Maglev

Maglev (derived from magnetic levitation) is a system of train

transportation that uses two sets of magnets: one set to repel and
push the train up off the track, and another set to move the
elevated train ahead, taking advantage of the lack of friction.
Along certain "medium-range" routes (usually 320 to
640 km [200 to 400 mi]), maglev can compete favorably with
high-speed rail and airplanes.
L0 Series on SCMaglev test track in
With maglev technology, there is just one moving part: the train Yamanashi Prefecture, Japan
itself. The train travels along a guideway of magnets which
control the train's stability and speed. Propulsion and levitation
require no moving parts. This in stark contrast to electric multiple
units that may have several dozen parts per bogie. Maglev trains
are therefore quieter and smoother than conventional trains and
have the potential for much higher speeds.[1]

Maglev vehicles have set several speed records and maglev trains
can accelerate and decelerate much faster than conventional
trains; the only practical limitation is the safety and comfort of
the passengers. The power needed for levitation is typically not a
Transrapid 09 at the Emsland test
large percentage of the overall energy consumption of a high- facility in Germany
speed maglev system.[2] Overcoming drag, which makes all land
transport more energy intensive at higher speeds, takes the most
energy. Vactrain technology has been proposed as a means to
overcome this limitation. Maglev systems have been much more
expensive to construct than conventional train systems, although
the simpler construction of maglev vehicles makes them cheaper
to manufacture and maintain.

The Shanghai maglev train, also known as the Shanghai

Transrapid, has a top speed of 430 km/h (270 mph). The line is A full trip on the Shanghai Transrapid
the fastest operational high-speed maglev train, designed to maglev train
connect Shanghai Pudong International Airport and the outskirts
of central Pudong, Shanghai. It covers a distance of 30.5 km
(19 mi) in 7 or 8 minutes. For the first time, the launch generated wide public interest and media
attention, propelling the popularity of the mode of transportation.[3] Despite over a century of
research and development, currently high-speed maglev is only available in China and maglev
transport systems are now operational in just three countries (Japan, South Korea and China). The
incremental benefits of maglev technology have often been considered hard to justify against cost and
risk, especially where there is an existing or proposed conventional high-speed train line with spare
passenger carrying capacity, as in high-speed rail in Europe, the High Speed 2 in the UK and
Shinkansen in Japan.
Contents
Development
History
First maglev patent
New York, United States, 1968
Japan, 1969–present
Hamburg, Germany, 1979
Ramenskoye, Moscow, USSR, 1979
Birmingham, United Kingdom, 1984–1995
Emsland, Germany, 1984–2012
Vancouver, Canada and Hamburg, Germany, 1986–88
Berlin, Germany, 1989–1992
South Korea, 1993–present
Technology
Electromagnetic suspension (EMS)
Electrodynamic suspension (EDS)
Tracks
Evaluation
Propulsion
Stability
Guidance system
Evacuated tubes
Energy use
Comparison with conventional trains
Comparison with aircraft
Economics
Records
History of maglev speed records
Systems
Test tracks
AMT test track – Powder Springs, Georgia (USA)
FTA's UMTD program, USA
San Diego, California USA
SCMaglev, Yamanashi Japan
Sengenthal, Germany
Southwest Jiaotong University, China
Operational systems
Shanghai Maglev (2003)
Linimo (Tobu Kyuryo Line, Japan) (2005)
Daejeon Expo Maglev (2008)
 Incheon Airport Maglev (2016)
Changsha Maglev (2016)
Beijing S1 Line (2017)
Maglevs under construction
Chūō Shinkansen (Japan)
Fenghuang Maglev (China)
Qingyuan Maglev (China)
Proposed maglev systems
Australia
Canada
China
Xianning – Changsha test line
Other proposed lines
Germany
Hong Kong
India
Italy
Iran
Malaysia/Singapore
Switzerland
Taiwan
United Kingdom
United States
Incidents
See also
Notes
References
Further reading
External links

Development
In the late 1940s, the British electrical engineer Eric Laithwaite, a professor at Imperial College
London, developed the first full-size working model of the linear induction motor. He became
professor of heavy electrical engineering at Imperial College in 1964, where he continued his
successful development of the linear motor.[4] Since linear motors do not require physical contact
between the vehicle and guideway, they became a common fixture on advanced transportation
systems in the 1960s and '70s. Laithwaite joined one such project, the Tracked Hovercraft, although
the project was cancelled in 1973.[5]
The linear motor was naturally suited to use with maglev systems as well. In the early 1970s,
Laithwaite discovered a new arrangement of magnets, the magnetic river, that allowed a single linear
motor to produce both lift and forward thrust, allowing a maglev system to be built with a single set of
magnets. Working at the British Rail Research Division in Derby, along with teams at several civil
engineering firms, the "transverse-flux" system was developed into a working system.

The first commercial maglev people mover was simply called "MAGLEV" and officially opened in 1984
near Birmingham, England. It operated on an elevated 600 m (2,000 ft) section of monorail track
between Birmingham Airport and Birmingham International railway station, running at speeds up to
42 km/h (26 mph). The system was closed in 1995 due to reliability problems.[6]

History

First maglev patent

High-speed transportation patents were granted to various inventors throughout the world.[7] Early
United States patents for a linear motor propelled train were awarded to German inventor Alfred
Zehden. The inventor was awarded U.S. Patent 782,312 (https://www.google.com/patents/US782312
) (14 February 1905) and U.S. Patent RE12,700 (https://www.google.com/patents/USRE12700) (21
August 1907). [note 1] In 1907, another early electromagnetic transportation system was developed by
F. S. Smith.[8] In 1908, Cleveland mayor Tom L. Johnson filed a patent for a wheel-less "high-speed
railway" levitated by an induced magnetic field.[9] Jokingly known as "Greased Lightning," the
suspended car operated on a 90-foot test track in Johnson's basement "absolutely noiseless[ly] and
without the least vibration."[10] A series of German patents for magnetic levitation trains propelled by
linear motors were awarded to Hermann Kemper between 1937 and 1941.[note 2] An early maglev train
was described in U.S. Patent 3,158,765 (https://www.google.com/patents/US3158765), "Magnetic
system of transportation", by G. R. Polgreen (25 August 1959). The first use of "maglev" in a United
States patent was in "Magnetic levitation guidance system"[11] by Canadian Patents and Development
Limited.

New York, United States, 1968

In 1959, while delayed in traffic on the Throgs Neck Bridge, James Powell, a researcher at Brookhaven
National Laboratory (BNL), thought of using magnetically levitated transportation.[12] Powell and
BNL colleague Gordon Danby worked out a maglev concept using static magnets mounted on a
moving vehicle to induce electrodynamic lifting and stabilizing forces in specially shaped loops, such
as figure-of-8 coils on a guideway.[13][14] These were patented in 1968–1969.

Japan, 1969–present
Japan operates two independently developed maglev trains. One is HSST (and its descendant, the
Linimo line) by Japan Airlines and the other, which is more well known, is SCMaglev by the Central
Japan Railway Company.
The development of the latter started in 1969. Maglev trains on the Miyazaki test track regularly hit
517 km/h (321 mph) by 1979. After an accident which destroyed the train, a new design was selected.
In Okazaki, Japan (1987), the SCMaglev was used for test rides at the Okazaki exhibition. Tests in
Miyazaki continued throughout the 1980s, before transferring to a far longer test track, 20 km (12 mi)
long, in Yamanashi in 1997. The track has since been extended to almost 43 km (27 mi). The current
603 km/h (375 mph) world speed record for manned trains was set there in 2015.

