reducing valve, which reduces the pressure to that
required at the masks outlets. A calibrated orifice in the outlets will control the amount of oxygen
delivered to the masks.
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The passengers system may consists of a series of plug-in supply sockets fitted to the cabin walls adjacent
to the passengers seats to which oxygen masks can be connected, or it may be the "drop out" masks
arrangement where • individual masks are presented automatically to each passenger if pressurization
fails. In both cases oxygen is supplied, often automatically, from a manifold. Any automatic control in the
system can be overridden manually by a member of crew.
Pressure demand system
Pressure demand system is generally used for crew members. In pressure demand system, there is a
pressure demand regulator for each crew member, who can adjust the regulator according to his
requirements.
The cockpit crew of most
commercial aircraft is supplied
with .oxygen through a diluter-
demand system. This system
meters oxygen only when the
user inhales, and the amount of
oxygen metered depends upon
the altitude being flown.
Almost all pressurized turbine-
powered aircraft have a
demand-type oxygen system for
the flight crew and a
continuous-flow system as a
backup for the passengers. Two
oxygen cylinders are installed in
the aircraft, and selector valves
allow either cylinder to supply
the crew or the passenger
At altitudes above 40,000 feet
the oxygen in the air has such a
low partial pressure that even
100% oxygen must be forced
into the lungs under a slight
positive pressure from the
regulator. Aircraft that operate at this altitude are equipped with pressure-demand regulators.
Diluter-demand oxygen system
A pressure-demand regulator looks much like a diluter-demand regulator, but at altitudes above
40,000 feet, it supplies oxygen to the mask under a low positive pressure rather than depending upon the
low pressure from the user's lungs to pull in the oxygen.
A popular type of oxygen system in which the oxygen is metered to the mask where it is diluted with
cabin air by an airflow-metering aneroid assembly which regulates the amount of air allowed diluting the
oxygen on the basis of cabin altitude. The mixture of oxygen and air flows only when the wearer of the
mask inhales. The percentage of oxygen in the air delivered to the mask is regulated. on the basis of
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altitude, by the regulator. A diluter-demand regulator has an emergency position which allows 100%
oxygen to flow to the mask by passing the regulating mechanism.
For normal operation, the Supply lever is in the ON position, the Oxygen lever is in the NORMAL
position, and the Emergency lever is OFF. Oxygen flows into the regulator through the supply valve, and
when the user inhales, the pressure inside the regulator decreases and the demand valve opens, allowing
oxygen to flow to the mask.
The aneroid-operated air metering valve mixes cabin air with the oxygen. When the aircraft is flying
at low altitudes, user gets mostly cabin air and a small amount of oxygen. As the altitude increases, the
aneroid progressively shuts off the cabin air and opens the oxygen line until, at approximately 34,000
feet, the cabin air is completely shut off and the musk receives100% oxygen.
If there is smoke in the cockpit, or if the user feels a need for pure oxygen, the oxygen lever can
moved to the 100% position. The cabin air will be shut off from the regulator and only pure oxygen taken
into the mask when the user inhales. If the regulator malfunctions, the emergency lever can be placed in
the ON position. This opens the demand valve and pure oxygen flows continually to the mask.
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Lesson 37
ICE & RAIN PROTECTION SYSTEM
Introduction
Ice affects both engines and airframes and accounts for a large number of aircraft accidents.
Reciprocating-engine-powered aircraft are susceptible to carburettor ice, which shuts off the airflow to
the engine. Structural ice forms on the airfoil surfaces and adds weight, as well as disturbing the smooth
flow of air needed to produce lift.
There are two types of ice control systems: anti-icing systems, which prevent the formation of ice, and
de-icing systems, which remove ice after it has formed. Both of these systems are discussed here.
A complete ice control system consists of:

