INTRODUCTION TO ANIMAL NUTRITION NUTRIENT BALANCE

- difference between the supply

FEED (intake + endogenous production) of
- animal feed a nutrient and its loss from the body
- source of nutrients for animals - ‘balance’ sometimes means
- ingredient of diets equilibrium but sometimes gain
(positive balance) or loss
NUTRITION (negative balance)
- process of providing and obtaining - most easily applied to nutrients that
the food necessary for the health are not produced or destroyed in
and growth of animals metabolism
- utilized as the main energy source Example:
by an animal through various - Measure the balance of elements
processes such as sodium, carbon, or nitrogen
from deducting from intake the sum
NUTRIENT of the losses in feces, urine, swear,
- substance in the diet that is expired air, etc.
physiologically useful in cellular,
animal and plant metabolism NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS
- essential nutrients are that can only - least required quantities of nutrients
be acquired from the diet (energy, protein, fat, minerals, and
vitamins) needed to fulfill an animal’s
Examples: actual requirement
- Water
- Amino acids in proteins NUTRITIVE VALUE
- Carbohydrates - amount of nutrients contained in a
- Fats feed that can be utilized by the
- Vitamins animal
- Macrominerals
- Trace minerals
NUTRIENTS
- Ultra-trace minerals

Carbohydrates Protein ESSENTIAL NON-ESSENTIAL

Fat Minerals Necessary in the Not required in the

diet as the body diet since the body
Vitamins Water cannot produce produces it
*the basic nutrients that animals require for them in sufficient internally.
quantities to meet
maintenance, growth, reproduction, and
metabolic
good health. requirements

RATION
- amount of feed an animal receives in
a 24-hour period
BALANCED RATION
- amount of feed that will supply the
DIGESTION
proper amount and proportions of
nutrients needed for an animal to
perform a specific purpose
MECHANICAL CHEMICAL MICROBIAL

IMPORTANCE OF UNDERSTANDING - Mastication - Enzymes - Action of

ANIMAL NUTRITION - Muscular secreted in bacteria,
- nutrition drives the profitability of contractions various protozoa,
production animal enterprises. of the digestive and fungi
alimentary juices
*more than 60% of the variable costs of
canal
production in intensive animal production
enterprises are feed-related. CLASSIFICATION OF DIGESTIVE
- poor nutrition (underfeeding, nutrient SYSTEM
imbalances or overfeeding) is a key
determinant of animal health. ● Anatomy of Digestive Tract
*inappropriate diets are major causes of
health and welfare problems. I. Non-Ruminant
- animal nutrition has large effects on
the environment.
*nearly all of the negative impacts of Monogastric Simple stomach, Dogs, cats, minks,
animals on the environment are related to non-functional pigs, catfish
cecum
nutritional management in some way.
- the global animal feed industry is Functional Nonruminant Horse and Rabbits
large and growing. Cecum herbivore
*as the per capita income of countries
increases, so does their consumption of II. Ruminant
animal proteins. - Complex stomach
___________________________________ - Cattle, goats, sheep, buffaloes,
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM AND DIGESTIVE camels
TRACT PHYSIOLOGY III. Avian
- Chicken, ducks, turkeys
DIGESTION VS ABSORPTION
- Digestion is about breaking down ● Primary Type of Feed and their
food, while absorption is about Feeding Behavior
taking the useful parts into the body
for use. I. Carnivores
- ingestion-> digestion-> absorption-> - Dogs and cats
elimination - Short and simple
organization of GIT
(gastrointestinal tract)
II. Herbivores
- Cattle and horse
 - Eat only plant materials - Some microbial fermentation
which are not readily occurs in colon
digestible
- Have long and large GIT with THE ALIMENTARY CANAL
complex and modified parts - Function:
III. Omnivores ● Prehension
- Pig and man ● Ingestion
- Have GIT intermediate of ● Comminution
those carnivores and ● Digestion
herbivores anatomically and ● Absorption
efficiency in utilizing fibrous ● Elimination
plants - Movement of the intestinal contents
IV. Granivores along the tract is produced by
- Also known as grain feeders peristaltic waves – contractions of
- Large proportion of their the circular muscle of the intestinal
feeds consist of plant wall.
seeds/grains/cereals having
very high energy content ● MOUTH
- No teeth, but having unique - Mainly mechanical,
specialized GIT to digest mastication helping to break
grains up large particles of food and
mix it with saliva which acts
● Location of Sites of Microbial as a lubricant and for taste
Fermentation perception

I. Pregastric (foregut fermenters)

Lower Incisor Rooting
- Ruminants
- Predominant site of microbial Inward-curved Grasp and shear
fermentation preceding the upper incisor food items
stomach (gastric pouch) and
Premolars and Crush the food
small intestine
molars
- Hindgut fermentation also
occurs
II. Hindgut fermenters - The pig has taste buds
throughout the oral cavity
functional - Non-ruminant herbivores - Saliva is secreted into the
cecum - Predominant site of microbial
fermentation following the SI mouth by salivary glands
(small intestine) *Saliva = 99% water + 1% (mucin, inorganic
- Elephant, rhinoceros, horses, salts, and enzymes a-amylase and complex
and rabbits lysozyme)
III. Monogastric (non-functional cecum) - Horse, cat, and dog lack
- Carnivores salivary a-amylase
- Have no major specialized
site of microbial fermentation
*They rely more on the enzymatic activity of - Pyloric Region
amylase in the small intestine rather than in - has glands like cardia
the mouth region that secret protective
mucus
● STOMACH Gastric Juice is made up of:
- Stomach of an adult pig has - water
a capacity of 8L -pepsinogens
- Simple compartment – -inorganic salts
digestion and storage -mucus
- -hydrochloric acid
-intrinsic factor for absorption of Vit
B12

Cardio
Cephalic Phase Stimuli such as
sight and smell of
food act via vagus
nerve

Gastric Phase Secretion is

maintained by
chemical sensors
and distention of
stomach

Presence of Elicits secretion by

- Esophageal Area
- no glands
- a-amylase activity may continue
- active microbial population
- Cardia
- secretes alkaline, enzyme-free,
viscous mucus formed of a
gel-forming glycoprotein
protects epithelium from acid attack
- Gastric Glands
- secretes glycoprotein
and fucolipid mucus and
contains oxyntic cells =
produce HCL til It chloric acid
'
Digesta neural and
hormonal
messages
● SMALL INTESTINE
- Duodenum (mixing digesta
and secretions), jejunum
(absorption), and ileum –
main absorption site
- Duodenal (Brunner’s) gland
that = produce an alkaline
secretion that acts as a
lubricant and protects
duodenal wall from HCL acid
entering from the stomach.
- Bile Salts play an important

role in digestion by activating

- produces pepsinogen pancreatic lipase and
emulsifying fats
 Pancreatic lipase is responsible for - Raw potato starch is
breaking down fats resistant to hydrolysis by
- works more efficiently on amylase.
smaller fat droplets - Lignin – indigestible
- emulsification facilitated by
bile salts aids in fat
breakdown
the 51in It - Contains villi – increase
? i

ii. at iii. e.
surface area for absorption
- Each villus contains an
Pina÷, '

arteriole and venule + lacteal

*gqg÷÷ALL
ribs UCOse
:b
-
-
-

kids
¥ initio
I
.