Development of HSST started in 1974. In Tsukuba, Japan (1985), the HSST-03 (Linimo) became
popular at the Tsukuba World Exposition, in spite of its low 30 km/h (19 mph) top speed. In Saitama,
Japan (1988), the HSST-04-1 was revealed at the Saitama exhibition in Kumagaya. Its fastest
recorded speed was 300 km/h (190 mph).[15]

A new high-speed maglev line, the Chuo Shinkansen, is planned to become operational in 2027, with
construction started in 2014. It is being built by extending the SCMaglev test track in Yamanashi in
both directions.

Hamburg, Germany, 1979

Transrapid 05 was the first maglev train with longstator propulsion licensed for passenger
transportation. In 1979, a 908 m (2,979 ft) track was opened in Hamburg for the first International
Transportation Exhibition (IVA 79). Interest was sufficient that operations were extended three
months after the exhibition finished, having carried more than 50,000 passengers. It was
reassembled in Kassel in 1980.

Ramenskoye, Moscow, USSR, 1979

In 1979 the USSR town of Ramenskoye (Moscow oblast) built an
experimental test site for running experiments with cars on
magnetic suspension. The test site consisted of a 60-metre ramp
which was later extended to 980 metres.[16] From the late 1970s
to the 1980s five prototypes of cars were built that received
designations from TP-01 (ТП-01) to TP-05 (ТП-05).[17] The early
Experimental car TP-01 (ТП-01) in
cars were supposed to reach the speed up to 100 km/h.
Ramenskoye built in 1979

The construction of a maglev track using the technology from

Ramenskoye started in Armenian SSR in 1987[18] and was
planned to be completed in 1991. The track was supposed to connect the cities of Yerevan and Sevan
via the city of Abovyan.[19] The original design speed was 250 km/h which was later lowered to
180 km/h.[20] However, the Spitak earthquake in 1988 and the Nagorno–Karabakh War caused the
project to freeze. In the end the overpass was only partially constructed.[21]

In the early 1990s, the maglev theme was continued by the Engineering Research Center "TEMP"
(ИНЦ "ТЭМП")[22] this time by the order from the Moscow government. The project was named
V250 (В250). The idea was to build a high-speed maglev train to connect Moscow to the
Sheremetyevo airport. The train would consist of 64-seater cars and run at speeds up to 250 km/h.[17]
In 1993, due to the financial crisis, the project was abandoned.
However, from 1999 the "TEMP" research center had been
participating as a co-developer in the creation of the linear
motors for the Moscow Monorail system.

Birmingham, United Kingdom, 1984–1995

The world's first commercial maglev system was a low-speed
maglev shuttle that ran between the airport terminal of Experimental car TP-05 (ТП-05) in
Ramenskoye built in 1986
Birmingham International Airport and the nearby Birmingham
International railway station between 1984 and 1995.[23] Its track
length was 600 m (2,000 ft), and trains levitated at an altitude of
15 mm [0.59 in], levitated by electromagnets, and propelled with
linear induction motors.[24] It operated for 11 years and was
initially very popular with passengers, but obsolescence problems
with the electronic systems made it progressively unreliable as
years passed, leading to its closure in 1995. One of the original
cars is now on display at Railworld in Peterborough, together
with the RTV31 hover train vehicle. Another is on display at the
National Railway Museum in York. The Birmingham International
Maglev shuttle
Several favourable conditions existed when the link was built:

The British Rail Research vehicle was 3 tonnes and extension to the 8-tonne vehicle was easy
Electrical power was available
The airport and rail buildings were suitable for terminal platforms
Only one crossing over a public road was required and no steep gradients were involved
Land was owned by the railway or airport
Local industries and councils were supportive
Some government finance was provided and because of sharing work, the cost per organization
was low

After the system closed in 1995, the original guideway lay dormant[25] until 2003, when a
replacement cable-hauled system, the AirRail Link Cable Liner people mover, was opened.[26][27]

Emsland, Germany, 1984–2012

Transrapid, a German maglev company, had a test track in Emsland with a total length of 31.5 km
(19.6 mi). The single-track line ran between Dörpen and Lathen with turning loops at each end. The
trains regularly ran at up to 420 km/h (260 mph). Paying passengers were carried as part of the
testing process. The construction of the test facility began in 1980 and finished in 1984.

In 2006, the Lathen maglev train accident occurred, killing 23 people. It was found to have been
caused by human error in implementing safety checks. From 2006 no passengers were carried. At the
end of 2011 the operation licence expired and was not renewed, and in early 2012 demolition
permission was given for its facilities, including the track and
factory.[28]

Vancouver, Canada and Hamburg, Germany, 1986–

88
In Vancouver, Canada, the HSST-03 by HSST Development
Corporation (Japan Airlines and Sumitomo Corporation) was Transrapid at the Emsland test
exhibited at Expo 86,[29] and ran on a 400 m (0.25 mi) test track facility
that provided guests with a ride in a single car along a short
section of track at the fairgrounds.[30] It was removed after the
fair. It was shown at the Aoi Expo in 1987 and is now on static
display at Okazaki Minami Park. In Hamburg, Germany, the TR-
07 was exhibited at the international traffic exhibition (IVA88) in
1988.

Berlin, Germany, 1989–1992

In West Berlin, the M-Bahn was built in the late 1980s. It was a
driverless maglev system with a 1.6 km (1 mi) track connecting HSST-03 at Okazaki Minami Park
three stations. Testing with passenger traffic started in August
1989, and regular operation started in July 1991. Although the
line largely followed a new elevated alignment, it terminated at Gleisdreieck U-Bahn station, where it
took over an unused platform for a line that formerly ran to East Berlin. After the fall of the Berlin
Wall, plans were set in motion to reconnect this line (today's U2). Deconstruction of the M-Bahn line
began only two months after regular service began. It was called the Pundai project and was
terminated in February 1992 due to safety concerns.

South Korea, 1993–present

In 1993, South Korea completed the development of its own
maglev train, shown off at the Taejŏn Expo '93, which was
developed further into a full-fledged maglev capable of travelling
up to 110 km/h (68 mph) in 2006. This final model was
incorporated in the Incheon Airport Maglev which opened on
February 3, 2016, making South Korea the world's fourth country
to operate its own self-developed maglev after the United
Kingdom's Birmingham International Airport,[32] Germany's
Berlin M-Bahn,[33] and Japan's Linimo.[34] It links Incheon South Korea's Incheon Airport
Maglev, the world's fourth
International Airport to the Yongyu Station and Leisure Complex
commercially operating maglev[31]
on Yeongjong island.[35] It offers a transfer to the Seoul
Metropolitan Subway at AREX's Incheon International Airport
Station and is offered free of charge to anyone to ride, operating between 9 am and 6 pm with 15-
minute intervals.[36]
The maglev system was co-developed by the South Korea Institute of Machinery and Materials
(KIMM) and Hyundai Rotem.[37][38][39] It is 6.1 km (3.8 mi) long, with six stations and a 110 km/h
(68 mph) operating speed.[40]

Two more stages are planned of 9.7 km (6 mi) and 37.4 km (23.2 mi). Once completed it will become a
circular line.

Technology
In the public imagination, "maglev" often evokes the concept of an elevated monorail track with a
linear motor. Maglev systems may be monorail or dual rail—the SCMaglev MLX01 for instance uses a
trench-like track—and not all monorail trains are maglevs. Some railway transport systems
incorporate linear motors but use electromagnetism only for propulsion, without levitating the
vehicle. Such trains have wheels and are not maglevs.[note 3] Maglev tracks, monorail or not, can also
be constructed at grade or underground in tunnels. Conversely, non-maglev tracks, monorail or not,
can be elevated or underground too. Some maglev trains do incorporate wheels and function like
linear motor-propelled wheeled vehicles at slower speeds but levitate at higher speeds. This is
typically the case with electrodynamic suspension maglev trains. Aerodynamic factors may also play a
role in the levitation of such trains.

