CHAPTER 1:

BEEF CATTLE PRODUCTION

3. NUTRITION
Domilito V. Bautista

College of Agriculture and Agri-Industries

Caraga State University
Ampayon, Butuan City, Agusan del Norte, Ph
TOPIC OUTLINE

I. Digestive Pathway in Ruminants

II. Nutrients and their Functions
III. Common Feed for Ruminants
Monogastric – simple stomached, one
compartment stomach (swine).
Modified Simple Stomach – Digestive
tract of poultry species, with the
following modifications: gizzard, crop
and proventriculus (chicken).
Herbivorous Monogastric–
Characterized by enlarged cecum which
allows for the microbial fermentation of
plant materials (horses and rabbits).
Also called (pseudo-ruminants).
Complex Stomach - Ruminants
 DIGESTIVE PATHWAY OF RUMINANTS
 Ruminants can totally subsist on highly fibrous diets like
grasses, legumes, tree leaves, and can efficiently utilize farm
by-products concentrates due to their four-compartment
compound stomach namely: the rumen, reticulum, omasum,
abomasum (RROA).
DIGESTIVE PATHWAY OF RUMINANTS
DIGESTIVE PHYSIOLOGY
 RUMEN (PAUNCH)
 Largest of the four
compartments; located
predominantly on the left
side;
 The muscular walls secrete
numbers enzymes and are
covered by projections
called papillae which are
required for absorption of
nutrients;
 RUMEN (PAUNCH)

1. VFA

-Acetate ENERGY
-Propionate
-Butyrate
RUMEN
FEEDS
(Forages, Concentrates) -Bacteria
-Protozoa
-Fungi
2. CO2
Eructated
3. CH4
 RUMEN
 The three major benefits of microbial fermentation in
ruminants are the:
1. conversion of cellulose from vegetative materials to
volatile fatty acids (APB) as sources of energy;
2. production of microbial protein from feed proteins and
non-protein nitrogen sources that provide the essential
amino acids; and
3. synthesis of Vitamin K and B-vitamins
 RETICULUM (HARDWARE STOMACH)
 Regulates the passage of feed from the rumen to the
succeeding compartments;
 Aids in the regurgitation of feed back to the mouth;
 Also a site of microbial fermentation;
 Has 2 functions:
 To move food into the rumen or omasum, and
 Collection of dense particles of food and in regurgitation
of ingesta during rumination (the process of movement
of ingesta back up the esophagus to the mouth for
additional mechanical breakdown – “chewing the cud”)
RETICULUM (HARDWARE STOMACH)
 OMASUM
A round muscular organ which contains
many muscular laminae (sometimes
called manyplies), which increase
surface area for absorption of water,
VFA, & bicarbonate.
Further grinds and reduces the feed
into finer particles before the feed
enters the abomasum.
Removes much of the water from the
rumen fluid to increase the effectiveness
of digestion in the abomasum
 ABOMASUM
The ‘true stomach’ of
ruminants.
Very similar/ identical to
the gastric gland of the
non-ruminant.
A glandular that secrets
pepsin & HCl, site of
digestion of proteins into
polypeptides, with acidic
pH.
 SMALL INTESTINE AND LARGE INTESTINE

The small intestine absorbs minerals and proteins while the

large intestine absorbs more water along with some energy
components, proteins and mineral.

Source: https://beef2live.com/story-cows-101-ruminant-anatomy-0-104358
FUNCTIONS OF DIGESTIVE TRACT
 Eructation (belching)
 CO2 and CH4 are produced in the Rumen
 Production amounts to 30 to 50 quarts/hour and must be
removed otherwise bloating occurs.

 Rumination
 A cow may spend as much as 35 to 40 percent of each
day ruminating (cud chewing).
 Feed boluses (cud) are:
Regurgitated  Rechewing  Resilavation  Reswallowing
 Motility of the rumen and reticulum
 The rumen is always contracting and moving 1-2
contraction/minute for healthy cows.
 The contractions mix the rumen contents, bring
microbes in contact with new feedstuffs, reduce
flotation of solids, and move materials out of the
rumen .
 Saliva production
 As much as 50-80 quarts of saliva can be produced
by salivary glands and added to the rumen each day.
 Saliva is the major buffer for helping to maintain a
rumen pH between 6.2 - 6.8 for optimum digestion
of forages and feedstuffs.
MICROBIAL DIGESTION OF FEED CARBOHYDRATES
Digestion of energy feeds in the rumen.