- Venules drain to hepatic

portal system
- Lacteal drain to the thoracic
¥-1? In t.iui.ir
-
v1

t.AE
.
I ?

1.1 thick to increase

.
lymphatic duct
diffusion i 1T¥ .
- Extensive microbial activity
•

-
lacteal
(tiny t.yvn-poi-t-ieii.es
el:D ● LARGE INTESTINE occurs
absorbs iffy c. id.

- Play an important role in the - Abundant nutrient sources

glycerol .

retrieval of nutrients, encourage growth of bacteria

electrolytes, and water in the - Complex population of
digesta aerobic and obligate
- Mucosal surface does not anaerobic bacteria
have villi but has small - Bacterial action in the large
projections that increase intestine may have beneficial
surface area effects on the synthesis of
some B vitamins.
- Synthesis of most vitamins in
the digestive tract of pigs is,
however, insufficient to meet
the daily requirements and a
dietary source is needed.

DIGESTION IN YOUNG PIG

- From birth until about 5

weeks of age the
- Cellulose and many of the concentration and activity of
hemicelluloses are not digestive secretions are
attacked by any of the different from adult animals.
enzymes present in the - During the first few days after
digestive secretions of the birth – intestine is permeable
pig. to native proteins
 - Essential for the transfer of - Digestion in SI is similar to that in pg
y-globulins (antibodies) via ● SMALL INTESTINE
mother’s milk - Intestinal mucosa produces mucin,
- Piglet stomach initially a-amylase, maltase, sucrase, and
produces only a limited proteolytic enzymes
amount of HCL and - Chicks have maltase and sucrase
pepsinogen BUT it does activities in their SI – perform well on
secrete chymosin. diets containing uncooked cereals
Chymosin - Satisfactory amylase activity
- Clots milk thereby avoiding flooding ● CAECA
the small intestine with nutrients - Function as absorptive organs but
- As a piglet grows, pepsinogen and are not essential in fowls
HCL secretion increases ● COLON
- Transport of digesta to its
DIGESTION IN FOWL termination at the cloaca
- Lips and cheeks are replaced by
beak DIGESTION IN DOG AND CAT
- Teeth are absent - The saliva of dogs and cats has no
- Taste buds located on the back half a-amylase activity, as the natural
of the tongue diet is low in starch.
- Stomach secretes gastric lipase and
● CROP pepsin
- Diverticulum of the esophagus - Pepsin is most active when animals
- Reservoir for holding food ingest collagen ~ important in -
cats
- Filled and emptied by peristalsis digestion of meat; more important in
- Microbial activity occurs during cats.
storage of food - In dogs, gastric juice has
- Lactobacilli predominate adhering to antibacterial activity
-

dogs
the crop wall - Similar to pigs, young dogs and cats
● PROVENTRICULUS are less efficient in digesting solid
- Glandular stomach food than older animals.
- Produces HCl (hydrochloric acid)
and pepsinogen PRE-CAECAL DIGESTION IN HORSE
- Minimal inherent motility - Horses are herbivores with a simple
● GIZZARD stomach like pigs, but their hindgut,
- Muscular organ with internal ridges especially the caecum, is much
- Grinds the food with moisture – turns larger. This enlarged hindgut houses
it into a smooth paste microbial populations that aid in the
- Walls produces KOILIN – hardens digestion of plant materials.
the presence of HCl - Horses digest fibrous foods through
● PANCREAS a combination of enzymatic
- Pancreatic juices of fowls contain digestion before microbial
same enzymes as the mammalian fermentation. This places them
secretion between pigs and ruminants in terms
 of their ability to break down fibrous
materials.
● STOMACH
- Primary role is to regulate flow of
digesta to the small intestine for
efficient digestion.
- Digesta retention time is short–
grazing horses.
● SMALL INTESTINE
- the main site for digestion of
non-fibrous carbohydrate, protein,
and fat.
- Soluble carbohydrates are exposed
to pancreatic enzymes for digestion.
● LARGE INTESTINE
- The microbes ferment fibrous
materials.
● ABSENCE OF GALLBLADDER
- Horses lack a gallbladder and
cannot store bile
- HCL acid in the duodenum
stimulates bile secretion from the
liver.
ABSORPTION OF DIGESTED NUTRIENTS
1. SMALL INTESTINE ADAPTIONS
- Specially adapted for absorption with
increased inner surface area due to
folding and presence of villi.
- Duodenum has villi = mixing and
neutralizing
- Jejunum – major site for absorption
2. PASSIVE TRANSPORT AND
ACTIVE TRANSPORT
- Nutrient absorption can occur by
passive transport = simple diffusion
when there is high concentration of
nutrients outside the cell
- Active transport involves carriers
with specific binding sites for
nutrients and ions (Na or H) to
transport nutrients into cells against
concentration gradients.
3. PINOCYTOSIS ‘CELL DRINKING’
- Cells have the capacity to engulf
large molecules in solution or
suspension.
- Important in newborn suckled
mammals in which immunoglobulins
present in colostrum are absorbed
intact.
RUMINANT DIGESTION
- Stomach of ruminant is divided into
four compartments.
1. Rumen paunch
-
2. Reticulum honeycomb
-
3. Omasum many plies
-
4. Abomasum true stomach
-
- In young suckling- first two
compartments are undeveloped.
- Milk is channeled through the
esophageal/reticular groove to reach
the 3rd and 4th compartment
(omasum & abomasum)
- Fermentation of food by microbes in
rumen produces VOLATILE FATTY
ACIDS.
Butyric acid = encourage formation
of papillae on the rumen wall.
- The gases are lost by eructation
(belching) and the volatile fatty acids
are mainly absorbed through the
rumen wall.
- Microbes, along with undigested
food parts, move to the abomasum
and small intestine.
- Releases enzymes to digest them,
and the resulting breakdown
products are absorbed.
- The produced volatile fatty acids are
taken in, but the microbial cells,
along with undigested food parts,
are expelled in the feces.
RUMINATION CYCLE
1. Regurgitation spit -
back up
 2. Remastication -
chewing again
3. Reinsalivation-
mix with saliva
4. Redeglution - swallowing again
- In grazing cattle it is commonly
about 8 hours per day, or about
equal to the time spent in grazing.
- Each bolus of food regurgitated is
chewed 40– 50 times and thus
receives a much more thorough
mastication than during eating.
DIGESTION OF CARBOHYDRATES
- The breakdown of carbohydrates in
the rumen is divided into 2 stages
1. Digestion of complex
carbohydrates to simple
sugars
2. Metabolism of carbohydrates
Cellulose and starch are both complex
carbohydrates. Enzymes break down starch
into glucose molecules through a process
called glycolysis. However, cellulose, a
component of plant cell walls, requires
specialized enzymes to be converted into
glucose. Through fermentation, these
glucose molecules are transformed into
pyruvate, a key intermediate in cellular
energy production.
Pyruvate undergoes fermentation by
microbes. This fermentation process leads
to the formation of acetate, butyrate, and
propionate. These are short-chain fatty
acids that serve as energy sources for the
ruminant. The microbes in the stomach
transform pyruvate into these fatty acids,
providing the ruminant with nutrients
essential for its nutrition.
An excess accumulation of pyruvate can
contribute to the development of acidosis in
- > pamaol
the body. In conditions such as lactic
acidosis, pyruvate is converted into lactic
acid, leading to an increase in acidity. This
disturbance in the body's acid-base balance
can have detrimental effects on cellular
function and overall physiological
processes.
- The most crucial digestive process
in the rumen is the breakdown of
cellulose and other tough
polysaccharides.
- This process not only provides
energy for the ruminant but also
ensures that other nutrients, which
might otherwise escape digestion,
are exposed to enzyme action.
- The large rumen, making up 10-20%
of a ruminant's weight, gives enough
space for food to gather. This allows
ample time for the gradual
 breakdown of cellulose, which takes BASIC NUTRIENTS AND FUNCTION
place at a slower pace in the rumen.
WATER
DIGESTION OF PROTEINS - Major item in most animal’s diet
- Water content of animal body varies
with age:
RUMEN RUMEN
DEGRADABLE UNDEGRADABLE New Born 750-800g per kg
PROTEIN (RDP) PROTEIN (RUP or
BYPASS) Mature Fat 500g per kg

