CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Indonesian Native Cattle Rambon

Beef cattle is a special kind of cattle that kept for fattening because of

its characteristics such as rapid growth rate and its meat quality which is quite

good (Abidin, 2006). There are several hundred types and breeds of beef cattle

in the world. These have developed as a result of natural selection to the

environment or by willful selection by cattle breeders. Cattles are divided into

three main species Bos indicus which developed in India subcontinent; Bos

taurus, developed in Europe; and Bos Javanicus that developed in Bali,

Indonesia. Cattle are ruminant which have four major stomach compartments that

are rumen, reticulum, omasum and abomasums (Wilson and Reeder 2006).

Indonesia is known as one of the country that has various genetic

resources. One of the genetic resources which have an economic value and high

culture social is local beef cattle. Indonesian native beef cattle are local beef

cattle, its either since the first already exist in Indonesia or the cattle that came

from outside Indonesia but has been breeding and cultivated for a long time in

Indonesia until it has specific characteristics (Aryogi, 2005).

Bondowoso cattle consist of three tribes, namely Java, Madura and Bali

who have various types of local cattle in each place, namely Ongole, Bali and

Madura, resulting in crossbreeding occurred in between the three types of cattle.

Rambon cattle were suspected to be the result of a cross between the three

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nations, namely PO, Bali and Madura cattle. The local communities named it as

Rambon because they believed there is crossbreeding between the three types of

cattle. Rambon beef cattle mainly can be found in Banyuwangi, Sitobondo,

Bondowoso,and also Jember East Java (Susilawati, 2004).

Based on the exterior performance (Aryogi and Romjali, 2006) there are two

groups of Rambon cattle:

a. The color of the body is yellowish-white to light brown, backside and the

bottom of the legs have white streaks and some just follow the color of the body.

The shape and the growth direction of horn resemble Madura cattle.

b. The color of body is brown to brick red and black, have dark stripe down their

backs; buttocks and lower legs do not have stripes (the same color as the body)

shape and the growth direction of horn resembles Bali cattle.

The characteristics of Rambon cattle vary at each location, for Sitobondo

area, Bondowoso more dominant in Madura cattle and PO, while for Rambon in

Banyuwangi has a characteristic more dominant to Bali cattle with PO cattle. The

body of the cattle is red, bigger and do not have hump (Susilawati, 2004).
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The body size of Rambon aged around seven months until adult either female or

male (Disnak, 2005) as follows:

a. Length of the body : 84-137 cm

b. Body weight : 98-374 kg
c. Chest circumference : 110-164 cm
d. Hump : 96-124 cm

The reproduction performance is anoes-trus post partus 4-5 months,

service or conception is 1,2 times and calving rate 12-14 months. Rambon cattle

have high survivability. They can reproduce with low quality and quantity of

feed. The carcass weight and the meat quality is according to the market demand,

these are the reason why Rambon beef cattle are desirable by the cattle farmers

(Anonymous, 2005).

2.2 Digestion in Ruminants

Digestion in ruminants involves a series of processes in the alimentary

tract where feeds are broken down into small particle size and finally turn into

soluble so that absorption is possible (McDonald et al., 2010). The digestive

system of ruminants consists of a tube. The tube extends the full length of the

body. It includes the mouth, pharynx, and esophagus, stomach which have four

compartments, small intestine, ceacum, large intestine and anus (Fasae et al.,

2010). Characteristics of this group of animal are the digestive system. It has a

big rumen occupied by microbes and as a fermentative digestion (Anders, 2006).

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Ruminants have four compartments which is the rumen or paunch,

reticulum or honeycomb, omasum or manypiles and abomasums or true stomach

and includes the liver, pancreas and salivary glands. As the calf or lamb begins

to eat solid food, the first two compartments which often considered together as

the reticulo-rumen enlarge greatly, until in the adult they comprise 85 per cent of

the total capacity of the stomach (McDonald et al., 2010).

The first and largest is called rumen. The rumen serves as a large

fermentation vat in which the food mixed with saliva and undergoes heavy

fermentation. Both bacteria and protozoa are found in the rumen in large numbers

(David, 2006). The fermentation of food by microbes in the rumen produces

volatile fatty acid (McDonald et al., 2010) which is acetic acid, propionic acid

and butyric acid (Murray, 2009).

The function of rumen is to act as a storage place. The rumen holds the

feed which the cow gathers during feeding period, later when rest the cow will

regurgitate the larger particles back to the mouth, to grind them more completely,

so they pass from the rumen more quickly and make room for more feed. To

provide a place for fermentation, there is continual flow of feed material into and

out of the rumen, constant introduction which saliva control the pH, absorption

of the end products of the microbial action and a population of microorganisms

such as bacteria and yeast. These organisms in the paunch help to digest the crude

fiber (David, 2006).

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Digestion of carbohydrates in the ruminant is through fermentation

process by microbes in the rumen. There are two types of microbes in rumen

which is Cellulolytic bacteria which digest cellulose and amylolytic bacteria

which digest starch and sugar (Murray, 2009).