The two main types of maglev technology are:

Electromagnetic suspension (EMS), electronically controlled

electromagnets in the train attract it to a magnetically
conductive (usually steel) track.
Electrodynamic suspension (EDS) uses superconducting
electromagnets or strong permanent magnets that create a
magnetic field, which induces currents in nearby metallic
conductors when there is relative movement, which pushes
and pulls the train towards the designed levitation position on
the guide way. MLX01 Maglev train
Superconducting magnet bogie

Electromagnetic suspension (EMS)

In electromagnetic suspension (EMS) systems, the train levitates above a steel rail while
electromagnets, attached to the train, are oriented toward the rail from below. The system is typically
arranged on a series of C-shaped arms, with the upper portion of the arm attached to the vehicle, and
the lower inside edge containing the magnets. The rail is situated inside the C, between the upper and
lower edges.

Magnetic attraction varies inversely with the square of distance, so minor changes in distance
between the magnets and the rail produce greatly varying forces. These changes in force are
dynamically unstable—a slight divergence from the optimum position tends to grow, requiring
sophisticated feedback systems to maintain a constant distance from the track, (approximately
15 mm [0.59 in]).[43][44]
The major advantage to suspended maglev systems is that they
work at all speeds, unlike electrodynamic systems, which only
work at a minimum speed of about 30 km/h (19 mph). This
eliminates the need for a separate low-speed suspension system,
and can simplify track layout. On the downside, the dynamic
instability demands fine track tolerances, which can offset this
advantage. Eric Laithwaite was concerned that to meet required
tolerances, the gap between magnets and rail would have to be
increased to the point where the magnets would be unreasonably
large.[45] In practice, this problem was addressed through Electromagnetic suspension (EMS)
improved feedback systems, which support the required is used to levitate the Transrapid on
tolerances. the track, so that the train can be
faster than wheeled mass transit
systems[41][42]
Electrodynamic suspension (EDS)
In electrodynamic suspension (EDS), both the guideway and the
train exert a magnetic field, and the train is levitated by the
repulsive and attractive force between these magnetic fields.[46]
In some configurations, the train can be levitated only by
repulsive force. In the early stages of maglev development at the
Miyazaki test track, a purely repulsive system was used instead of
the later repulsive and attractive EDS system.[47] The magnetic
field is produced either by superconducting magnets (as in JR–
The Japanese SCMaglev's EDS
Maglev) or by an array of permanent magnets (as in Inductrack). suspension is powered by the
The repulsive and attractive force in the track is created by an magnetic fields induced either side of
induced magnetic field in wires or other conducting strips in the the vehicle by the passage of the
track. vehicle's superconducting magnets.

A major advantage of EDS maglev systems is that they are

dynamically stable—changes in distance between the track and
the magnets creates strong forces to return the system to its
original position.[45] In addition, the attractive force varies in the
opposite manner, providing the same adjustment effects. No
active feedback control is needed.
EDS Maglev propulsion via
However, at slow speeds, the current induced in these coils and
propulsion coils
the resultant magnetic flux is not large enough to levitate the
train. For this reason, the train must have wheels or some other
form of landing gear to support the train until it reaches take-off
speed. Since a train may stop at any location, due to equipment problems for instance, the entire track
must be able to support both low- and high-speed operation.

Another downside is that the EDS system naturally creates a field in the track in front and to the rear
of the lift magnets, which acts against the magnets and creates magnetic drag. This is generally only a
concern at low speeds, and is one of the reasons why JR abandoned a purely repulsive system and
adopted the sidewall levitation system.[47] At higher speeds other modes of drag dominate.[45]
The drag force can be used to the electrodynamic system's advantage, however, as it creates a varying
force in the rails that can be used as a reactionary system to drive the train, without the need for a
separate reaction plate, as in most linear motor systems. Laithwaite led development of such
"traverse-flux" systems at his Imperial College laboratory.[45] Alternatively, propulsion coils on the
guideway are used to exert a force on the magnets in the train and make the train move forward. The
propulsion coils that exert a force on the train are effectively a linear motor: an alternating current
through the coils generates a continuously varying magnetic field that moves forward along the track.
The frequency of the alternating current is synchronized to match the speed of the train. The offset
between the field exerted by magnets on the train and the applied field creates a force moving the
train forward.

Tracks
The term "maglev" refers not only to the vehicles, but to the railway system as well, specifically
designed for magnetic levitation and propulsion. All operational implementations of maglev
technology make minimal use of wheeled train technology and are not compatible with conventional
rail tracks. Because they cannot share existing infrastructure, maglev systems must be designed as
standalone systems. The SPM maglev system is inter-operable with steel rail tracks and would permit
maglev vehicles and conventional trains to operate on the same tracks.[45] MAN in Germany also
designed a maglev system that worked with conventional rails, but it was never fully developed.

Evaluation
Each implementation of the magnetic levitation principle for train-type travel involves advantages
and disadvantages.

Technology Pros Cons

EMS[48][49] Magnetic fields inside and outside
(Electromagnetic the vehicle are less than EDS;
suspension) proven, commercially available
technology; high speeds (500 km/h
or 310 mph); no wheels or
secondary propulsion system
needed.
The separation between the vehicle
and the guideway must be
constantly monitored and corrected
due to the unstable nature of
electromagnetic attraction; the
system's inherent instability and the
required constant corrections by
outside systems may induce
vibration.

EDS[50][51] Onboard magnets and large margin
(Electrodynamic between rail and train enable
suspension) highest-recorded speeds (603 km/h
or 375 mph) and heavy load
capacity; demonstrated successful
operations using high-temperature
superconductors in its onboard
magnets, cooled with inexpensive
Strong magnetic fields on the train
would make the train unsafe for
passengers with pacemakers or
magnetic data storage media such
as hard drives and credit cards,
necessitating the use of magnetic
shielding; limitations on guideway
inductivity limit maximum speed;
 liquid nitrogen. vehicle must be wheeled for travel
at low speeds.

Inductrack Failsafe Suspension—no power Requires either wheels or track

System[52][53] required to activate magnets; segments that move for when the
(Permanent Magnetic field is localized below the vehicle is stopped. Under
Magnet Passive car; can generate enough force at development as of 2008; no
Suspension) low speeds (around 5 km/h or commercial version or full-scale
3.1 mph) for levitation; given power prototype.
failure cars stop safely; Halbach
arrays of permanent magnets may
prove more cost-effective than
electromagnets.

Neither Inductrack nor the Superconducting EDS are able to levitate vehicles at a standstill, although
Inductrack provides levitation at much lower speed; wheels are required for these systems. EMS
systems are wheel-free.

The German Transrapid, Japanese HSST (Linimo), and Korean Rotem EMS maglevs levitate at a
standstill, with electricity extracted from guideway using power rails for the latter two, and wirelessly
for Transrapid. If guideway power is lost on the move, the Transrapid is still able to generate
levitation down to 10 km/h (6.2 mph) speed, using the power from onboard batteries. This is not the
case with the HSST and Rotem systems.

Propulsion

EMS systems such as HSST/Linimo can provide both levitation and propulsion using an onboard
linear motor. But EDS systems and some EMS systems such as Transrapid levitate but do not propel.
Such systems need some other technology for propulsion. A linear motor (propulsion coils) mounted
in the track is one solution. Over long distances coil costs could be prohibitive.

Stability

Earnshaw's theorem shows that no combination of static magnets can be in a stable equilibrium.[54]
Therefore a dynamic (time varying) magnetic field is required to achieve stabilization. EMS systems
rely on active electronic stabilization that constantly measures the bearing distance and adjusts the
electromagnet current accordingly. EDS systems rely on changing magnetic fields to create currents,
which can give passive stability.

Because maglev vehicles essentially fly, stabilisation of pitch, roll and yaw is required. In addition to
rotation, surge (forward and backward motions), sway (sideways motion) or heave (up and down
motions) can be problematic.