- Microbes in the - Some dietary

rumen break proteins in FUNCTIONS OF WATER
down protein the rumen 1. Acts as solvent for nutrient transport
into small remain and waste excretion
peptides, unbroken. 2. Involved in enzyme-mediated
amino acids, This is useful chemical reactions like hydrolysis
and ammonia. when the
3. Contributes to the regulation of body
These animal's
products are protein/amin temperature
then utilized by o acid needs
the microbes are not met SOURCES OF WATER
to create through 1. Drinking water
microbial microbial - Poor water quality will
proteins within fermentation negatively impact the
the rumen. or the
formation of animal’s intake and reduce
new performance.
proteins. -
2. Water in food
- Water content of foods varies
DIGESTION OF LIPIDS
- Ranges from 60g/kg in
- Rumen microorganisms have a
concentrates to over 900g/kg
limited ability to digest lipids.
in some root crops
- Ruminant diets usually have low lipid
3. Metabolic water
content (around 50 g/kg). If the lipid
- Formed during metabolism
level goes above 100 g/kg, it can
by the oxidation of hydrogen
decrease the activities of rumen
containing organic nutrients
microbes.
- Calcium salts of fatty acids don't
WATER REQUIREMENT
impact rumen fermentation much;
- Expected water consumption of
they are used as fat supplements for
various species of adult livestock in
ruminants.
a temperate climate
 2. Converted into glycogen
ANIMAL LITERS/DAY
3. Converted into fats as energy
2

Beef Cattle 22-66 reserve

1 highest 4. Accessory functions: milk and egg
Dairy Cattle 38-110 production
Sheep & Goats 5
4-15 5. As a source of fiber (esp. ruminant)
3
Horses 30-45 CLASSIFICATIONS OF CHO
4
Swine 11-19 SUGARS
7
lowest
Chickens 0.2-04
● MONOSACCHARIDES
6
Turkeys 0.4-0.6
HEXOSES
- Water requirements are increased in
cold weather because feed intake is 1. GLUCOSE
increased. - dextrose/ grape sugar/ corn sugar
- Animals are more sensitive to lack of - plants, fruits, honey, blood, lymph,
water than food. and CSF ( cerebrospinal fluid )
- Restriction of water = reduced intake - Major component of many
in feed oligosaccharides, polysaccharides,
- Severe restriction of water intake will and glucosides
result in rapid weight loss and body - White crystalline solid
dehydrates. - Soluble in water

FACTORS AFFECTING WATER INTAKE 2. D-FRUCTOSE

- Fruit sugar/ laevulose
● DIETARY FACTOR - green leaves, fruits, and honey.
- High level of protein intake - Occurs in the disaccharide sucrose
and fats may increase water and in fructans
intake - White crystalline solid has sweeter
- consumption of salt taste than sucrose
increases consumption and - Sweet taste of honey is due to this
excretion sugar
● ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR 3. D-MANNOSE
- Heat stress - Does not occur free in nature
- exists in polymerized form as
CARBOHYDRATES MANNAN.
- Neutral chemical compounds - Component of glycoproteins
containing carbon, hydrogen, and
C H
- Widely distributed in yeasts, molds,
oxygen.
O
and bacteria.
4. D-GALACTOSE
FUNCTIONS OF CHO - Does not occur free in nature
1. Metabolize as source of energy
 - breakdown product during - manufacturing beer and scotch malt
fermentation whisky
- Present as constituent of the - Water soluble but now as sweet as
disaccharide lactose – milk. sucrose
- Component of anthocyanin
pigments, galactolipids, gums, and GLUCOSE + GLUCOSE = MALTOSE
mucilages.
4. CELLOBIOSE
MONOSACCHARIDE DERIVATIVES - Does not exist naturally as a free
sugar
1. Phosphoric acid esters - Basic repeating unit of cellulose
2. Amino sugars – glucosamine and - Linkage cannot be split by
galactosamine mammalian digestive enzymes –
3. Deoxy sugars - DNA can be split by microbial enzymes
4. Sugar acids – Gluconic, glucaric,
and glucuronic acids GLUCOSE + GLUCOSE = CELLOBIOSE
5. Sugar alcohols
6. Glycosides TRISACCHARIDES

● OLIGOSACCHARIDE 1. RAFFINOSE
- small amounts in sugar beet and
DISACCHARIDES accumulates in molasses
- Cotton seed: 80 g/kg of raffinose
1. SUCROSE - Hydrolysis = glucose, fructose, and
- Most abundant occurring galactose
disaccharides in plants - main 2. KESTOSE
transport form of carbon - Occur in the vegetative parts and
- high concentration in sugar cane seeds of grasses
and sugar beet
- mangels and carrots and some fruits NON-SUGARS