 Simple and complex carbohydrates (fiber) are digested by

rumen microbes and converted into VFA’s.
 The VFA’s, which consist mainly of APB acids, are the primary
energy source for ruminants approximately 30 to 50 percent of
the cellulose and hemicellulose is digested in the rumen by the
microbial population.
 60 % or more of the starch is degraded, depending on the
amount fed and how fast ingested materials move through the
rumen. Most sugars are 100 % digested within the rumen.
 The cow derives 50 to 70 % at of its energy from the VFA’s
produced in the rumen.
NUTRIENTS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
 WATER
Cheapest and most abundant
nutrient.
Essential in the transport of metabolic
products and wastes, cushion of
joints, temperature regulation, and in
most chemical reactions in the body.
Consumption depends on the water
content of feed, body size, animal
status and environmental
temperature.
 ENERGY
Required for maintenance, growth, work, reproduction and production.
The amount required varies with body size, level of production and
physiological state.
Common source of energy are carbohydrates, namely the soluble (starch
and sugar) and structural (cellulose and hemicelluloses) carbohydrates.
Lipids are the other source of energy from plants.
Under the metric system, energy value of a feed is expressed as
metabolisable energy (ME), measured in megajoules per kilogram of dry
matter (MJ/kg DM). Some older or US reference sources may show values
as kilocalories (4.2 kilojoules = 1 kilocalorie).
 PROTEINS
Synthesis of muscles, tissues, and other body components.
Proteins are first utilized by microorganisms in the rumen for their own
growth and reproduction
Microbial fermentation of proteins produces ammonia and CO2 as main
end-products.
Undigested feed proteins and the microorganisms from the rumen are
passed on to the lower gastrointestinal tract, where these are then
enzymatically digested and absorbed as amino acids.
Thus, microbial protein becomes an excellent source of amino acids for
ruminants.
 PROTEINS
Classified as:
True protein. Protein that occurs in natural plant feedstuffs
such as protein in plants, soybean meal, copra meal and palm
kernel meal. Composed of amino acid.
Bypass or protected protein. True protein that passes
undigested through the rumen to be digested in the
abomasum. Bypass protein is digested more efficiently in the
abomasum than if reformed as microbial protein in the
rumen. Ruminants digest about 30% of their protein as bypass
protein.
 PROTEINS
Classified as:
Microbial protein. The protein in the cells of the rumen
microorganisms. Microbial protein can constitute 50–100% of
the metabolisable protein requirements of beef cattle.
Non-protein-nitrogen (NPN). Rumen microbes can use some
mineral nitrogen in products such as urea to produce
microbial protein—which is then digested by the animal.
Crude protein (CP). Composed on true proteins and any
nitrogenous products; calculated as %N x 6.25
MINERALS
The mineral nutrition of ruminants is largely influenced by
the mineral status of the soil where the animals are grazed.
Total mineral content of plants or animals is often called ash.

Meat and Livestock Australia, 2011

 MINERALS
Mineral Symptoms of Deficiency
Phosphorus Low feed intake
Poor growth and milk production
Poor conception rates
Craving for bone, tree bark, wood, hair, soil
Calcium Poor growth
Bowed leg bones
Brittle bones
Sodium (salt) Poor growth
Chewing or licking of wood
Attracted to brackish water, saline soils
Magnesium Muscle tremors
Staggering, convulsions (grass tetany)
Meat and Livestock Australia, 2011
 MINERALS

Salt is likewise deficient in the normal diet of ruminant and is

best provided ad libitum in the form of blocks or loose form.
Calcium, magnesium and potassium are normally sufficient in
grasses to satisfy the requirements of the animals. Feeding
large amounts of concentrates and grains may lead to
deficiencies in these minerals and should be supplemented.
The trace elements: cobalt, iron, iodine, copper, manganese
zinc and selenium are best provided for ruminants in small
amounts in areas where soil deficiency for these elements are
known.
 VITAMINS
Play a role as regulator of metabolism, necessary for growth
and maintenance
i. Vitamin C is synthesized by the rumen microorganisms.
ii.Vitamin K is synthesized in the rumen by bacteria.
iii.
Vitamin E is found in most feds
iv.Vitamin D is synthesized in the skin when the animals are
exposed to sunlight.
v. Vitamin A is synthesized from carotene which is abundant
in young, fresh grass, but devoid in mature grasses, most
crop residues and some grains.
COMMON FEEDS FOR RUMINANTS
 ROUGHAGES
The natural and cheapest feed for ruminants and includes not only grasses
but also legumes.
Coarse feeds that are high in fiber which are needed for rumination
Grasses at pre-flowering stage averaged 8% CP while legumes averaged
about 20%. In grasses, CP level drastically goes down to 4% at maturity
which is way below the requirement of the animals. Hence, a grass-
legume pasture is an ideal ration for ruminants.
Season of the year, amount of rainfall, fertilization, age, grazing
management and other factors affecting the nutritive value of grasses.
ROUGHAGES
ROUGHAGES

Meat and Livestock Australia, 2011

Yield increases with time, but digestibility declines.