• Surface de-icers
• Windshield ice control
• Power plant ice control
• Brake de-icers
• Heated pitot heads
Types of Icing
Some aircraft are certificated for flight into known icing conditions, but wise pilots know that in
reality, the ice control systems on these aircraft only give them time to fly out of the icing conditions, not
enough to remain in them deliberately. No aircraft can withstand unrestricted exposure to icing.
Three types of structural ice affect aircraft in flight: rime ice, glaze ice, and frost. Rime ice is a rough,
opaque ice that forms when small droplets of water freeze immediately upon striking the aircraft. It builds
up slowly, causes a great deal of drag, and deforms the airfoil, increasing the stall speed of the aircraft.
Rime ice is relatively easy to break loose with de-icer boots.
Glaze ice is the most dangerous ice. It forms on aircraft flying through super cooled water or freezing
rain. Glaze ice adds a great amount of weight and is difficult for the boots to break loose.
Three factors must be present for rime or glaze ice to form on an aircraft in flight. There must be
visible moisture in the air, which can be in the form of rain, drizzle, or clouds. The surface of the aircraft
must be below the freezing temperature of water, and the drops of water must be of the appropriate size
for the formation of ice.
The methods used to prevent icing (anti-icing) or to eliminate ice that has formed (de-icing) ,vary with
the aircraft make and model. In this Chapter ice prevention and ice elimination using pneumatic pressure,
application of heat, and the application of fluid will be discussed.
Icing effects
1) Increases drag and weight of aircraft.
2) Reduces lift and thrust.
3) It causes destructive vibrations.
4) Hampers true instrument readings.
5) Control surfaces become unbalanced or frozen.
6) Fixed slots are filled and movable slots are jammed.
7) Radio-reception is hampered.
8) Engine performance is affected.
9) Loss in propeller’s efficiency
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Ice Prevention
Several means to prevent or control ice formation are used in aircraft today:
(1) Heating surfaces using hot air
(2) Eating by electrical elements
(3) Breaking up ice formations, usually by inflatable boots
(4) Alcohol spray.
A surface may be anti-iced either by keeping it dry by heating to a temperature that evaporates water
upon impingement; or by heating the surface' just enough to prevent freezing, maintaining it running wet;
or the surface may be de-iced by allowing ice to form and then removing it.
Ice prevention or elimination systems ensure safety of flight when icing 'conditions exist. Ice may be
controlled on aircraft structure by the following, methods.
1. Leading edge of the wing - Pneumatic, Thermal
2. Leading edges of vertical and horizontal stabilizers - Pneumatic, Thermal
3. Windshields, windows, and radomes - Electrical, Alcohol
4. Heater and Engine air inlets - Electrical
5. Stall warning transmitters - Electrical
6. Pitot tubes - Electrical
7. Flight controls - Pneumatic, Thermal
8. Propeller blade leading edges - Electrical, Alcohol
9. Carburettors - Thermal, Alcohol
10. Lavatory drains - Electrical

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Lesson 38
PNEUMATIC DE ICING SYSTEM
Introduction
Pneumatic deicing systems use rubber deicers, called boots or shoes, attached to the leading edge of
the wing and stabilizers. Deicer boots are attached to leading edge of wing and tail surfaces with cement
or fairing strip and screws or a combine of both. Deicer boots are made of soft, pliable rubber or
rubberized fabric. The outer ply of deicer boots is of conductive neoprene to provide resistance to
deterioration. The neoprene also provides a conductive surface to dissipate static electricity
charges. During operation, the tubes are inflated with pressurized air, and deflated in an alternating cycle.
This inflation and deflation causes the ice to crack and break off. The ice is then carried away by
the airstreams
Pressure regulator
Maintains de-icing system pressure. It reduces turbine bleed air pressure to de-icing system
pressure.
Pressure relief valve

Releases air pressure to atmosphere when desired setting valve is reached.
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OPERATION: In this system, air pressure for system operation is supplied by air bled from engine
compressor. The bled air from the compressor ducted to pressure regulator. The regulator reduces the
pressure of bleed air to the deicer system pressure. An ejector, located downstream of the regulator
provides the vacuum necessary to keep the boots deflated.
When the system is operated, the deicer port in the distributor valve is closed to vacuum and system
operating pressure is applied to deicer connected port. At the end of inflation period the deicer pressure
port is shut off, and air in the deicer flows overboard through exhaust port. When the air flowing from the
deicer reaches a low pressure (approx 1p.s.i.), the exhaust port is closed. Vacuum is reapplied to exhaust
the remaining air from the deicer.
Suction relief valve