GLUCOSE + FRUCTOSE = SUCROSE ● POLYSACCHARIDES

2. LACTOSE HOMOGLYCANS
- Mammary gland GLUCANS
- Cow’s milk contains 43-48 g/kg
lactose 1. STARCH
- Not soluble as sucrose - Reserve carbohydrates in plants
- Less sweet - Abundant in seeds, fruits, tubers,
and roots
GLUCOSE + GALACTOSE = LACTOSE - insoluble in cold water – suspension
in heated water
3. MALTOSE 2. GLYCOGEN
- Malt sugar
 - Liver, muscles, and other animal - contains galactosamine in place of
tissues glucosamine
- Main carbohydrate storage product – - Sulfate esters of chondroitin are
energy metabolism major structural components of
3. DEXTRINS cartilage, tendons, and bones.
- Soluble in water and produce
gum-like solutions LIGNIN
- Give characteristic flavor to bread 1. LIGNIN
crust, toast, and partly charred foods - Not a carbohydrate
4. CELLULOSE - High resistance to chemical
- Fundamental structure of plant cell degradation
walls - Richly found in wood product,
- Found in nearly pure form in cotton mature hays, and straws

GLUCOSAMINES CARBOHYDRATES-RICH SOURCES

- Barley feed
1. CHITIN - Brown rice
- abundant in crustacean, fungi, and - Camote meal
some green algae. - Cassava meal
- Major structural component of the - Corn bran
exoskeletons of invertebrates. - Corn grain
- Corn grits
HETEROGLYCANS - Ground grain
- Sorghum
1. HEMICELLULOSE - Molasses
- Alkali-soluble cell wall - Rice bran
polysaccharides that are closely - Rice middling
associated with cellulose. - Rice polishing
- D-glucose + D-galactose + - Rough rice
D-mannose + D-xylose + - Sugar
L-arabinose units - Tallow
- fruit, plant, stems, and grain hulls - Vegetable fat
- Not digestible but can be fermented - Wheat bran
via microbial activity. - Wheat middling
2. HYALURONIC ACID - Pollard
- Contains acetyl-glucosamine
- skin, synovial fluid, and umbilical LIPIDS
cord - Insoluble in water but soluble in
- Solutions of this acid are viscous common organic solvents
and play important part in lubrication - Act as electron carriers, substrate
of joints carriers in enzyme reactions
3. CHONDROITIN
- Chemically similar to hyaluronic acid
CLASSIFICATION OF PLANT LIPIDS
FAT GLYCOGEN
1. STRUCTURAL LIPIDS
- present as constituents of various Energy yield 39 MJ/kg 17 MJ/kg DM
membranes and protective surface after oxidation DM
layers and make up about 7 per cent
Water content anhydrous Highly
of the leaves of higher plants. contains no water
:Ii I : iii.emical structure
i
hydrated

● SURFACE LIPIDS Stored energy 6x as

- mainly waxes, with relatively minor source effective
contributions from long-chain
hydrocarbons, fatty acids and cutin.
FUNCTIONS OF LIPIDS
● MEMBRANE LIPIDS
- present in mitochondria, the ANIMALS ANIMAL HUMAN
endoplasmic reticulum and the FEEDS FOOD
plasma membranes, are mainly
glycolipids (40–50 per cent) and -Dietary -Enhance -In beef,
phosphoglycerides. energy supply feed marbling is
-Source of appearance desirable –
heat, by improving interspersion
2. STORAGE LIPIDS insulation, color and of fat
- occur in fruits and seeds and are, and animal reducing particles in
predominantly, triacyl- glycerol. protection dust. lean meat
- identified almost 300 fatty acids -Carrier for
fat-soluble
Most abundant: a-linolenic acid vitamin
absorption
Most common saturated acid: Palmitic acid
-Act as
Most common monosaturated acid: Oleic electron
acid carrier
-Source of
CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMAL LIPIDS essential fatty
- Major energy storage – fats acid
- Fats in obese animals may be
contained in adipose tissue at ~97%
- Fat yield energy after complete NATURAL SOURCES OF LIPIDS
oxidation: 39 MJ/kg DM vs glycogen
17 MJ/kg DM ANIMAL PLANT NATURAL
BODY SOURCES

-Subcutaneous -Seed germ/ -Fat

-Surrounding embryo level-cereal
internal organs grains,
-Marbling and forages,
milk animal
products
- Oil seeds
CLASSIFICATION OF LIPIDS
● GLYCEROL-BASED
1. FATS
- Constituents of both plants and
animals
- Important sources of stored energy
- Fats and oils have the same general
structure but have different physical
and chemical properties
Function:
- Supply energy
- Thermal insulator
- Source of heat for maintaining body
temperature
- hairless, hibernate, and
cold-adapted animals have special
deposits of ‘brown fat’
BROWN FAT
- Burning fat doesn’t produce energy
but releases heat instead.
- These tissues contain mitochondria
rich in respiratory carriers like
cytochromes – giving them a brown
color.
STRUCTURE OF FATS
GLYCERIDES OR ACYLGLYCEROLS
- Fatty acid esters of glycerol
- Referred to as neutral fats
- Accumulate in adipose tissue
- Provide a means of storing fatty
acids –animals
- Do not play an important role in
plants
- When fatty acids combine with all
three alcohol groups, it forms a
substance known as triacylglycerol
or triglyceride.
* If they have three identical fatty acid
components – Simple Triacylglycerols
* More than one type of fatty acid is involved
– Mixed triacylglycerols
FATTY ACIDS
- are classified as:
SATURATED - where there are only single
bonds
UNSATURATED - where there are
carbon-carbon double bonds
* Unsaturated have lower melting points and
are chemically more reactive
* Fatty acids with more than one double
bond are frequently referred to as
polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA)
COMPOSITION OF FATS
● BUTYRIC ACID & CAPROID ACID
- Found in significant amounts
comes
of milk fats of ruminants from animals
 ● CAPROIC ACID & CAPRYLIC ACID ESSENTIAL FATTY ACIDS (EFAs)
comes - Present in few oils like palm
from
plants kernel and coconut (lauric ● LINOLEIC (OMEGA-6) &
acid) a-LINOLENIC ACID
(OMEGA-3)
EXAMPLES OF FATS AND OIL SOURCES - Essential fatty acids
- Rape seed - Contribute to
- Soya bean membrane structure
- Rye grass - Play role in lipid
- Butter fat transport and specific
- Lard lipoprotein enzymes
- Beef tallow - Source materials for
- Menhaden synthesizing
- Cod liver eicosanoids (help
- Herring regulate functions:
blood clotting, blood
PLANT & MARINE OILS pressure, smooth
example is - More highly unsaturated (esp. muscle contraction,
fat from Bang fishes) – linoleic and linolenic acids
us immune response)