The best time to cut graze grass forage is before it becomes
‘stemmy’.
CONSERVED ROUGHAGES
Silage, hay, haylage.
BY-PRODUCTS ROUGHAGES

Highly fibrous (rice straw, corn stover, corn cobs, sugarcane

tops), low in CP and TDN and have poor digestibility.
The amounts of these feeds voluntarily consumed by the
animals are limited. As such, concentrate supplementation is
a must for efficient utilization of by-product roughages.
BY-PRODUCTS ROUGHAGES
CONCENTRATES
Unlike in developed countries, little amount of grain is
fed ruminants locally.
Locally, copra meal, rice bran, wheat pollard are
commonly used by-product concentrates.
Contain on the average 75% TDN and vary widely in
their CP content from 0% as in the case of molasses to
21% in copra meal.
 Wheat pollard
Copra meal

Rice bran
USE OF UREA IN RUMINANT RATIONS
UREA
- most common source of NPN to supplement low dietary
protein.
- has been long been used as partial protein source for
ruminants in other countries.
contains about 46% Nitrogen, and consequently has a crude
protein value of 288% (46 x 6.25).
 USE OF UREA IN RUMINANT RATIONS
However, too much urea is toxic and will kill animals. It must
never be fed to hungry animals without offering roughage first to
fill the stomach. After this, small amounts of urea may be
included (well mixed) in the ration.
Must be introduced to animals gradually over a period of two to
four weeks to allow the rumen microbes to adjust.
Should not be fed at more than 30 g of urea per day in a single
feed to animals not used to it and never fed to animals less than
12 weeks of age. Once adult cattle have adjusted, they can be
fed 50–60 g urea/day.
 USE OF UREA IN RUMINANT RATIONS
METHODS OF FEEDING UREA:
Cattle on poor quality feed can be given access to
compressed blocks containing urea, molasses, salt, meal
and some minerals. Commercial blocks tend to be
expensive, so it is usually cheaper to prepare home-made
mixes.
 USE OF UREA IN RUMINANT RATIONS
METHODS OF FEEDING UREA:
A standard urea–molasses–multi-nutrient lick comprises
molasses (30–50%), urea (5–10%), cereal bran such as rice,
wheat or maize bran (15–25%), an oil seed meal such as
soybean meal, coconut meal or groundnut meal (10–20%),
salt (5–7%), lime (5–10%) and minerals (1–2%).
 USE OF UREA IN RUMINANT RATIONS
METHODS OF FEEDING UREA:
A liquid mixture containing urea and molasses can be poured
over low-quality roughage to improve its digestibility. The
urea solution must be well dissolved before mixing with
molasses.
DRY MATTER
• Animal feeds vary in dry matter content
• All nutrients are packed in the dry matter (DM)
• Feed – water = dry matter
• Example: grass (20%DM): 1kg grass --> 200g DM
hay (80%DM): 1kg hay --> 800g DM
 DRY MATTER INTAKE
Dry matter intake capacity varies with body weight, stage of production,
forage quality, supplementation level and type, and environmental
factors but generally ranges from 1.5 to 3% of bodyweight.

Forage intake DM
Forage quality Example
(% of body weight)
Mature grass, crop
Low 1.5
residues
Leafy grass (few seed
Average to good 2.5
heads)
Young leafy grass,
High 3.0
legume
 DRY MATTER INTAKE
Example 1.
A 400 kg animal fed low-quality feed (60% moisture, 7% crude protein).

The animal can eat 1.5% of its bodyweight as DM

 DRY MATTER INTAKE
Example 2.
A 400 kg animal fed good-quality feed (75% moisture, 12% crude protein)

The animal can eat 2.5% of its bodyweight as DM.