Superconducting magnets on a train above a track made out of a permanent magnet lock the train
into its lateral position. It can move linearly along the track, but not off the track. This is due to the
Meissner effect and flux pinning.
Guidance system

Some systems use Null Current systems (also sometimes called Null Flux systems).[46][55] These use a
coil that is wound so that it enters two opposing, alternating fields, so that the average flux in the loop
is zero. When the vehicle is in the straight ahead position, no current flows, but any moves off-line
create flux that generates a field that naturally pushes/pulls it back into line.

Evacuated tubes
Some systems (notably the Swissmetro system) propose the use of vactrains—maglev train technology
used in evacuated (airless) tubes, which removes air drag. This has the potential to increase speed and
efficiency greatly, as most of the energy for conventional maglev trains is lost to aerodynamic drag.[56]

One potential risk for passengers of trains operating in evacuated tubes is that they could be exposed
to the risk of cabin depressurization unless tunnel safety monitoring systems can repressurize the
tube in the event of a train malfunction or accident though since trains are likely to operate at or near
the Earth's surface, emergency restoration of ambient pressure should be straightforward. The RAND
Corporation has depicted a vacuum tube train that could, in theory, cross the Atlantic or the USA in
around 21 minutes.[57]

Energy use
Energy for maglev trains is used to accelerate the train. Energy may be regained when the train slows
down via regenerative braking. It also levitates and stabilises the train's movement. Most of the
energy is needed to overcome air drag. Some energy is used for air conditioning, heating, lighting and
other miscellany.

At low speeds the percentage of power used for levitation can be significant, consuming up to 15%
more power than a subway or light rail service.[58] For short distances the energy used for
acceleration might be considerable.

The power used to overcome air drag increases with the cube of the velocity and hence dominates at
high speed. The energy needed per unit distance increases by the square of the velocity and the time
decreases linearly. For example, 2.5 times as much power is needed to travel at 400 km/h (250 mph)
than 300 km/h (190 mph).[59]

Aircraft take advantage of lower air pressure and lower temperatures by cruising at altitude to reduce
energy consumption but unlike trains need to carry fuel on board. This has led to the suggestion of
conveying maglev vehicles through partially evacuated tubes or tunnels with the possibility of
supplying energy from renewable sources.

Comparison with conventional trains

Maglev transport is non-contact and electric powered. It relies less or not at all on the wheels,
bearings and axles common to wheeled rail systems.[60]
Speed: Maglev allows higher top speeds than conventional rail, but experimental wheel-based
high-speed trains have demonstrated similar speeds.
Maintenance: Maglev trains currently in operation have demonstrated the need for minimal
guideway maintenance. Vehicle maintenance is also minimal (based on hours of operation, rather
than on speed or distance traveled). Traditional rail is subject to mechanical wear and tear that
increases rapidly with speed, also increasing maintenance.[60] For example: the wearing down of
brakes and overhead wire wear have caused problems for the Fastech 360 rail Shinkansen.
Maglev would eliminate these issues.
Weather: Maglev trains are little affected by snow, ice, severe cold, rain or high winds. However,
they have not operated in the wide range of conditions that traditional friction-based rail systems
have operated. Maglev vehicles accelerate and decelerate faster than mechanical systems
regardless of the slickness of the guideway or the slope of the grade because they are non-
contact systems.[60]
Track: Maglev trains are not compatible with conventional track, and therefore require custom
infrastructure for their entire route. By contrast conventional high-speed trains such as the TGV
are able to run, albeit at reduced speeds, on existing rail infrastructure, thus reducing expenditure
where new infrastructure would be particularly expensive (such as the final approaches to city
terminals), or on extensions where traffic does not justify new infrastructure. John Harding, former
chief maglev scientist at the Federal Railroad Administration, claimed that separate maglev
infrastructure more than pays for itself with higher levels of all-weather operational availability and
nominal maintenance costs. These claims have yet to be proven in an intense operational setting
and they do not consider the increased maglev construction costs.
Efficiency: Conventional rail is probably more efficient at lower speeds. But due to the lack of
physical contact between the track and the vehicle, maglev trains experience no rolling
resistance, leaving only air resistance and electromagnetic drag, potentially improving power
efficiency.[61] Some systems, however, such as the Central Japan Railway Company SCMaglev
use rubber tires at low speeds, reducing efficiency gains.
Weight: The electromagnets in many EMS and EDS designs require between 1 and 2 kilowatts
per ton.[62] The use of superconductor magnets can reduce the electromagnets' energy
consumption. A 50-ton Transrapid maglev vehicle can lift an additional 20 tons, for a total of 70
tons, which consumes 70–140 kW (94–188 hp). Most energy use for the TRI is for propulsion and
overcoming air resistance at speeds over 100 mph (160 km/h).
Weight loading: High-speed rail requires more support and construction for its concentrated
wheel loading. Maglev cars are lighter and distribute weight more evenly.[63]
Noise: Because the major source of noise of a maglev train comes from displaced air rather than
from wheels touching rails, maglev trains produce less noise than a conventional train at
equivalent speeds. However, the psychoacoustic profile of the maglev may reduce this benefit: a
study concluded that maglev noise should be rated like road traffic, while conventional trains
experience a 5–10 dB "bonus", as they are found less annoying at the same loudness
level.[64][65][66]
Magnet reliability: Superconducting magnets are generally used to generate the powerful
magnetic fields to levitate and propel the trains. These magnets must be kept below their critical
temperatures (this ranges from 4.2 K to 77 K, depending on the material). New alloys and
manufacturing techniques in superconductors and cooling systems have helped address this
issue.
Control systems: No signalling systems are needed for high-speed rail, because such systems
are computer controlled. Human operators cannot react fast enough to manage high-speed trains.
 High-speed systems require dedicated rights of way and are usually elevated. Two maglev
system microwave towers are in constant contact with trains. There is no need for train whistles or
horns, either.
Terrain: Maglevs are able to ascend higher grades, offering more routing flexibility and reduced
tunneling.[63] However, their high speed and greater need for control make it difficult for a maglev
to merge with complex terrain, such as a curved hill. Traditional trains, on the other hand, are able
to curve alongside a mountain top or meander through a forest.

Comparison with aircraft

Differences between airplane and maglev travel:

Efficiency: For maglev systems the lift-to-drag ratio can exceed that of aircraft (for example
Inductrack can approach 200:1 at high speed, far higher than any aircraft). This can make
maglevs more efficient per kilometer. However, at high cruising speeds, aerodynamic drag is
much larger than lift-induced drag. Jets take advantage of low air density at high altitudes to
significantly reduce air drag. Hence despite their lift-to-drag ratio disadvantage, they can travel
more efficiently at high speeds than maglev trains that operate at sea level.
Routing: Maglevs offer competitive journey times for distances of 800 km (500 mi) or less.
Additionally, maglevs can easily serve intermediate destinations.
Availability: Maglevs are little affected by weather.
Travel time: Maglevs do not face the extended security protocols faced by air travelers nor is time
consumed for taxiing, or for queuing for take-off and landing.

Economics
The Shanghai maglev demonstration line cost US$1.2 billion to build in 2004.[67] This total includes
capital costs such as right-of-way clearing, extensive pile driving, on-site guideway manufacturing, in-
situ pier construction at 25 m (82 ft) intervals, a maintenance facility and vehicle yard, several
switches, two stations, operations and control systems, power feed system, cables and inverters, and
operational training. Ridership is not a primary focus of this demonstration line, since the Longyang
Road station is on the eastern outskirts of Shanghai. Once the line is extended to South Shanghai
Train station and Hongqiao Airport station, which may not happen because of economic reasons,
ridership was expected to cover operation and maintenance costs and generate significant net
revenue.