A.io?&.*iFH
- Fish and plant oils are softer and
remain in liquid form resembling true
oils.
MAMMALIAN DEPOT FAT
- Lower proportion of unsaturated fatty
acids
- Higher proportion of saturated fatty
acids – palmitic, stearic acids
- This composition makes animal fat
firm and hard.
SUBCUTANEOUS FAT
- Contain higher proportion
unsaturated acids
- Softer then deep-body fat
● Animals fats differ in texture
● Marine mammals have softer body
fat than land mammals.
● Animal fat needs to stay malleable at
tissue temperature influenced by
surroundings.
● Fats in colder parts (feet, ears) tend
to be more unsaturated
- Maintain fluidity of cell
membranes
SOURCES OF EFA
- Oilseeds are rich sources of linoleic
acid
- Linseed good source of a-linolenic
acids
- Pigs and poultry consuming oilseed
residues –receive sufficient essential
fatty acids (EFAs) than ruminants.
DEFICIENCIES
1. Growth retardation
of 2. Increased permeability to water and
increased water consumption
3. Increased susceptibility to bacterial
infections
4. Sterility
5. Less stable biomembranes
6. Capillary fragility
7. Kidney damage, hematuria, and
hypertension
8. Decreased visual acuity
9. Decreased myocardial contractility
10.Decreased ATP synthesis in liver and
heart
11.Decreased nitrogen retention
PROPERTIES OF FATS
● HYDROLYSIS
- Achieved by boiling fats with
alkalis
- Yields glycerol and soaps
- Termed “saponification” as it
produces sodium and
potassium salts of fatty acids
● LIPOLYSIS
- Process of fat breakdown
under the influence of
enzymes –lipases
- Products of lipolysis:
● Mixtures of mono-
and diacylglycerols
with free fatty acids
● Butyric & Caproic
have strong tastes
and smells
unacceptable
consumers
- Extensive lipolysis occurs in
the duodenum during the
absorption of dietary fats
from the small intestine.
- Precedes the hydrogenation
of fats in the rumen and the
oxidation of fats in the body.
● ANTIOXIDANTS
- Vitamin E is a vital naturally
occurring antioxidant
- As an antioxidant, it plays a
crucial role in protecting
cells, including the lipids or
fats within those cells, from
damage caused by free
radicals.
electrons
↳ have unpaired
2. GLYCOLIPIDS
- Compounds consisting of a
carbohydrate bound to an alcohol
group of a lipid by glycosidic linkage.
- Location: Brain and Nerve fibers
GALACTOLIPIDS
- Lipids of grasses and clovers –
forms the major part of dietary fat of
ruminants
- The fatty acids of the galactosidase
of grasses and clovers consist
largely of Linoleic and a-linolenic
acids.
- Rumen microorganisms have the
ability to break down galactolipids,
resulting in the production of
galactose, fatty acids, and glycerol.
- An initial stage of lipolysis is
necessary.
– 3. PHOSPHOGLYCERIDES
to
PHOSPHOLIPID
- Constituents of the lipoprotein
complexes of biological membranes
- Abundant in heart, kidneys, and
nervous tissues
- Myelin sheath – 55% phospholipids
- Sources: eggs, soya beans
LECITHIN & CEPHALINS
- Play a role as emulsifying agents in
biological systems (duodenum)
- White waxy solids that turn brown
when exposed to air (oxidation)
ETHER PHOSPHOLIPIDS
- Form up to 50% of phospholipids of
heart tissue
- Platelet activating factor
,

them highly
reactive &
making other
to interacting
with
prone
molecules in the body
 ● NON-GLYCEROL-BASED
1. SPHINGOMYELINS
- Important components of
membranes – nervous tissue
- Constitute up to 25% of total lipid in
myelin sheath – protects nerve cells
- Absent or low concentration in
energy-generating tissue
2. WAXES
- Simple non-popular lipids
- Water-insoluble, solid esters of long
chain fatty acid
- Solid at ordinary temperature but
soft and pliable when warm
- Widely distributed in plants and
animals – protective function
- Hydrophobic nature helps plants
reduce water loss from transposition,
while in animals, it gives wool and
feathers waterproofing
Lanolin - obtained from wool
Spermaceti - product of marine animals
(sperm whale)
3. STEROIDS
- Biologically important compounds
such as the sterols, bile acids,
adrenal hormones, and sex
hormones.
PHYTOSTEROLS - plant
=
19
MYCOSTEROLS - fungi i¥
ZOOSTEROLS - animal ¥s÷
STEROLS
1. CHOLESTEROL
- Zoosterol present in animal cells
- Major sterol in human
- Constituent of various biological
membrane and important in
myelinated structures of brain and
CNS
- Precursor of steroid hormones and
bile acids
- Normal concentration in the blood
plasma: 1200-2200 mg/l
- Some 30% is in free state and the
remainder is bound to lipoproteins.
- Very insoluble – prolonged high
levels in blood result in deposition on
walls of blood vessels.
2. 7-DEHYDROCHOLESTEROL
- Derived from cholesterol
- Important precursor of Vitamin D3
- Produced when sterol is exposed to
ultraviolet light
3. ERGOSTEROL
- Phytosterol
- Widely distributed in brown algae,
bacteria, and higher plants
- Precursor of Ergocalciferol or
vitamin D2
BILE SALTS
- Synthesized from cholesterol
- Constitutes the major end point of
cholesterol metabolism
- Under physiological conditions the
acids exist as salts
- Produced in liver, stored in
gallbladder and secreted into the
upper small intestine
IMPORTANCE
1. Main route for eliminating cholesterol
2. Prevent cholesterol crystallization in bile
with the help of
phospholipids.
3. Aid in digesting dietary fats by AMINO ACIDS
emulsifying them for pancreatic - Produced when proteins are
lipase action. hydrolyzed by enzymes, acids, or
4. Potentially activate pancreatic lipase. alkalis
5. Help absorb fat-soluble vitamins from the - characterized by having a basic
digestive tract. nitrogenous group – amino group
and acidic carboxyl unit.
STEROID HORMONES
● ESTROGENS - female sex 20 COMMON AMINO ACIDS
hormones ● Monoamino-monocarboxylic acid
● ANDROGENS - male sex hormones 1. Glycine Giraffes
-

● PROGESTERONE - pregnancy 2. Alanine And

-

hormone 3. Valine -

Vampires

● CORTISOL, ALDOSTERONE, & 4. Leucine Love Licking

-

CORTICOSTERONE - produced in 5. Serine -

Soft

the adrenal cortex; control of 6. Threonine Tasty -

glucose and fat metabolism 7. Isoleucine Ice cream

-

● Sulphur-containing amino acid

8. Cysteine Crazy
-

9. Methionine MOFO -

PROTEINS ● Monoamino-dicarboxylic acids and

- Complex, high-molecular weight their amine derivatives
organic compounds 10. Aspartic acid All -

- Like carbohydrates and fats, they 11. Asparagine Ants

-

contain carbon, hydrogen, and 12. Glutamic acid Got -

oxygen – additionally contain 13. Glutamine Grapes

-

nitrogen and generally sulfur. ● Basic Amino Acids

- Principal constituents of organs and 14. Lysine- Love

soft structures 15. Arginine All

-

16. Histidine Heroes

-

FUNCTION ● Aromatic and Heterocyclic Amino

• Growth, repair, and maintenance of body Acids
structures and tissue 17. Phenylalanine Phineas -