Small intestine Rumen Reticulum Esophagus

Rumen Omasum Abomasum

Figure 1:

Diagrammatic representation of the rumen, reticulum, omasum and abomasum

of the ruminant, indicating the flow of digestive system (McDonald et.al.,

2010).

Reticulum lies directly in front of the rumen. Actually, the rumen and the

reticulum are not completely separated. hence the food particles pass freely from

one to the other. The interior of the reticulum is lined like a honeycomb.
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The function of the reticulum is its action as a screening device. Objects

such as nails or wire eaten with the feed, have a tendency to settle in this

compartment. Therefore, it is sometimes referring to by cattle farmers as the

hardware stomach. The consumption of fibrous foods, such as straw and hay,

stimulates the enlargement of the reticulum (David, 2006).

Omasum is the third compartment is lined with plies or folds of tissues.

Omasum is sometimes called as manypiles. Less is known about the functions of

the omasum than of the other compartments. The function of omasum is to reduce

water content of the feedstuffs and to exert a regrinding and squeezing action on

feed material (McDonald et al., 2010).

Abomasum is referred to true stomach because its action is similar to the

stomach because its action in monogastric animals. As in the monogastric

stomach, digestive juices are added and the moisture content of the feed material

is increased. The digestive juices contain enzymes, resulting in protein digestion

in the abomasums, little or no digestion of fat, cellulose, or starch occurs in this

organ. The feed material leaving the abomasums is highly fluid in nature. It is

then passed out of the stomach through the small intestine (McDonald, 2010).

Absorption of water, mineral, amino acid, glucose and fatty acid occurred

in small intestine. In the large intestine and ceacum fermentation process occur

towards the digestion product that not absorbed to become faces. Moreover, it

will absorb the water and volatile fatty acid (Murray, 2009).
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2.3 Feed

2.3.1 Silage

Silage is forages that preserved in a fresh state and when opened to be

given to the livestock, the content of the nutrient is not much different from when

it was still fresh. In the process of making silage, the forages aerated, cut into

pieces and given preservatives (carbohydrate easy to digest). The forages are then

fermented in an anaerobic atmosphere and acid (Setyono et al., 2013). The

process of making silage is called as ensilage and silo is the container used for

making the silage. In principle, silo allows to provide an anaerobic condition in

the material so that fermentation process will occur (Heinritz, 2011). Almost any

crop can be preserved as silage. Grasses, legumes, whole cereal and especially

wheat and maize are the most common crop that used to preserve as silage

(McDonald et al., 2010). Silage is a combination of two forages. It is the cheapest

form in the most of beef cattle producing farm. Silage can be fed any time and it

is very palatable feed and a mild laxative (David, 2006).

2.3.2 Formulated Concentrate

Formulated concentrate is a feed material that is used together with other

feed ingredients to enhance the harmony of the whole food nutrition (Hartadi et

al., 2005) and highly concentrated with relatively low crude fiber and easily

digested. These amplifier feed ingredients include food ingredients derived from

grains such as corn flour, grouts, bulgur, or as bran, bran, coconut cake, drops
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and various bulbs (umbi). The function of the concentrates is to enhance and

enrich the high nutritional value of other feed with low nutritional value

(Bambang, 2009).

2.3.3 Urea Molasses Mineral Block

Urea molasses-mineral block (UMMB) is a strategic feed supplement for

ruminants which provides a constant source of fermentable nitrogen throughout

the day to promote growth of rumen microbes. Supplementation with UMMB

licks significantly increase feed intake, and growth rate and as such is a cost-

effective approach to maximize the utilization of locally-available feed resources

for improved productivity. A solidified UMMB provides critical nutrients

namely nitrogen as urea, readily available energy as molasses, and minerals for

efficient microbial fermentation in the rumen. The use of blocks is convenient

and can be easily introduced into existing on-farm practices. It can improve the

digestion of low-quality roughages by satisfying the requirement of rumen

microorganisms, creating a better environment for fermentation and increasing

of microbial protein and volatile fatty acids (Wadhwa and Bakshi, 2011).

Molasses and urea which used in feeding are known to respectively

contain available energy and nitrogen. It helps to satisfy energy needs for

maintenance of ruminants. These will upgrade the energy and ammonia levels in

the rumen. The use of feed blocks is particularly convenient because they are
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then easy to transport and the blocks readily give their nutrients to the animals.

(Ibrahim, 2013).

2.4. Carbohydrate Requirements

Carbohydrates are chemical compounds essentially of carbon, hydrogen

and oxygen. Carbohydrate made up of starches, cellulose, sugar and lignin. The

main functions of carbohydrate nutrient are as energy that powers the muscular

movement, as a source for body heat, as building block for other nutrients and

its dietary excess is stored as fat. Simple carbohydrates such as sugar and

starches are referred as nitrogen free extract and are mostly present in cereal

grains. Complex carbohydrates such as cellulose and lignin, also called fiber

and they are difficult to digest and can be found mostly in roughages such as

hay and grass. Carbohydrates utilization by animals depends on their digestion

system. Monogastric or simple stomached animals cannot digest large amounts

of fiber, and their ration must be made up of mostly cereal grains. Ruminant

animals can eat large amounts of fiber, and a high percentage of their ration is

roughage. (Becker, 2004)

2.5 Digestibility of Feed

Digestibility is the extent to which a feed or its constituents is digested.