The South Shanghai extension was expected to cost approximately US$18 million per kilometre. In
2006 the German government invested $125 million in guideway cost reduction development that
produced an all-concrete modular design that is faster to build and is 30% less costly. Other new
construction techniques were also developed that put maglev at or below price parity with new high-
speed rail construction.[68]

The United States Federal Railroad Administration, in a 2005 report to Congress, estimated cost per
mile of between US$50 million and US$100 million.[69] The Maryland Transit Administration (MTA)
Environmental Impact Statement estimated a pricetag at US$4.9 billion for construction, and $53
million a year for operations of its project.[70]
The proposed Chuo Shinkansen maglev in Japan was estimated to cost approximately US$82 billion
to build, with a route requiring long tunnels. A Tokaido maglev route replacing the current
Shinkansen would cost 1/10 the cost, as no new tunnel would be needed, but noise pollution issues
made this infeasible.

The Japanese Linimo HSST, cost approximately US$100 million/km to build.[71] Besides offering
improved operation and maintenance costs over other transit systems, these low-speed maglevs
provide ultra-high levels of operational reliability and introduce little noise and generate zero air
pollution into dense urban settings.

As more maglev systems are deployed, experts expected construction costs to drop by employing new
construction methods and from economies of scale.[72]

Records
The highest-recorded maglev speed is 603 km/h (375 mph), achieved in Japan by JR Central's L0
superconducting maglev on 21 April 2015,[73] 28 km/h (17 mph) faster than the conventional TGV
wheel-rail speed record. However, the operational and performance differences between these two
very different technologies is far greater. The TGV record was achieved accelerating down a 72.4 km
(45 mi) slight decline, requiring 13 minutes. It then took another 77.25 km (48 mi) for the TGV to
stop, requiring a total distance of 149.65 km (93 mi) for the test.[74] The MLX01 record, however, was
achieved on the 18.4 km (11.4 mi) Yamanashi test track – 1/8 the distance.[75] No maglev or wheel-rail
commercial operation has actually been attempted at speeds over 500 km/h (310 mph).

History of maglev speed records

List of speed records set by maglev vehicles, by date, sortable

Year Country Train Speed Notes

West 90 km/h
1971 Prinzipfahrzeug
Germany (56 mph)

West 164 km/h

1971 TR-02 (TSST)
Germany (102 mph)

60 km/h
1972 Japan ML100 manned
(37 mph)

West 250 km/h

1973 TR04 manned
Germany (160 mph)

West 230 km/h

1974 EET-01 unmanned
Germany (140 mph)

West 401 km/h

1975 Komet by steam rocket propulsion, unmanned
Germany (249 mph)

308 km/h by supporting rockets propulsion, made in Nissan,

1978 Japan HSST-01
(191 mph) unmanned

110 km/h
1978 Japan HSST-02 manned
(68 mph)
 1979- 504 km/h (unmanned) It succeeds in operation over 500 km/h for the
Japan ML-500R
12-12 (313 mph) first time in the world.

1979- 517 km/h

Japan ML-500R (unmanned)
12-21 (321 mph)

West 406 km/h

1987 TR-06 (manned)
Germany (252 mph)

401 km/h
1987 Japan MLU001 (manned)
(249 mph)

West 413 km/h

1988 TR-06 (manned)
Germany (257 mph)

West 436 km/h

1989 TR-07 (manned)
Germany (271 mph)

450 km/h
1993 Germany TR-07 (manned)
(280 mph)

431 km/h
1994 Japan MLU002N (unmanned)
(268 mph)

531 km/h
1997 Japan MLX01 (manned)
(330 mph)

550 km/h
1997 Japan MLX01 (unmanned)
(340 mph)

552 km/h
1999 Japan MLX01 (manned/five-car formation). Guinness authorization.
(343 mph)

581 km/h
2003 Japan MLX01 (manned/three formation). Guinness authorization.[76]
(361 mph)

590 km/h
2015 Japan L0
(370 mph) (manned/seven-car formation)[77]

603 km/h
2015 Japan L0 (manned/seven-car formation)[73]
(375 mph)

Systems

Test tracks

AMT test track – Powder Springs, Georgia (USA)

A second prototype system in Powder Springs, Georgia, USA, was built by American Maglev
Technology, Inc. The test track is 610 m (2,000 ft) long with a 168.6 m (553 ft) curve. Vehicles are
operated up to 60 km/h (37 mph), below the proposed operational maximum of 97 km/h (60 mph). A
June 2013 review of the technology called for an extensive testing program to be carried out to ensure
the system complies with various regulatory requirements including the American Society of Civil
Engineers (ASCE) People Mover Standard. The review noted that the test track is too short to assess
the vehicles' dynamics at the maximum proposed speeds.[78]
FTA's UMTD program, USA

In the US, the Federal Transit Administration (FTA) Urban Maglev Technology Demonstration
program funded the design of several low-speed urban maglev demonstration projects. It assessed
HSST for the Maryland Department of Transportation and maglev technology for the Colorado
Department of Transportation. The FTA also funded work by General Atomics at California University
of Pennsylvania to evaluate the MagneMotion M3 and of the Maglev2000 of Florida superconducting
EDS system. Other US urban maglev demonstration projects of note are the LEVX in Washington
State and the Massachusetts-based Magplane.

San Diego, California USA

General Atomics has a 120 m (390 ft) test facility in San Diego, that is used to test Union Pacific's
8 km (5 mi) freight shuttle in Los Angeles. The technology is "passive" (or "permanent"), using
permanent magnets in a Halbach array for lift and requiring no electromagnets for either levitation or
propulsion. General Atomics received US$90 million in research funding from the federal
government. They are also considering their technology for high-speed passenger services.[79]

SCMaglev, Yamanashi Japan

Japan has a demonstration line in Yamanashi prefecture where test train SCMaglev L0 Series
Shinkansen reached 603 km/h (375 mph), faster than any wheeled trains.[73]

These trains use superconducting magnets, which allow for a larger gap, and repulsive/attractive-type
electrodynamic suspension (EDS).[46][80] In comparison Transrapid uses conventional
electromagnets and attractive-type electromagnetic suspension (EMS).[81][82]

On 15 November 2014, The Central Japan Railway Company ran eight days of testing for the
experimental maglev Shinkansen train on its test track in Yamanashi Prefecture. One hundred
passengers covered a 42.8 km (26.6 mi) route between the cities of Uenohara and Fuefuki, reaching
speeds of up to 500 km/h (310 mph).[83]

Sengenthal, Germany

Max Bögl, a german construction company has built a testtrack in Sengenthal, Bavaria, Germany. In
appearance it's more like the German M-Bahn than the Transrapid system.[84] The vehicle tested on
the track is patented in the US by Max Bögl.[85]

Southwest Jiaotong University, China

On 31 December 2000, the first crewed high-temperature superconducting maglev was tested
successfully at Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu, China. This system is based on the principle
that bulk high-temperature superconductors can be levitated stably above or below a permanent
magnet. The load was over 530 kg (1,170 lb) and the levitation gap over 20 mm (0.79 in). The system
uses liquid nitrogen to cool the superconductor.[86][87][88]
Operational systems

Shanghai Maglev (2003)

The Shanghai Maglev Train, also known as the Transrapid, has a

top speed of 430 km/h (270 mph). The line is the fastest, first
commercially successful, operational Maglev train designed to
connect Shanghai Pudong International Airport and the outskirts
of central Pudong, Shanghai. It covers a distance of 30.5 km
(19.0 mi) in 7 or 8 minutes.[3]
A maglev train coming out of the
In January 2001, the Chinese signed an agreement with Pudong International Airport
Transrapid to build an EMS high-speed maglev line to link
Pudong International Airport with Longyang Road Metro station
on the southeastern edge of Shanghai. This Shanghai Maglev Train demonstration line, or Initial
Operating Segment (IOS), has been in commercial operations since April 2004[89] and now operates
115 daily trips (up from 110 in 2010) that traverse the 30 km (19 mi) between the two stations in 7 or 8
minutes, achieving a top speed of 431 km/h (268 mph) and averaging 266 km/h (165 mph).[90] On a
12 November 2003 system commissioning test run, it achieved 501 km/h (311 mph), its designed top
cruising speed. The Shanghai maglev is faster than Birmingham technology and comes with on-time—
to the second—reliability greater than 99.97%.[91]

Plans to extend the line to Shanghai South Railway Station and Hongqiao Airport on the
northwestern edge of Shanghai are on hold. After the Shanghai–Hangzhou Passenger Railway became
operational in late 2010, the maglev extension became somewhat redundant and may be cancelled.