• Body regulation 18. Proline Plays

-

• Catalysts (Enzymes) 19. Tyrosine Tennis

-

• Aid in maintaining fluid and electrolyte 20. Tryptophan Today -

balance
• Buffer system SPECIAL AMINO ACIDS
• Transport other substances through blood - Contain special amino acids that are
• Protection derivatives of common amino acids.
• Component of numerous body compounds ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS
• Source of energy - Plants and many microorganisms
can produce proteins from basic
nitrogen compounds like nitrates.
 - Unlike animals, which cannot CLASSIFICATION OF PROTEINS
synthesize the amino group, they ● ACCORDING TO
need a dietary supply of amino acids COMPOSITION
to build body proteins. 1. SIMPLE PROTEINS
- Yield only amino acids upon
10 ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS hydrolysis
1. Arginine Hlssy fits
no
2. CONJUGATED PROTEINS
Phenylalanine Arguing 4
no

Valine 2. Histidine Lying

no
- Simple proteins + non-protein
""""" " 3. Isoleucine substances
BRANCHED
Threonine 4. Leucine i Live for this
" "" ""°

Isoleucine 5. Lysine acids

Methionine
6. Methionine
Histidine 7. Phenylalanine
Arginine 8. Threonine amino acids
Lysine
ketogenic
9. Tryptophan ↳ can be degraded
Leucine
10. Valine directly into acetyl-CoA

APPLICATION OF EAA
● ACCORDING TO SHAPE

*
Chick requirements 1. GLOBULAR PROTEINS
- Needs dietary supply of the 10 - Polypeptide chain coiled into
essential amino acids and require compact spherical shape
additional glycine - Soluble in water
Pig requirements - Mobile within cells
- Similar essential amino acid - Amylase, hemoglobin,
requirement but they can synthesize albumin, globulins
arginine 2. FIBROUS PROTEINS
Cat requirements - Polypeptide chains arranged
- Need dietary arginine due to their side-by-side in long filaments
- limited ability to synthesize ornithine - Insoluble in water
- Taurine is essential in their diet for - Mechanically strong
bile acid conjugation. - Structural and protective
Ruminant requirements function
- Can synthesize all essential amino - Collagen, elastin, keratin
acid through rumen microorganisms PROPERTIES OF PROTEINS
- Supply of amino acids from microbial ● DENATURATION
protein is limiting in quantity - All proteins can be denatured or
changed from their natural state.
PEPTIDES - Application of heat disrupts the weak
- Built up from amino acids by means noncovalent interactions holding
of peptide linkage protein structure.
- Significant for flavor and sensory - Acids, Alkalis, Alcohols, Urea, and
properties of foods such as yeast Salts of Heavy Metals induce protein
extract, cheese, and fruit juices.
 denaturation by disrupting molecular
interactions.
NUCLEIC ACIDS
- High molecular weight compounds
that play a fundamental role in living
organisms as a store of genetic
information
- Means by which this information is
utilized in the synthesis of proteins
- The main pyrimidines found in
nucleic acids are cytosine, thymine
and uracil.
- Adenine and guanine are the
principal purine bases present in
nucleic acids.
OTHER NITROGENOUS COMPOUNDS
● AMINES
- present in small amounts in most
plant and animal tissues
- Occur as decomposition products in
decaying organic matter and have
toxic properties
● AMIDES
- play an important role in
transamination reactions
- Asparagine and Glutamine
important derivatives
- Urea – main end product of nitrogen
metabolism in mammals
- Uric acid – end product of purine
metabolism (birds)
● NITRATES
- present in plant materials, not toxic
itself until converted to nitrite
- Oat hay poisoning (large amount of
nitrate in green oats)
● NITRATE ION
- One of the most common toxic
substances in contaminated water
- Sources is common in areas with a
high concentration of animals –
heavy fertilization of fields with
manure or nitrogenous fertilizers,
contamination from septic tanks
● ALKALOIDS
- Presence is restricted to a few
orders of the dicotyledons
- Have poisonous properties while
others have desirable medical
properties.
PROTEIN SOURCE: ANIMAL ORIGIN
1. Dried skimmed milk
2. Digester tankage
3. Tankage w/ bone
4. Meat scrap or meat meal
5. Meat and bone scrap meal
6. Fish meal
7. Hydrolyzed feather meal
8. Poultry by-product meal
9. Dried whole milk
10. Blood meal
PROTEIN SOURCE: PLANT ORIGIN
1. Soybean meal (SBM) (orig. Soybean
oil meal)
2. Cottonseed meal (CSM)
3. Peanut oil meal (POM) or peanut
4. Meal (PNM)
5. Linseed (oil) meal (LSM, LSOM, or
– LOM)
6. Corn gluten meal
7. Brewer’s dried grains
8. Distillers dried grains
9. Copra meal
10. Safflower meal w/o hulls
11. Sesame oil meal
12. Sunflower meal or sunflower oil meal
13. Rapeseed meal (RSM)
14. Soybeans, cottonseed, and peanuts
VITAMINS
- Essential and are supplied in the diet
(or microbial synthesis in digestive
tract)
 - when absent or not properly
utilized/absorbed – leads to
deficiency disease or syndrome
DISCOVERY
1. Rats given diets with purified
proteins, fats, carbohydrates, and
inorganic salts.
2. Results showed that diet of this type
was inadequate for normal growth
3. Small quantity of milk was added
4. This proved that there was some
essential factors lacking in the pure
diet
VITAMINS AND BIOCHEMISTRY
PROVITAMINS (VITAMIN PRECURSORS)
- Substances that are chemically
related to the biologically active form
of the vitamin but have no vitamin
activity until the body converts it into
active form. (e.g Vitamin D
synthesis)
- Many vitamins are destroyed by
oxidation.
- Commercial vitamin preparations are
dispersed in wax or gelatin
VITAMIN SUPPLEMENTATION OF DIETS

- The term ‘vitamines’ was derived Vitamin supplements must be;

