Entry Aerodynamics

• Atmospheric Regimes on Entry

• Basic fluid parameters
• Definition of Mean Free Path
• Rarified gas Newtonian flow
• Continuum Newtonian flow (hypersonics)

© 2020 David L. Akin - All rights reserved

http://spacecraft.ssl.umd.edu
UNIVERSITY OF Entry Aerodynamics
MARYLAND 1 ENAE 791 - Launch and Entry Vehicle Design
Basic Fluids Parameters
v
M ⌘ Mach Number =
a ✓ ◆
p <
a ⌘ speed of sound = RT R=
m̄
1 2
ordered energy 2 mv v2 v2 2
= 1 = = = M
random energy 2 mv̄ 2
g 3RT 3 a2 3
inertial force
Re ⌘ Reynold’s number =
viscous force
ṁv ⇢Av 2 ⇢vL
Re = = v =
⌧A µLA µ
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Random vs. Ordered Energy

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More Fluid Parameters
K ⌘ Knudsen number

number of collisions with body

K=
number of collisions with other molecules

K=
L

⌘ mean free path

L ⌘ vehicle characteristic length

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MARYLAND 4 ENAE 791 - Launch and Entry Vehicle Design
Estimating Mean Free Path
Assume:
• All molecules are perfect rigid spheres
• Each has diameter σ, mass m, and velocityv̄
• Consider a cube with side length L containing N
molecules
• N/6 molecules are traveling in each direction
– ±X
– ±Y
– ±Z

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MARYLAND 5 ENAE 791 - Launch and Entry Vehicle Design
Consider Collisions in +Z Direction
number of potential +Z collisions
v̄ 1 ⇡ 2L 1 ⇡ 2
n(+Z) = N 3
= N 2
6 L 6 L
2v̄
v̄ () frequency of +Z collisions
2
⇡
n(+Z) 6 N L2
f (+Z) = = L
t 2v̄
2
Area = ⇡ ⇡⇢ 2 v̄
f (+Z) =
3m

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MARYLAND 6 ENAE 791 - Launch and Entry Vehicle Design
Consider Collisions in +X Direction
p
v̄ 2v̄ frequency of +X collisions
() p
v̄ n(+X) 2⇡⇢ 2 v̄
f (+X) = =
t 6m

f ( X) = f (+Y ) = f ( Y ) = f (+X) f ( Z) = 0
Total frequency of collisions
⇡ p ⇢ 2 v̄
f = (1 + 2 2)
3 m
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Mean Free Path
2
✓ ◆
v̄ m/ 1
= = ⇡
p /
f 3 (1 + 2 2)⇢
⇢

8
at sea level: = 6.7 ⇥ 10 m

at 100 km: = 0.3 m ⇠ 1 f t

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MARYLAND 8 ENAE 791 - Launch and Entry Vehicle Design
Five Basic Flow Regimes
• Free molecular regime
• Near-free molecular regime
• Transition regime
• Viscous merged boundary layer
• Continuous regime

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MARYLAND 9 ENAE 791 - Launch and Entry Vehicle Design
Entry Flow Regimes

ref: Frank J. Regan, Reentry Vehicle Dynamics AIAA Education Series, NY, NY 1984
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MARYLAND 10 ENAE 791 - Launch and Entry Vehicle Design
Flow Regime Definitions
Knudsen number in rarified flow

K=
RN
Mean free path after collision
✓ ◆ 12
4 Tw 1
c = p
⇡ T1 M1
If Tw ⇠ T1
⇠ 1
c = 1.9
M1
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Free Molecular Regime
• Orbital flight
• `
• Molecule encountering a boundary (e.g., surface of
vehicle) attains the state of the boundary after a
single collision
• Kc 10 or K1 > 5.24M1

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MARYLAND 12 ENAE 791 - Launch and Entry Vehicle Design
Newtonian Flow
• Mean free path of
particles much larger
than spacecraft --> no
appreciable interaction
of air molecules V α
• Model vehicle/ α
atmosphere interactions
as independent perfectly V
elastic collisions

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Newtonian Analysis
mass flux = (density)(swept area)(velocity)
V
ρ

A
A sin(α)

dm
= (ρ)(A sin α)(V )
dt α
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Momentum Transfer
• Momentum
F
perpendicular to wall Vsin(α)
is reversed at impact
• “Bounce”
momentum is V
transferred to vehicle
• Momentum parallel V
to wall is unchanged

dm 2 2
F = ∆V = ρV A sin α(2V sin α) = 2ρV A sin α
dt
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Lift and Drag
2 2
L = F cos α = 2ρV A sin α cos α
F
D = F sin α = 2ρV 2 A sin3 α L
V
L α D
cL = 1 2 = 4 sin2 α cos α
2 ρV A
D
cD = 1 2 = 4 sin3 α
2 ρV A L cos α
= = cot α
D sin α
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Flat Plate Newtonian Aerodynamics
4.5