A digestibility coefficient indicates the proportion of that feed constituent

which is digested and absorbed from the digestive tract when the feed is eaten.
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Digestibility is greatly influenced by the physic-chemical composition of the

food (Church, 2004).

Digestibility can be interpreted many or a proportionate amount of

nutrients retained or absorbed by the body. Nutrients contained in feces

considered not digested feed substances and not required back. Digestibility can

be influenced by the rate of feeding, animal species, the lignin content of feed

ingredients, food deficiency, the processing of feed ingredients, the combined

effect of feed ingredients, and gastrointestinal disorders. Digestibility is also

influenced by temperature, the rate of passage of food through the digestive

tract, the physical form of food, feed composition, and the influence on the

comparison of other food substances, sex, age and strain, although not

consistently (Tillman et al., 2005).

Digestibility value is one factor that determines the quality or nutritional

value of the feed material. Digestibility value is part that is not excreted in the

feces which is assumed to be absorbed by the animal body (McDonald, 2010).

There is some method used to measure the digestibility of some feedstuffs such

as in vitro and in vivo. In Vitro digestibility is a degradability measurement

technique and digestibility of the ration biological evaluation can be done in a

laboratory to mimic the actual conditions. Determination of In Vivo

digestibility was performed using total collection method or the total collections

divided into three periods, namely the period of adaptation to the cage and feed,

the introductory period, and the period of data collection (Mulyawati, 2009).
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2.6 Nitrogen-Free Extract

Carbohydrates are sugars, starches and cellulose compound which is a

food source for livestock. The carbohydrate of the food is contained in two

fractions, the crude fiber and the nitrogen-free extract (McDonald et al., 2010).

NFE is a group of carbohydrate that soluble in acid and alkaline and also can

be digested easily in monogastric and ruminants (Setyono et el., 2009). The

digestibility figure of NFE is high. Nitrogen-free extract component is the

largest in non-structural carbohydrates, such as starch, monosaccharide or

sugars (Tillman et al., 2005).

Few sources of carbohydrates like sugar and starch can be digested and

absorbed easily in small intestine in the form of glucose and changes into

energy (Herawati, 2011). Nitrogen-free extract component is the result of a

reduction in dry matter with components, ash, ether extract, crude protein and

fiber. A component of fat, protein and fiber is often called crude fat, crude

protein and crude fiber. Proximate analyzes is the method of generating

component that is still a mixture of nutrients. Components of each nutrient

group can be seen in Table 2.1 (Hernawati, 2010)

Table 2.1: Components of the Different Fractions in the Proximate Analysis of Fd

Fractions Components
1 Water Water, organic substances that easy to evaporate
2 Ash Essential Elements
3 Crude Protein Protein, NPN
4 Ether Extract Fat, oil, waxes, organic acid, pigments
5 Crude Fiber Cellulose, Hemicellulose, lignin
6 Nitrogen-free extract Sugar, Starch
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Carbohydrate is a compound of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen that is a

series of hydrogen and oxygen molecule in the same ration as in water.

(Subandiyono, 2009). Rumen microbes will ferment all the carbohydrates;

however structural carbohydrate will be fermented more faster compared to the

non-structural carbohydrate. The component cell walls of crop digested slowly

especially the old crops that have undergone advance lignin formation. The

presence of lignin can reduce the availability and the use of structural

carbohydrate (Ismartoyo, 2011).

The end product of fermentation of carbohydrate will produce Volatile

Fatty Acid (VFA) which is the main energy source for ruminants (Hart,2008).

Carbohydrate feed in rumen will undergo two stages of digestion by digestive

enzymes produced by the rumen microbes. In the first stage rumen microbes

produce enzymes to hydrolyze carbohydrate into monosaccharides such as

glucose, fructose and pentose. The result of the first stage of the digestion enter

the Embden-Meyerhoff glycolysis pathway to undergo the second stage

digestion to produce pyruvate. Pyruvate then will be converted into VFA that

consisting of acetic, butyrate and propionic that used to meet the needs of

livestock and as a raw material to form the production of livestock (McDonald,

2010). Carbohydrate digestion circuit can be described on schematic drawings

2.1 below:
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Cellulose Starch

Cellobiose Maltose Isomaltose

Glucose-1-phospate Glucose
Sucrose
Glucose-6-phospate
Pectin Uronic acids
Fructose-6-phospate Fructose Fructan

Hemicellulose
Pentoses
eees
Fructose-1, 6-phosphate
Pentosans

Pyruvate
Fomate

Lactate Oxalacetate
Methane
Acetyl CoA Lacatyl-CoA Malate

Malonyl-CoA Acrylyl-CoA Fumarate

Acetoacetyl CoA Propionyl-CoA Succinate

Acetyl Phosphate β-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA

Crotonyl-CoA Propionate
Acetate
Butyryl-CoA

Butyrate

Schematic Drawing 2.1. Carbohydrate digestion circuit (Mc Donald et al., 2010)