from ‘vital amines’ ● free-flowing
- coined to describe these accessory ● non-dusty
food factors ● well-mixed with other diet
ingredients despite being added in
The word has been shortened to VITAMINS, small amounts.
a term that has been generally accepted as Some of these criteria are incompatible and
a group name. a compromise has to be reached.
● Oily vitamins are absorbed onto
- Vitamins are not merely building silica
blocks or energy-yielding ● Coated or micro-encapsulated
compounds but mediators of ● Antioxidants are added to prevent
biochemical pathways. breakdown
● Use of stable derivatives of vitamins
BIOLOGICAL ROLE
- Co-factors for enzymatic and Factors Affecting the Stability of Vitamin
biochemical reactions Activity in the Supplement:
- Improve immunity and prevent 1. Temperature
illness 2. Humidity
- Slow aging 3. Acidity/Alkalinity
- Added to the diet at higher levels in 4. Oxygen
order to enhance the quality of the 5. Ultraviolet light
animal product (Vitamin D – for 6. Presence of trace minerals
eggshell strength; Vitamin E – for 7. Physical factors
prolonging the shelf life of 8. Length of time the supplement is
carcasses) stored
VITAMIN GROUPS
"
"
Fat-soluble vitamins ADEK sago
● Vitamin A
Source:
Accumulates in the liver; oils from livers of
certain fish, egg yolk, milk fat; leafy forages;
Present as precursors or provitamins in the
form of CAROTENOIDS – can be converted
into the vitamin. B-carotene is the most
important member.
Role & metabolism:
Vision
- Rhodopsin- photoreceptor for vision
at low light intensities.
Cellular Differentiation
- Formation and protection of
epithelial tissues and mucous
membranes.
Immune System
- Promotion of healing immune
integrity
- Scavenger of free radicals.
Deficiency disease/symptoms:
- Cattle: roughened hair and scaly
skin; eye issues
- Pigs: eye disorders; reproductive
issues; growth retardation
- Poultry: high mortality rates; reduced
egg production
- Horse, Dogs & Cats: night blindness;
susceptibility to infection
● Vitamin D2 & D3
Source: Halibut-liver and cod-liver oils, egg
yolk, sun-cured hay
Role & metabolism:
Bone formation & CHO metabolism
Deficiency disease/ symptoms:
- In young animals - Rickets (weak
and easily broken bones; bowed
legs)
- In older animals – Osteomalacia
- Poultry:
• soft and rubbery bones and beak
• weak legs
• retarded growth
• reduced egg production
• poor eggshell quality.
● Vitamin E
Source:seed germ or germ oils from plants,
green forage or hay
A-tocopherol – most biologically active form
Role & metabolism:
- Antioxidant
- Development and functioning of
immune system
- Recent research suggests it is also
involved in regulation cell signaling
and gene expression
Deficiency disease/symptoms
- Cattle: white muscle disease
- Lambs: stiff lamb disease
- Pigs: myopathy and cardiac disease;
mulberry heart disease in growing
pigs
- Chicks: myopathy;
encephalomalacia (crazy chick
disease); exudative diathesis
- Horses: “tying up” – lameness and
muscle rigidity

Chemical transformation occurs in ● Vitamin K

the skin. Ergocalciferol (D2) and Source:most green leafy materials,
Cholecalciferol (D3) – most important forms. cabbage, kale, egg yolk, liver, and fishmeal.
Phylloquinone or Vitamin K1 – form
of the vitamin present in plants.
Role & metabolism:
- Synthesis of prothrombin
- Blood clotting
Deficiency disease/ symptoms:
- Cattle: associated with sweet clover
disease
- Chicks: anemia, delayed blood
clotting
Water-soluble Vitamins
● Vitamin B complex
B1: Thiamine
Source: Green forage or well-cured hays,
cereal grains (seed or brain), brewer’s yeast
Role & metabolism:
- Oxidative decarboxylation of a-keto
acids and pyruvate
- Transketolase reactions
- Coenzyme– thiamine pyrophosphate
Deficiency disease/symptoms:
- Polyneuritis and convulsions (head
retraction in chickens)
- Cardiovascular disturbance
- Beriberi – humans
- Anorexia and emaciation
B2: Riboflavin
Source: Green forages, hays, or silages;
Milk and milk products; Meat or fish meal;
Yeasts
Role & metabolism:
- Coenzyme – flavin mononucleotide
(FMN) and flavin adenine
dinucleotide (FAD)
- Involve in transport of hydrogen
(hydrogen receptor)
- CHO and protein metabolism
Deficiency disease/symptoms:
- Pigs: poor appetite, growth
retardation, vomiting, skin eruptions.
& eye abnormalities
- Chicks: ’curled toe paralysis’
- Breeding hen: ‘clubbed down’
- Horse: moon blindness
B3: Niacin/Nicotinamide
Source: Nicotinic acid can be synthesized
from tryptophan in body tissues; liver; yeast;
groundnut; sunflower meals
Role & metabolism:
- Constituent of coenzymes NAD and
NADP
Deficiency disease/symptoms:
- 3D’s: dermatitis, diarrhea, and
dementia
- Pellagra in humans
- Ulceration of the mouth, tongue, and
digestive tract (black tongue in dog)
B5: Pantothenic acid
Source: Liver, egg yolk, groundnuts, peas,
yeast, and molasses; E. coli is known to
produce this vitamin
Role & metabolism:
- Constituent of coenzyme A – fatty
acid oxidation, acetate metabolism,
and cholesterol & steroid synthesis
Deficiency disease/symptoms:
- Pigs: slow growth, diarrhea, loss of
hair, scaliness of skin
- “GOOSE-STEPPING” gait
- Chick: retarded growth, dermatitis
B6: Pyridoxine
Source: Feedstuffs, cereal grains and
by-products; rice and rice bran; yeasts; liver
and milk
Role & metabolism:
- Coenzyme – pyridoxal (active form)
- Amino acid absorption from the
intestine
Deficiency disease/symptoms:
- Pigs: slow growth, diarrhea, loss of
hair, scaliness of skin
- “GOOSE-STEPPING” gait
- Chick: retarded growth, dermatitis
B7: Biotin
Source: Liver, milk, yeast, oilseeds, and
vegetables
Role & metabolism:
- Coenzyme- carbohydrate synthesis
from lactate, fatty acid synthesis,
and conversion of propionate to
succinyl-CoA
Deficiency disease/symptoms:
- Pigs: foot lesions, alopecia, and dry
scaly skin
- Poultry: reduced growth, dermatitis,
leg bone abnormalities, poor
feathering, fatty liver and kidney
syndrome (FLKS)
B9: Folic Acid/Folacin
Source: Green leafy materials, cereals,
oilseed meals
Role & metabolism:
- Coenzyme in mobilization and
utilization of single-carbon groups
- Synthesis of RNA, DNA, and
neurotransmitters
Deficiency disease/symptoms:
- Chicks: Poor growth, anemia, and
poor bone development
- Poultry: Poor egg hatchability
- Symptoms rarely occur in other farm
animals
B12: Cyanocobalamin
Source: Protein feeds of animal origin;
fermentation products
Role & metabolism:
- Ruminant- metabolism of propionic
acid into succinic acid
- Isomerization reactions
Deficiency disease/symptoms:
- Poultry: poor feathering and kidney
damage; hatching problems
- Anemia
- If low cobalt in diet = low B12
● Choline
Source: Green leafy materials, yeast, egg
yolk, and cereals; can be synthesized in the
liver from methionine
Role & metabolism:
- Not a metabolic catalyst
- Essential as structural component of
body tissues
- Lipid metabolism in liver
- Transmission of nerve impulse
Deficiency disease/symptoms:
- Pigs and chicks: Slow growth and
fatty infiltration of liver
- Perosis or slipped tendon in chicks
● Vitamin C – Ascorbic Acid
Source: Citrus fruits and green leafy
vegetables
Role & metabolism:
- Oxidation-reduction mechanism
- Maintenance of collagen metabolism
- Transport of iron ions
- Antioxidant in conjunction with Vit. E
Deficiency disease/symptoms:
- Scurvy – edema, emaciation, and
diarrhea
- Failure in collagen formation –
defects in bone, teeth, cartilage,
connective tissue, and muscles
UNITS OF MEASURE FOR VITAMIN
NUTRITION
● International Unit (IU)
- Standard unity potency as defined
by the International Conference for
Unification Formulae (CUF)
l ●
MINERALS
- Many naturally occurring mineral
elements are found in animal
tissues,but not all are considered
essential for the animal's
metabolism.
- The term 'essential mineral element'
is reserved for those minerals
proven to have a metabolic role in
the body.
COMPARTMENT
- Minerals in the body are stored in
different compartments, each
serving a specific role and having
varying rates of interchange with the
central reserve.
- Blood plasma – primary storage and
interchange compartment.
FUNCTION
- Structural: skeletal formation and
maintenance (Ca, P, Mg, Cu, Mn);
functions in protein synthesis (P, S,
Zn)
- Physiological: oxygen transport (Fe,
Cu); fluid balance (Na, Cl, K);
acid-base balance regulation (Na,
Cl, K)
- Catalytic: Activators and/or
components of enzyme systems
(Ca, P, K, Mg, Fe, Cu, Mn, Zn);
Mineral-vitamin relationship (Ca, P,
Co, Se)
SOURCES
- Plants and plant products form the
main supply of nutrients to animals,
and the composition of plants will
influence the animal’s mineral
intake.
Plant species – grasses vs. legumes
● Stage of maturity- young vs. old
plants
● Type of soil – pH and mineral
content
● Climate and season
- Common sources of minerals used
in mineral supplements are:
● limestone for calcium
● dicalcium phosphate for phosphorus
● common salt for sodium
● calcined magnesite for magnesium
CLASSIFICATION OF MINERALS
● MAJOR MINERALS
1. CALCIUM (Ca)
Source: milk, green leafy crops, legumes,
and sugar beet pulp. Animal by-products
(fishmeal)
Function:
• bone and teeth formation;
• blood coagulation;
• muscle contraction;
• nerve function; Deficiency:
• milk production; - Hypomagnesemia
• egg shell formation - Tetany (hypomagnesemic tetany)