ALL-ROUGHAGE FEEDING
Good quality grass legume mixture can support maintenance
and moderate growth of cattle.
However, during periods of rapid growth, late pregnancy and
early lactation when the protein need is high an all-roughage
ration cannot meet animal requirements
Similarly, not enough during the fattening stage when energy
requirement is high.
RATION FORMULATION
The process of combining different feed ingredients to a
proportion that will give the animals the proper amount of
nutrients needed a their stage of production
Cattle ration is formulated on dry matter basis due to wide
variation in moisture content of feeds especially roughage.
REFERENCES
Damron, W.S. (2003). Introduction to Animal Science. Prentice Hall, New Jersey.
812pp.

Damron, W.S. (2003). Introduction to Animal Science. Prentice Hall, New Jersey.
812pp.

PNS/BAFPS 60:2008 Code of Good Animal Husbandry Practices (GAHP)

PNS/BAFPS 07:2003 Organic agriculture – Specification Part 3: Livestock

Taylor, R.E. & Field, T.G. (1999). Beef Production and Management Decision. Prentice
Hall, New Jersey. 714pp.

Thomas, H. S. (2018). Storey’s guide to raising beef cattle, 4th edition. Storey
Publishing, 2010 MASS MoCA Way, North Adams, MA 01247. p 1-11.
CHAPTER 1:
BEEF CATTLE PRODUCTION

4. HERD MANAGEMENT
Domilito V. Bautista

College of Agriculture and Agri-Industries

Caraga State University
Ampayon, Butuan City, Agusan del Norte, Ph
TOPIC OUTLINE

I. Overview of Herd Management

II.Herd Division
III.
Management of Breeding Females
IV.Management of Calves, Growers and
Fatteners
V. Management of Breeding Bulls
 OVERVIEW
The goal of herd management is to produce a crop of high quality
heavyweight calves. The factors that contribute to the accomplishment of
this goal are:
early sexual maturity of females
high conception rate
high calf crop
early rebreeding after calving
excellent milk production of the cows
availability of a year-round feed supply
“Quality of management, plan of nutrition and farm infrastructures is
important determinant of profit or loss”.
 HERD DIVISION

Herd division ensures the appropriate nutrition of

various age groups of the herd, prevent premature breeding
which seriously affect the growth of young bulls and heifers
and prevent high rate of abortion resulting from butting and
fighting of animals.
 HERD DIVISION
Animals may be divided into the following herds:
1. Pregnant herd – composed of pregnant females. Cows are
grouped with the breeding herd during the breeding season.
2. Breeding herd – consists of dry cows and heifers ready for
breeding. After the breeding season pregnant animals are
transferred to the pregnant herd.
3. Heifer herd – composed of heifers not yet ready for breeding.
Heifer calves are included in this herd after weaning
4. Steers, feeders, or fattening herd – consists of growing cattle
and those to be fattened for the market
5. Bull herd – consists of mature males kept mainly for servicing
the breeder cows
 MANAGEMENT OF BREEDING FEMALES
Lactating and pregnant cows.
Separated from the herd to prevent injury and possible
abortion due to riding, butting and fighting with other
animals.
Signs of pregnancy:
 Cessation of estrus or heat
 enlargement of the abdomen and udder
 Palpation 60-90 days after breeding (more reliable pregnancy
diagnosis)
MANAGEMENT OF BREEDING FEMALES