Suction relief valve maintains desired vacuum in the systems.
Ejector
It provides vacuum to de-icing system by making use of Bernouli’s principle as it is a venturi type
tube through which air is continuously passed. There is a pressure drop in the middle of venturi tube.
Vacuum line is connected in middle of venturi tube.
Note: In some aircraft compressors provide pressure and suction.
Distributor valve
It has five ports
Part 1 “A” tube of de-icer boot

Part 2 “B” tube of de-icer boot
Part 3 Pressure inlet
Part 4 Suction port
Part 5 Exhaust part ( to atmosphere)
In “off” position of de-icing system switch, de-icer boots A & B tubes are connected to vacuum to
keep boots flush with aerofoil leading edge.
When switch de-icing switch is put “ON” tube “A” is connected to “pressure inlet” thereby
inflating “A” tube. “B” tube is connected to suction during this period. After inflation of “A” tube, it is
exhausted to atmosphere at 1 psi exhaust pressure. “A” tube is connected to vacuum port. Then cycle is
repeated for “B” tube while “A” tube is applied to suction. This job is accomplished by “Distributor
Valve”.
Electronic timer
It is energized when de-icing system is put “ON”. Timer sequences the operation of all distributor valves.
It is a series of switch air circuit actuated successively by a solenoid operated rotating step switch.
COMPONENTS: In addition to the deicer boots, the major components of a pneumatic deicing system
are a source of pressurized air, an oil separator, air pr. Regulator, and shut off valve, an inflation timer
and a distributor valve.
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This cycle is repeated as long as the system is operating. If the system is turned off, the system timer is
automatically returns to its starting position
1. The inflation sequence of deicer boots is

controlled by either a centrally located distribution
valve or by solenoid operated valves located adjacent
to the deicer air inlets.
2. The pressure relief valve maintains the

pressure in the pressure manifold at 17 p.s.!.
3. When pneumatic deicing system is off, air

pump suction, regulated at 4 in. Hg by an adjustable
suction relief valve holds the deicing boots deflated.
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Lesson 39
De-icing system components
Engine driven air pump

The engine driven air is pump of the rotary, four vane, positive displacement type and is mounted on the
accessory drives gear box of the engine. The compression side of each pump supplies air pressure to
inflate the wing and tail de-icer boots. Suction is supplied from the inlet side of each pump to hold down
the boots, when not being inflated, while in flight.
Safety valve
An air pressure safety valve is installed on the pressure side of some types of engine driven air pumps.
Schematically, this valve is placed on the air pressure side of the pump between the primary oil separators
and the pump. The safety valve exhausts excessive air at high pump r.p.m. when a predetermined pressure
is reached. The valve is preset and is not adjustable.
Solenoid distributor valve

The solenoid distributor valve is normally located near the group of de-icer boots which it serves.
Each distributor valve incorporates a pressure inlet port, suction outlet port to the boots, and a port piped
overboard to a low pressure area. Each distributor valve has two solenoids. The pressure inlet port is
integral with the manifold pressure line, thereby making approximately 15 p.s.i pressure available at all
times when the deicer system is operating. The suction port is connected to the main suction line. This
allows approximately 4 in. Hg suction available at all times in the distributor valve.
Oil separator
An oil separator is provided for each wet type air pump. Each Separator has an air inlet port, an air outlet
port, and an oil drain line which is routed back to the engine oil sump. Oil separator removes 75% of oil
from air.
Electronic timer
An electronic timer is used to control the operating sequence and the time intervals of the de-icing
system. When the de-icing system is turn on, the electronic timer energizes a solenoid in the unloading
valve.
Combination regulator, unloading valve, and oil separator