Deficiency: Toxicities:
- Hypocalcemia - Hypermagnesemia
- Young – rickets
- Adult- osteomalacia 4. SODIUM (Na)
- Poultry: thin-shelled eggs; reduced Source: animal products, marine origin.
egg production Common salt- most common.
- Cattle: milk fever, tetany
Toxicities: Function:
- Hypercalcemia • Osmotic regulation of body fluids
• Main inorganic cation of
2. PHOSPHORUS (P) extracellular tissue fluids
Source: milk, cereal grains, and fishmeal
products. Deficiency:
- Hyponatremia
Function: - Reduced growth
• bone and teeth formation; - Eye disturbances w/ corneal lesions
• Phosphorylation - Reproduction impairment
- Decreased osmotic pressure
Deficiency: (dehydration)
- Hypophosphatemia
- Same symptoms with calcium Toxicities:
deficiency - Hypernatremia
- Salt toxicity, blindness, nervous
Toxicities: disorders
- Hyperphosphatemia
- Urinary calculi – male ruminants 5. CHLORINE (Cl)
Source: pasture grass varies widely.
3. MAGNESIUM (Mg) Common salt – main source
Source: wheat bran, dried yeast, and most
vegetable protein concentrates. Clovers are Function:
richer in Mg than grasses. • Osmotic pressure
• Acid-base balance (chlorine shift)
Function: • HCl acid in digestion
• Enzyme activator – glycolytic
system Deficiency:
• Efficient metabolism of - Hypochloremia
carbohydrates and lipids - Vomiting and diarrhea
• Bone formation - Reduced growth
• Neuromuscular activity
Toxicities: unlikely
 6. POTASSIUM (K) Deficiency: Anemia; thumps condition
Source: dried fruits, bananas, milk, and (labored & spasmodic breathing)
leafy greens
Excess:
Function: • Copper and phosphorus deficiencies
• Osmotic regulation • Nausea and vomiting
• Cations of cells • Oxidative stress & tissue damage
• Nerve and muscle excitability • death due to liver failure
• Carbohydrate metabolism
2. COPPER (Co)
Deficiency: Function: oxidation-reduction reaction;
- Hypokalemia hemoglobin synthesis; bone formation;
- Lethargic condition maintenance of myelin sheath; fur and wool
pigmentation.
Toxicities:
- Hyperkalemia Deficiency: Fading hair coat or lack of wool;
- Excess K = reduces Mg absorption nervous symptoms; swelling of joints;
anemia
7. SULFUR (S)
Source: occurs in proteins containing Excess: inhibits Cu utilization and storage
amino acids cystine, cysteine, and
methionine. 3. MOLYBDENUM (Mo)
Function: purine metabolism; stimulates
Function: microbial activity in rumen
• Amino acid composition
• Respiratory process Deficiency: lack of conversion of xanthine to
• Chondroitin sulphate – cartilage, uric acid
bone, tendons, and blood vessel
walls Excess: interferes with Cu activation of
• Wool enzymes; anemia and diarrhea

Deficiency: 4. ZINC (Zn)

- Primarily reduced growth effect due Function: cofactor of several enzyme
to sulfur amino acid requirement for systems; needed for bone and feather
protein synthesis development; immunity

Toxicities: unlikely Deficiency: poor hair or feather

development; poor FCR; parakeratosis in
● TRACE MINERALS swine; swollen hock syndrome in chicks

1. IRON (Fe) Excess: interferes with Cu metabolism and

Function: cellular respiration may cause anemia
(hemoglobin, cytochromes, myoglobin)
 5. COBALT ( C )
Function: Component of vitamin B12

Deficiency: emaciation, anemia, and

listlessness

Excess: Unlikely

6. SELENIUM (Se)
Function: Protect against cellular
membrane damage by the peroxidases;
Related to that of Vit. E

Deficiency: Exudative diathesis (chicks);

White muscle disease (cattle); stiff lamb
disease (sheep); liver necrosis (pigs,
rats)

Excess: Acute toxicity

7. MANGANESE (Mn)
Function: oxidative phosphorylation;
amino acid metabolism; fatty acid
synthesis and cholesterol metabolism.

Deficiency: Poor growth; impaired

reproduction; perosis or slipped tendon
in poultry; head retraction in chicks

Excess: Unlikely

8. IODINE (I)
Function: Thyroxine formation (T3 and
T4); immune defense; reproduction

Deficiency: Goiter; stillbirths; hairless or

wool-less; abnormal estrous cycle

Excess:
• Lamb – reduced Ig and Vit E
absorption from colostrum
• Poultry – halt or slowed egg
production; delayed hatching