Linimo (Tobu Kyuryo Line, Japan) (2005)

The commercial automated "Urban Maglev" system commenced

operation in March 2005 in Aichi, Japan. The Tobu Kyuryo Line,
otherwise known as the Linimo line, covers 9 km (5.6 mi). It has a
minimum operating radius of 75 m (246 ft) and a maximum
gradient of 6%. The linear-motor magnetically levitated train has
a top speed of 100 km/h (62 mph). More than 10 million
passengers used this "urban maglev" line in its first three months
of operation. At 100 km/h, it is sufficiently fast for frequent stops,
has little or no noise impact on surrounding communities, can
Linimo train approaching Banpaku
navigate short radius rights of way, and operates during
Kinen Koen, towards Fujigaoka
inclement weather. The trains were designed by the Chubu HSST
Station in March 2005
Development Corporation, which also operates a test track in
Nagoya.[92]

Daejeon Expo Maglev (2008)

The first maglev test trials using electromagnetic suspension opened to public was HML-03, made by
Hyundai Heavy Industries for the Daejeon Expo in 1993, after five years of research and
manufacturing two prototypes, HML-01 and HML-02.[93][94][95] Government research on urban
maglev using electromagnetic suspension began in 1994.[95] The first operating urban maglev was
UTM-02 in Daejeon beginning on 21 April 2008 after 14 years of development and one prototype;
UTM-01. The train runs on a 1 km (0.6 mi) track between Expo Park and National Science
Museum[96][97] which has been shortened with the redevelopment of Expo Park. The track currently
ends at the street parallel to the science museum. Meanwhile UTM-02 conducted the world's first-
ever maglev simulation.[98][99] However, UTM-02 is still the second prototype of a final model. The
final UTM model of Rotem's urban maglev, UTM-03, was scheduled to debut at the end of 2014 in
Incheon's Yeongjong island where Incheon International Airport is located.[100]

Incheon Airport Maglev (2016)

The Incheon Airport Maglev began commercial operation on February 3, 2016.[31] It was developed
and built domestically. Compared to Linimo, it has a more futuristic design thanks to it being lighter
with construction costs cut to half.[101] It connects Incheon International Airport with Yongyu Station,
cutting journey time.[102][103]

Changsha Maglev (2016)

The Hunan provincial government launched the construction of a

maglev line between Changsha Huanghua International Airport
and Changsha South Railway Station, covering a distance of
18.55 km. Construction started in May 2014 and was completed
by the end of 2015.[104][105] Trial runs began on 26 December
2015 and trial operations started on 6 May 2016.[106] As of 13
June 2018 the Changsha maglev had covered a distance of 1.7
million km and carried nearly 6 million passengers. The next Changsha Maglev Train arriving at
generation of this vehicle is in production, and is capable of Langli Station
running at a top speed of 160 km/h.[107]

Beijing S1 Line (2017)

Beijing has built China's second low-speed maglev line, S1 Line, Beijing Subway, using technology
developed by National University of Defense Technology. The line was opened on December 30, 2017.
The line operates at speeds up to 100 km/h.[108]

Maglevs under construction

Chūō Shinkansen (Japan)

The Chuo Shinkansen is a high-speed maglev line in Japan. Construction began in 2014, and it is
expected to begin commercial operations by 2027.[109] The Linear Chuo Shinkansen Project aims to
connect Tokyo and Osaka by way of Nagoya, the
capital city of Aichi, in approximately one hour, less
than half the travel time of the fastest existing bullet
trains connecting the three metropolises.[110] The full
track between Tokyo and Osaka was originally
expected to be completed in 2045, but the operator is
The Chūō Shinkansen route (bold yellow and red
now aiming for 2037.[111][112][113] line) and existing Tōkaidō Shinkansen route (thin
blue line)
The L0 Series train type is undergoing testing by the
Central Japan Railway Company (JR Central) for
eventual use on the Chūō Shinkansen line. It set a manned world speed record of 603 km/h
(375 mph) on 21 April 2015.[73] The trains are planned to run at a maximum speed of 505 km/h
(314 mph),[114] offering journey times of 40 minutes between Tokyo (Shinagawa Station) and Nagoya,
and 1 hour 7 minutes between Tokyo and Osaka (Shin-Ōsaka Station).[115]

Fenghuang Maglev (China)

Fenghuang Maglev ( ) is a medium- to low-speed maglev line in Fenghuang County, Xiangxi,
Hunan province, China. The line will operate at speeds up to 100 km/h. The first phase is 9.12 km
with 4 stations (and 2 more reserved station). The first phase will open in 2021 and will connect the
Fenghuang railway station on Zhangjiajie–Jishou–Huaihua high-speed railway with the Fenghuang
Folklore Garden.[116]

Qingyuan Maglev (China)

Qingyuan Maglev ( ) is a medium- to low-speed maglev line in Qingyuan,
Guangdong province, China. The line will operate at speeds up to 100 km/h.[117] The first phase is
8.1 km with 3 stations (and 1 more reserved station).[117] The first phase will open in October
2020[118] and will connect the Yinzhan railway station on Guangzhou–Qingyuan intercity railway
with the Qingyuan Chimelong Theme Park.[119] In the long term the line will be 38.5 km.[120]

Proposed maglev systems

Many maglev systems have been proposed in North America, Asia and Europe.[121] Many are in the
early planning stages or were explicitly rejected.

Australia
Sydney-Illawarra
A maglev route was proposed between Sydney and Wollongong.[122] The proposal came to
prominence in the mid-1990s. The Sydney–Wollongong commuter corridor is the largest in Australia,
with upwards of 20,000 people commuting each day. Current trains use the Illawarra line, between
the cliff face of the Illawarra escarpment and the Pacific Ocean, with travel times about 2 hours. The
proposal would cut travel times to 20 minutes.

Melbourne

In late 2008, a proposal was put forward to the Government of

Victoria to build a privately funded and operated maglev line to
service the Greater Melbourne metropolitan area in response to
the Eddington Transport Report that did not investigate above-
ground transport options.[123][124] The maglev would service a
population of over 4 million and the proposal was costed at A$8
billion.

However, despite road congestion and Australia's highest

roadspace per capita, the government dismissed the proposal in
favour of road expansion including an A$8.5 billion road tunnel,
$6 billion extension of the Eastlink to the Western Ring Road and
a $700 million Frankston Bypass.
The proposed Melbourne maglev
connecting the city of Geelong
through Metropolitan Melbourne's
Canada
outer suburban growth corridors,
Tullamarine and Avalon domestic in
Toronto Zoo: Edmonton-based Magnovate has proposed a new
and international terminals in under
ride and transportation system at the Toronto Zoo reviving the
20 min. and on to Frankston, Victoria,
Toronto Zoo Domain Ride system, which was closed following in under 30 min.
two severe accidents in 1994. The Zoo's board unanimously
approved the proposal on November 29, 2018.