The combination regulator, unloading valve, and oil separator consists of a diaphragm controlled, spring
loaded unloading valve, an oil filter and drain. The combination unit has three functions:
(1) To remove all residual oil left in the air by primary oil separator before it enters the pressure manifold.
(2) To control, direct, and regulate air pressure in the system.
(3) To discharge air to atmosphere when the de-icer system is not in use.
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Lesson 40
WINDSHIELD ICING CONTROL SYSTEM
Introduction
In order to keep window areas free from ice, frost, etc window anti-icing, de-icing, and demisting systems
are used. The systems vary according to aircraft and its manufacturer. Some windshields are built with
double panels having a space between, which will allow the Circulation of heated air between the
surfaces to control icing and fogging. Others use windshield wipers and anti icing fluid which is sprayed
on.
Description
One of the more common methods for controlling ice formation and fog on modem aircraft windows
is the use of an electrical heating element (stannic oxide ) built into the window. When this method is
used in pressurized aircraft, a layer of tempered glass gives strength to withstand pressurization. A layer
of transparent conductive material is the heating element and a layer of vinyl plastic adds a non
shattering quality to the window. The vinyl and glass plies are bonded by the application of heat and
pressure. The bond is achieved without the use of cement as vinyl has a natural affinity for glass. The
conductive coating dissipates static electricity from the wind shield in addition to providing the heating
element
On some aircraft, thermal electric switches automatically turn the system on when the air temperature is
low enough for icing or on some aircraft it may operate with a pulsating on and off pattern. Thermal
overheat switches automatically turn the system off in case of an overheating condition which could
damage the transparent area.

Anti Icing Deicing Oxyen Pneumatic

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TRAINING NOTES

Extensive high pressure pneumatic systems powered by engine-driven compressors are

Oil and water trap (Moisture separator )

Dehydrator (Desiccant Or Chemical dryer )

Engine Bleed Air

In general, there is one bleed air

APU Bleed Air

The APU compressor discharges air into a plenum

A pneumatic system is fitted with one or more

Indication and warning

PRESSURE REGULATOR (PNEUMATIC)

PRESSURE REDUCING VALVE (PNEUMATIC)

Purpose of pressure reducing valve

Pressure maintaining valve

Pressure Relief Valves

A pressure relief valve is used to limit the amount of

The relief valve protects the system against over pressurization

closes at 40° F. and opens at 60° F.

SOURCES OF AIR SUPPLY FOR CABIN PRESSURIZATION & AIR-CONDITION

Engine Bleed Air:

Auxiliary Power Unit (APU):

Blower operation and supply of fuel is normally controlled by a single switch.

Engine Exhaust Heating:

Composition of the atmosphere

Pressure of the Atmosphere

The gases of the atmosphere although invisible have

Temperature and Altitude

The atmosphere is being made up of several layers.

(i) It assures adequate passenger comfort and safety.

Major components used in pressurization system

ii) Out flow valve: This valve vents cabin

iii) Safety valve or Positive Pressure relief

Terms Related to Pressurization

(12) Mode of Pressurisation

It has three knobs

There are two dial-segments and a dial gauge.

a) Compensates the controller for normal errors in altimetry.

1) Cabin differential pressure gauge

Cabin altimeter is also provided as a check on the performance of the system.

Cabin rate of climb or descent

The function of air-conditioning system is to maintain a comfortable air temperature within

Air-conditioning system is designed to perform any or all of the following functions:

(1) Supply Ventilation Air

(1) Gasoline Combustion Heaters

(1) Air Cycle System

Air Cycle Cooling System :

Air Cycle System Components :

The turbine-compressor unit by which air is cooled is called an air-cycle machine.

air to condense, and this moisture is removed by means of a water separator.

1) Greater cooling capacity than air cycle system.

Refrigeration Cycle or Vapour Cycle

(c) As a consequence, the liquid refrigerant boils to a vapour.

Materials used for ducting

Types of joints in ducts

(ii) Electromechanical method utilising

Electro mechanical temperature control system is designed to automatically modulate actuator

Humidity control at high altitude

Humidity control at low altitude

Types of Oxygen supply

Liquid oxygen (LOX)

Chemical oxygen candle

Characteristic of chemical candle system

1. Once the candle is ignited, it releases its oxygen at a predetermined rate