3.5

2.5

1.5

0.5

0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Angle of Attack (deg)

Lift coeff. Drag coeff. L/D

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MARYLAND 17 ENAE 791 - Launch and Entry Vehicle Design
Example of Newtonian Flow Calculations
Consider a cylinder of length l, entering
atmosphere transverse to flow

dA = rdθdl r

dṁ = ρdA cos θV = ρV cos θrdθdℓ dF

θ
V dL
dD

dF = dṁ∆V = 2ρV 2 cos2 θrdθdℓ

dD = dF cos θ = 2ρV 2 cos3 θrdθdℓ
2 2
dL = dF sin ✓ = 2⇢V cos ✓ sin ✓rd✓d`
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Integration to Find Drag Coefficient
π π
Integrate from θ = − →
2 2
! + π2 ! ℓ ! +π
2
! ℓ
D= dD = 2ρV 2 r cos3 θdθdℓ
−π
2 0 −π
2 0
Z +⇡
2
2
3 8 2
= 2⇢V r` cos ✓d✓ = ⇢V r`
⇡
2
3
1 2
By definition, D = ρV AcD and, for a cylinder A = 2rℓ
2
2 8 2 8
⇢V r`cD = ⇢V r` =) cD =
3 3
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Near Free Molecular Flow Regime
• Also known as “slip region”
• Gas molecule only attains state of moving
boundary after several collisions
• Molecules near the wall will have a different
velocity from the wall
• Temperature will be nearly discontinuous function
of separation from wall
• 10  K  1 or 5.4M  K  0.175M
c 1 1 1
3

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Transition Region
• Very difficult to treat analytically
• For engineering purposes, usually treated as
interpolation between slip and viscous flow
• 0.175M1  K1  1

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MARYLAND 21 ENAE 791 - Launch and Entry Vehicle Design
Viscous Merged Layer Regime
• Viscous effects in forming shock and boundary
layer must be treated in a unified manner
– Boundary layer on the wall alters the conditions for the
forming shock wave
– Large pressure gradients across the shock wave
significantly alter the boundary layer
• Neither shocks nor boundary layers can be treated
as discontinuities
• 0.1
1  K1 
⇢s /⇢1
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Continuous Regime
• Classical fluid mechanics of high Reynolds number
• Shock waves and boundary layer treated as
discontinuities
0.1
• K1 >
⇢s /⇢1
• Subdivided based on Mach number
– Incompressible (subsonic) (M  ⇠ 0.8)
– Transonic (⇠ 0.8  M  ⇠ 1.3)
– Supersonic (⇠ 1.3  M  ⇠ 5)
– Hypersonic
(⇠ 5  M )
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Continuum Newtonian Flow (Hypersonics)
• Air molecules
predominately interact
with shock waves
• Effect of shock wave
passage is to decelerate V α
flow and turn it parallel
to vehicle surface

Shock wave

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MARYLAND 24 ENAE 791 - Launch and Entry Vehicle Design
Continuum Newtonian Flow (Hypersonics)
• Treat hypersonic
aerodynamics in manner
similar to previous
Newtonian flow analysis
• All momentum V α
perpendicular to wall is
absorbed by the wall

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MARYLAND 25 ENAE 791 - Launch and Entry Vehicle Design
Mass Flux (unchanged)
mass flux = (density)(swept area)(velocity)
V
ρ

A
A sin(α)

dm
= (ρ)(A sin α)(V )
dt α
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MARYLAND 26 ENAE 791 - Launch and Entry Vehicle Design
Momentum Transfer
• Momentum
F
perpendicular to Vsin(α)
wall is absorbed at
impact and
transferred to V
vehicle Vcos(α)
• Momentum parallel
to wall is unchanged
dm 2 2
F = ∆V = ρV A sin α(V sin α) = ρV A sin α
dt
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Lift and Drag
L = F cos α = ρV 2 A sin2 α cos α
F
2 3
D = F sin α = ρV A sin α L
V
L α D
2
cL = 1 2 = 2 sin α cos α
2 ρV A
D 3
cD = 1 2 = 2 sin α
2 ρV A L cos α
= = cot α
D sin α
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Modified Newtonian Flow
• Coefficient of pressure in “classical” Newtonian
flow cp = 2 sin2 (↵)

• Coefficient of cpressure in modified

2
p = cpmax sin (↵)
Newtonian
flow

• Cp(max) is the pressure coefficient behind a

Pshock P1
normal shockcat flight
pmax = conditions
1
⇢ v 2
2 1 1

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Maximum Coefficient of Pressure
(  )
2 ( + 1)2 M1
2 1
1 2
+ 2 M1
cpmax = 2 2
1
M1 4 M1 2( 1) +1

as M ! 1  
2
( + 1) 1
4
cpmax !
4 +1

cpmax ! 1.839 for = 1.4

cpmax ! 2 for =1

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