The company will construct and operate the $25 million system on the former route of the Domain
Ride (known locally as the Monorail, despite not being considered one) at zero cost to the Zoo and
operate it for 15 years, splitting the profits with the Zoo. The ride will serve a single-directional loop
around Zoo grounds, serving five stations and likely replacing the current Zoomobile tour tram
service. Planned to be operational by 2022 at the earliest, this will become the first commercially
operating maglev system in North America should it be approved.[125]

China

Xianning – Changsha test line

A maglev test line linking Xianning in Hubei Province and Changsha in Hunan Province will start
construction in 2020. The test line is about 200 km (120 mi) in length and might be part of Beijing –
Guangzhou maglev in long-term planning.[126][127]
Other proposed lines

Shanghai – Hangzhou

China planned to extend the existing Shanghai Maglev Train,[128] initially by around 35 km (22 mi) to
Shanghai Hongqiao Airport and then 200 km (120 mi) to the city of Hangzhou (Shanghai-Hangzhou
Maglev Train). If built, this would be the first inter-city maglev rail line in commercial service.

The project was controversial and repeatedly delayed. In May 2007 the project was suspended by
officials, reportedly due to public concerns about radiation from the system.[129] In January and
February 2008 hundreds of residents demonstrated in downtown Shanghai that the line route came
too close to their homes, citing concerns about sickness due to exposure to the strong magnetic field,
noise, pollution and devaluation of property near to the lines.[130][131] Final approval to build the line
was granted on 18 August 2008. Originally scheduled to be ready by Expo 2010,[132] plans called for
completion by 2014. The Shanghai municipal government considered multiple options, including
building the line underground to allay public fears. This same report stated that the final decision had
to be approved by the National Development and Reform Commission.[133]

In 2007 the Shanghai municipal government was considering building a factory in Nanhui district to
produce low-speed maglev trains for urban use.[134]

Shanghai – Beijing

Germany
On 25 September 2007, Bavaria announced a high-speed maglev-rail service from Munich to its
airport. The Bavarian government signed contracts with Deutsche Bahn and Transrapid with Siemens
and ThyssenKrupp for the €1.85 billion project.[135]

On 27 March 2008, the German Transport minister announced the project had been cancelled due to
rising costs associated with constructing the track. A new estimate put the project between €3.2–3.4
billion.[136]

Hong Kong
The Express Rail Link, previously known as the Regional Express, connect Kowloon with the
territory's border with China, explored different technologies and designs in its planning stage,
between maglev and conventional high-speed railway, and if the latter was chosen, between a
dedicated new route and sharing the tracks with the existing West Rail. Finally conventional
highspeed with dedicated new route was chosen. The final phase, which connects Shenzhen-Futian to
Hong Kong (West Kowloon) was inaugurated on 22 September 2018. It opened for public on Sunday
23 September 2018.

India
Mumbai – Delhi
A project was presented to Indian railway minister (Mamata Banerjee) by an American company to
connect Mumbai and Delhi. Then Prime Minister Manmohan Singh said that if the line project was
successful the Indian government would build lines between other cities and also between Mumbai
Central and Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport.[137]
Mumbai – Nagpur
The State of Maharashtra approved a feasibility study for a maglev train between Mumbai and
Nagpur, some 1,000 km (620 mi) apart.[138]
Chennai – Bangalore – Mysore
A detailed report was to be prepared and submitted by December 2012 for a line to connect Chennai
to Mysore via Bangalore at a cost $26 million per kilometre, reaching speeds of 350 km/h.[139]

Italy
A first proposal was formalized in April 2008, in Brescia, by journalist Andrew Spannaus who
recommended a high-speed connection between Malpensa airport to the cities of Milan, Bergamo and
Brescia.[140]

In March 2011, Nicola Oliva proposed a maglev connection between Pisa airport and the cities of
Prato and Florence (Santa Maria Novella train station and Florence Airport).[141][142] The travelling
time would be reduced from the typical 1 hour 15 minutes to around 20 minutes.[143] The second part
of the line would be a connection to Livorno, to integrate maritime, aerial and terrestrial transport
systems.[144][145]

Iran
In May 2009, Iran and a German company signed an agreement to use maglev to link Tehran and
Mashhad. The agreement was signed at the Mashhad International Fair site between Iranian Ministry
of Roads and Transportation and the German company. The 900 km (560 mi) line possibly could
reduce travel time between Tehran and Mashhad to about 2.5 hours.[146] Munich-based Schlegel
Consulting Engineers said they had signed the contract with the Iranian ministry of transport and the
governor of Mashad. "We have been mandated to lead a German consortium in this project," a
spokesman said. "We are in a preparatory phase." The project could be worth between €10 billion and
€12 billion, the Schlegel spokesman said.[147]

Malaysia/Singapore
A Consortium led by UEM Group Bhd and ARA Group, proposed maglev technology to link Malaysian
cities to Singapore. The idea was first mooted by YTL Group. Its technology partner then was said to
be Siemens. High costs sank the proposal. The concept of a high-speed rail link from Kuala Lumpur to
Singapore resurfaced. It was cited as a proposed "high impact" project in the Economic
Transformation Programme (ETP) that was unveiled in 2010.[148] Approval has been given for the
Kuala Lumpur–Singapore high-speed rail project, but not using maglev technology.
Switzerland
SwissRapide: The SwissRapide AG together with the SwissRapide Consortium was planning and
developing the first maglev monorail system for intercity traffic between the country's major cities.
SwissRapide was to be financed by private investors. In the long-term, the SwissRapide Express was
to connect the major cities north of the Alps between Geneva and St. Gallen, including Lucerne and
Basel. The first projects were Bern – Zurich, Lausanne – Geneva as well as Zurich – Winterthur. The
first line (Lausanne – Geneva or Zurich – Winterthur) could go into service as early as 2020.[149][150]

Swissmetro: An earlier project, Swissmetro AG envisioned a partially evacuated underground

maglev (a vactrain). As with SwissRapide, Swissmetro envisioned connecting the major cities in
Switzerland with one another. In 2011, Swissmetro AG was dissolved and the IPRs from the
organisation were passed onto the EPFL in Lausanne.[151]

A proposed line would have connected Shanghai to Beijing, over a distance of 1,300 km (800 mi), at
an estimated cost of £15.5 billion.[152] No projects had been revealed as of 2014.[153]

Taiwan
A low-speed maglev system (urban maglev) is proposed for YangMingShan MRT Line for Taipei, a
circular line connecting Taipei City to New Taipei City, and almost all other Taipei transport routes,
but especially the access-starved northern suburbs of Tien Mou and YangMingShan. From these
suburbs to the city, transit times would be reduced by 70% or more compared to peak hours, and
between Tien Mou and YangMingShan, from approx 20 minutes, to 3 minutes. Key to the line is
YangMingShan Station, at 'Taipei level' in the mountain, 200M below YangMingShan (YangMing
Mountain) Village, with 40-second high-speed elevators to the Village.

Linimo or a similar system would be preferred, as being the core of Taipei's public transport system, it
should run 24 hours a day. Also, in certain areas it would run within metres of apartments, so the
near silent operation and minimal maintenance requirements of maglev would be major advantages.

An extension of the line could run to Chiang Kai Shek Airport, and possibly on down the island,
passing through major population centres, which the high-speed rail must avoid. The minimal
vibration of maglev would also be suitable to provide access Hsinchu Science Park, where sensitive
silicon foundries are located. In the other direction, connection to the Tansui Line and to high-speed
ferries at Tansui would provide overnight travel to Shanghai and Nagasaki, and to Busan or Mokpo in
South Korea, thus interconnecting the public transport systems of four countries, with great savings
in fossil fuel consumption compared to flight.

YangMingShan MRT Line won the 'Engineering Excellence' Award, at the 2013 World Metro Summit
in Shanghai.