Pregnancy Diagnosis
 An important tool to measure the success of reproductive
management of a cattle herd.
 Rectal palpation is probably the most commonly used
method of pregnancy diagnosis.
 MANAGEMENT OF BREEDING FEMALES
Methods of Pregnancy Diagnosis:
1. Rectal Palpation
The manual examination of the reproductive tract by the
way of the rectum and colon to verify pregnancy in cattle
The accurate determine the pregnancy, the palpatory
inserts his/her hand into the cows rectum , locates the
reproductive tract through the rectal wall, and determines
whether pregnancy exist by examining the condition of
the tract
MANAGEMENT OF BREEDING FEMALES
 MANAGEMENT OF BREEDING FEMALES
Methods of Pregnancy Diagnosis:
2. Ultrasound
Detection of pregnancy through the use of ultrasound
may be beneficial during the later stages of pregnancy
(day 30 or later)
Organs of the reproductive tract and the developing fetus
can be viewed using ultrasound technology
A probe is passed over the cow's abdominal wall or into
the rectum to transmit two-dimensional images to a
monitor that can be viewed by a technician
 MANAGEMENT OF BREEDING FEMALES
Methods of Pregnancy Diagnosis:
3. Biochemical Test
On-farm test kits are available to producers to pregnancy-
check their cows.
Some kits are easy to use and give the producer
immediate results
Open cows and replacement heifers.
 Should be given the right amount of feed daily to
ensure that they are in the right physiological status.
 Animals with reproductive problems and those which
fail to settle after the clean-up breeding period should
be culled.
 MANAGEMENT OF BREEDING FEMALES
Signs of Calving:
a) Belly has increased in size, especially on the right flank.
b) Udder is filling up and the teats are stiffening.
c) Vulva becomes red and swollen with the presence of
mucous and blood colored fluid.
d) Restless and water bag appears at the vulva.
 MANAGEMENT OF BREEDING FEMALES
Caring the Cow after Calving:
Give the cow clean water to drink immediately after she has
calved.
Water bag (afterbirth) will come out naturally but you can
help to remove it by gently pulling it.
Afterbirth should have come away by 24 hours after the birth.
If afterbirth remains in the uterus it will cause an infection
and you will need assistance from your veterinarian.
 CARING FOR THE NEW BORN CALF
Always handle the calf carefully:
Clean the mucous (sticky fluid) from the nose and mouth and
check that the calf is breathing normally. If it is not breathing
you must act immediately by:
Pump the chest with the palm of your hand.
Keep the calf's head lower than its back.
Insert a straw into its nose in an attempt to make it sneeze
and start breathing
 CARING FOR THE NEW BORN CALF
Calves – should suckle colostrum milk from their mother within
3 hours after calving.
Colostrum is the first milk secreted after parturition.
Contains large amount of Gama globulins which are anti-
bodies. Give passive immunity.
Highly fortified source of nutrient having 7 times the
protein and twice the total solids of normal milk.
 CARING FOR THE NEW BORN CALF
Colostrum Feeding:
Contain higher amount of minerals and vitamin A
Has laxative effect which is helpful in expulsion of
muconium (first feces).
Feed colostrum in the first 15-30 minutes followed by a
second dose in approximately 10-12 hours
 MANAGEMENT OF GROWER AND FATTENERS

Grower – are usually maintained in the pasture with very little

attention. They are given salt and mineral supplement.
Fatteners – requires a shorter period to reach slaughter weight.
They are generally bigger, mature, or nearing maturity.
However, 1 ½ to 2 year-old animals weighing 200-300 kg are
preferred. They may be fattened either in feedlot, on pasture or
both areas.
 MANAGEMENT OF BREEDING BULLS

Should be selected purebred because it contributes 50% of

the genetic make-up of the offspring.
Should be in good condition at the start of the breeding
season.
Should be allowed to breed when they are at least 2 years of
age.
 MANAGEMENT OF BREEDING BULLS

Should be given supplemental feeding of grains or

concentrates 60-90 days before and after the breeding
period depending on their condition.
Should be kept in the herd as soon as it is aggressive enough
to mate. However, to avoid inbreeding, a bull should be kept
out of the herd after 2 ½ to 3 years when the offspring reach
breeding age.
 HOUSING: Minimum Feeding Space Requirement
Enterprise Class of animal Feeding space linear
(mm/hd)
1. Feedlot 750
2. Ranch
3. Dairy Calves (3-6 mos.) 450
Cattle
Calves (7-12 mos.) 500
Yearling, heifer, milking & dry 750
cows; ow in maternity stalls.
 HOUSING: Minimum Floor Space Requirement
Enterprise Class of animal Floor space linear (m2/head)
1. Feedlot Shed area 4
Loafing area 5
2. Holding Pen Up to 270 kg 1.3
270-540 kg 1.6
Over 540 kg 1.9
3. Dairy cattle Calves (0 to 3 mos.) 1
Calves (3-6 mos.) 2
Calves (7-12 mos.) 3
Yearlings 4
Heifer/Steer 5
Milking & dry cows 6
Cows in maternity stalls 10
REFERENCES
Damron, W.S. (2003). Introduction to Animal Science. Prentice Hall, New Jersey. 812pp.

Damron, W.S. (2003). Introduction to Animal Science. Prentice Hall, New Jersey. 812pp.

PNS/BAFPS 60:2008 Code of Good Animal Husbandry Practices (GAHP)

PNS/BAFPS 07:2003 Organic agriculture – Specification Part 3: Livestock

Taylor, R.E. & Field, T.G. (1999). Beef Production and Management Decision. Prentice
Hall, New Jersey. 714pp.

Thomas, H. S. (2018). Storey’s guide to raising beef cattle, 4th edition. Storey
Publishing, 2010 MASS MoCA Way, North Adams, MA 01247. p 1-11.
THANK
YOÜ!