United Kingdom
London – Glasgow: A line[154] was proposed in the United Kingdom from London to Glasgow with
several route options through the Midlands, Northwest and Northeast of England. It was reported to
be under favourable consideration by the government.[155] The approach was rejected in the
Government White Paper Delivering a Sustainable Railway published on 24 July 2007.[156] Another
high-speed link was planned between Glasgow and Edinburgh but the technology remained
unsettled.[157][158][159]

United States
Washington, D.C. to New York City: Using Superconducting Maglev (SCMAGLEV) technology
developed by the Central Japan Railway Company, the Northeast Maglev would ultimately connect
major Northeast metropolitan hubs and airports with a goal of one-hour service from Washington,
D.C. to New York City.[160] The Federal Railroad Administration and Maryland Department of
Transportation are currently preparing an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) to evaluate the
potential impacts of constructing and operating the system's first leg between Washington, DC and
Baltimore, Maryland with an intermediate stop at BWI Airport.[161]

Union Pacific freight conveyor: Plans are under way by American rail road operator Union
Pacific to build a 7.9 km (4.9 mi) container shuttle between the Ports of Los Angeles and Long Beach,
with UP's intermodal container transfer facility. The system would be based on "passive" technology,
especially well suited to freight transfer as no power is needed on board. The vehicle is a chassis that
glides to its destination. The system is being designed by General Atomics.[79]

California-Nevada Interstate Maglev: High-speed maglev lines between major cities of southern
California and Las Vegas are under study via the California-Nevada Interstate Maglev Project.[162]
This plan was originally proposed as part of an I-5 or I-15 expansion plan, but the federal government
ruled that it must be separated from interstate public work projects.

After the decision, private groups from Nevada proposed a line running from Las Vegas to Los
Angeles with stops in Primm, Nevada; Baker, California; and other points throughout San Bernardino
County into Los Angeles. Politicians expressed concern that a high-speed rail line out of state would
carry spending out of state along with travelers.

The Pennsylvania Project: The Pennsylvania High-Speed Maglev Project corridor extends from
the Pittsburgh International Airport to Greensburg, with intermediate stops in Downtown Pittsburgh
and Monroeville. This initial project was claimed to serve approximately 2.4 million people in the
Pittsburgh metropolitan area. The Baltimore proposal competed with the Pittsburgh proposal for a
US$90 million federal grant.[163]

San Diego-Imperial County airport: In 2006 ,San Diego commissioned a study for a maglev line
to a proposed airport located in Imperial County. SANDAG claimed that the concept would be an
"airports [sic] without terminals", allowing passengers to check in at a terminal in San Diego
("satellite terminals"), take the train to the airport and directly board the airplane. In addition, the
train would have the potential to carry freight. Further studies were requested although no funding
was agreed.[164]
Orlando International Airport to Orange County Convention Center: In December 2012
the Florida Department of Transportation gave conditional approval to a proposal by American
Maglev to build a privately run 14.9 mi (24 km), 5-station line from Orlando International Airport to
Orange County Convention Center. The Department requested a technical assessment and said there
would be a request for proposals issued to reveal any competing plans. The route requires the use of a
public right of way.[165] If the first phase succeeded American Maglev would propose two further
phases (of 4.9 and 19.4 mi [7.9 and 31.2 km]) to carry the line to Walt Disney World.[166]

San Juan – Caguas: A 16.7 mi (26.9 km) maglev project was proposed linking Tren Urbano's Cupey
Station in San Juan with two proposed stations in the city of Caguas, south of San Juan. The maglev
line would run along Highway PR-52, connecting both cities. According to American Maglev project
cost would be approximately US$380 million.[167][168][169]

Incidents
Two incidents involved fires. A Japanese test train in Miyazaki, MLU002, was completely consumed
by a fire in 1991.[170]

On 11 August 2006, a fire broke out on the commercial Shanghai Transrapid shortly after arriving at
the Longyang terminal. People were evacuated without incident before the vehicle was moved about 1
kilometre to keep smoke from filling the station. NAMTI officials toured the SMT maintenance facility
in November 2010 and learned that the cause of the fire was "thermal runaway" in a battery tray. As a
result, SMT secured a new battery vendor, installed new temperature sensors and insulators and
redesigned the trays.

On 22 September 2006, a Transrapid train collided with a maintenance vehicle on a test/publicity run
in Lathen (Lower Saxony / north-western Germany).[171][172] Twenty-three people were killed and ten
were injured; these were the first maglev crash fatalities. The accident was caused by human error.
Charges were brought against three Transrapid employees after a year-long investigation.[173]

Safety becomes an ever greater concern with high-speed public transport due to the potentially large
impact force and number of casualties. In the case of maglev trains, an incident could result from
human error, including loss of power, or factors outside human control, such as ground movement,
for example, caused by an earthquake.

See also
Bombardier Advanced Rapid Transit – Transit systems using Linear induction motors
Ground effect train
Hyperloop
Land speed record for rail vehicles
Launch loop would be a maglev system for launching to orbit or escape velocity
Mass driver
Nagahori Tsurumi-ryokuchi Line
Oleg Tozoni worked on a published non-linearly stabilised maglev design
StarTram – a maglev launch system
 Transfer table
Electromagnetic suspension

Notes
1. Zehden describes a geometry in which the linear motor is used below a steel beam, giving partial
levitation of the vehicle. These patents were later cited by Electromagnetic apparatus generating
a gliding magnetic field by Jean Candelas (U.S. Patent 4,131,813 (https://www.google.com/patent
s/US4131813)), Air cushion supported, omnidirectionally steerable, traveling magnetic field
propulsion device by Harry A. Mackie (U.S. Patent 3,357,511 (https://www.google.com/patents/US
3357511)) and Two-sided linear induction motor especially for suspended vehicles by Schwarzler
et al. (U.S. Patent 3,820,472 (https://www.google.com/patents/US3820472))
2. These German patents would be GR643316 (1937), GR44302 (1938), GR707032 (1941).
3. This is the case with the Moscow Monorail—currently the only non-maglev linear motor-propelled
monorail train in active service.

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Further reading
Heller, Arnie (June 1998). "A New Approach for Magnetically Levitating Trains—and Rockets" (htt
ps://www.llnl.gov/str/Post.html). Science & Technology Review.
Henry H. Kolm; Richard D. Thornton (October 1973). "Electromagnetic Flight". Scientific
American. Springer Nature. 229 (4): 17–25. Bibcode:1973SciAm.229d..17K (https://ui.adsabs.har
vard.edu/abs/1973SciAm.229d..17K). doi:10.1038/scientificamerican1073-17 (https://doi.org/10.1
038%2Fscientificamerican1073-17).
Hood, Christopher P. (2006). Shinkansen – From Bullet Train to Symbol of Modern Japan.
Routledge. ISBN 0-415-32052-6.
Moon, Francis C. (1994). Superconducting Levitation Applications to Bearings and Magnetic
Transportation. Wiley-VCH. ISBN 0-471-55925-3.
Rossberg, Ralf Roman (1983). Radlos in die Zukunft? Die Entwicklung neuer Bahnsysteme. Orell
Füssli Verlag. ASIN B002ROWD5M (https://www.amazon.com/dp/B002ROWD5M).
Rossberg, Ralf Roman (1993). Radlos in die Zukunft? Die Entwicklung neuer Bahnsysteme. Orell
Fuessli Verlag. ISBN 978-3-280-01503-2.
Simmons, Jack; Biddle, Gordon (1997). The Oxford Companion to British Railway History: From
1603 to the 1990s. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 303. ISBN 0-19-211697-5.

External links
United States Federal Railroad Administration (https://web.archive.org/web/20050404190644/http:
//www.fra.dot.gov/us/content/200)
US MagneticGlide (http://www.magneticglide.com/)
The International Maglev Board (http://www.maglevboard.net/) Maglev professionals' info platform
for all maglev transport systems and related technologies.
Maglev Net – Maglev News and Information (http://www.maglev.net/)
Japanese Railway Technical Research Institute (RTRI) (https://web.archive.org/web/20051102050
249/http://www.rtri.or.jp/index.html)
Magnetic Levitation (https://curlie.org/Science/Physics/Electromagnetism/Magnetic_Levitation) at
Curlie
 Magnetic Levitation for Transportation (http://www.railserve.com/maglev.html)

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