ABSTRACT

Animals eat to acquire the energy and building

materials that they need to live and grow. Animals
use energy to perform normal body functions such as
breathing, walking, eating, digesting, and maintaining
body temperature. Nutrients provide poultry the
energy and material needed for the development of
bone, flesh, feathers, and eggs. Each of these
compounds is important in providing poultry the
nutrients they need, and a deficit of even one can
have serious health consequences for poultry.

DR / Yousria Ahmed Osman

Master degree - Class 2023

NUTRITION OF POULTRY
Nutrition and Clinical Nutrition Department
 FEEDS AND FEEDING OF POULTRY
Poultry Nutrient Requirements
Animals eat to acquire the energy and building materials that they need to live and
grow. Animals use energy to perform normal body functions such as breathing, walking,
eating, digesting, and maintaining body temperature.
Nutrients provide poultry the energy and material needed for the development of bone,
flesh, feathers, and eggs. Each of these compounds is important in providing poultry the
nutrients they need, and a deficit of even one can have serious health consequences for
poultry.

Feed has six major components:

1- Carbohydrates – the major source of energy for poultry. Most of the carbohydrate in poultry
diets is provided by cereal grains.
2- Fats – provide energy and essential fatty acids that are required for some bodily processes.
3- Proteins – required for the synthesis of body tissue (particularly muscle),
physiological molecules (such as enzymes and hormones), feather and for egg
production. Proteins also provide a small amount of energy.
4- Vitamins – organic chemicals (chemicals containing carbon) which help control body
processes and are required in small amounts for normal health and growth.
5- Minerals – inorganic chemicals (chemicals not containing carbon) which help control
body processes and are required for normal health and growth.
6- Water.

Factors Affecting The Nutrient Requirements Of Poultry

The nutrient requirements of poultry are affected by a large number of factors, including:
1-Genetics (the species, breed or strain of bird) – Different species, breeds or strains of
birds have different average body sizes, growth rates and production levels and will
absorb and utilize nutrients from feed with different levels of efficiency.
2- Age – nutrient requirements are related to both body weight and the stage of maturity
in bird.
3- Sex – prior to sexual maturity, the sexes have only small differences in their nutrient
requirements and males and females can usually be fed the same compromise diet to
achieve acceptable growth rates.
4- Reproductive state – the level of egg production in hens and sexual activity in males
will affect nutrient requirements.
5- Ambient temperature – poultry have increased energy requirements to maintain
normal body temperature in cold ambient temperatures and the opposite in hot ambient
temperatures. Food digestion processes produce body heat, the amount of which will vary
according to the nutrient composition of the diet. This is called the heat increment of the
diet. In cold temperatures it may be desirable to formulate a diet with a higher heat
increment and the opposite in hot temperatures.
6- Housing system – the type of housing system will influence the level of activity of the
birds and therefore their energy requirements.
7- Health status – birds experiencing a disease challenge may benefit from an increase in
the intake of some nutrients, most commonly vitamins.
8- Production aims – the optimal nutrient composition of the diet will vary according to
production aims, such as optimizing weight gain or carcass composition, egg numbers or
egg size. Poultry that are raised for breeding purposes may need to have their energy
intake restricted to ensure that they do not become obese.

Feed Intake

Barn layer system

The nutrient intake of poultry is affected by both the nutrient composition of the diet and
the amount of feed eaten or feed intake. The optimum nutrient intake for poultry raised
commercially will depend on the commercial goals of the poultry enterprise.

The goals in feeding poultry differ between different classes of poultry. In general, for
poultry raised to provide meat, such as broilers, the aim is to produce the maximum body
weight gain for the minimum cost of feed while controlling the amount of fat on the
carcass. For egg laying birds, the aim is to maximize egg production for the minimum
cost of feed while controlling the egg size and egg quality. For mature egg laying birds
this generally entails maintaining a relatively stable body weight. These different goals,
along with differences in digestion and absorption of nutrients, require different levels of
nutrients to be provided to different classes of poultry.

The nutrient intake of poultry can be controlled by limiting the amount of feed available
to be eaten, by adjusting the nutrient content of the diet to match voluntary feed intake or
by manipulating the lighting program through increasing or decreasing the duration of
darkness. Allowing poultry to eat as much as they want is called ad libitum feeding.

There are a range of factors that can affect the voluntary feed intake of poultry, these
include:

1. Breed or strain
2. Age
3. Nutrient balance of the diet
4. Ambient temperature
 5. Health and welfare status of the birds
6. Accessibility of the feed
7. Flock density

In addition, certain feed ingredients, poor feed quality or feed contamination can have
adverse effects on voluntary feed intake due to poor palatability or the presence of toxic
factors.

Suppliers of commercial poultry provide information on the optimum nutrient and feed
intakes for their birds throughout the production cycle. Feed intake and production
performance of flocks should be monitored and adjustments made to the diet composition
where required to keep performance on track. In particular, feed intake is readily affected
by ambient temperature, with feed intake increasing at lower ambient temperatures and
decreasing at higher ambient temperatures. In such cases, the diet may need to be
reformulated to adjust nutrient intake to match changes in voluntary feed intake as a
result of changes in ambient temperature. As an example, in high ambient temperatures, a
more concentrated diet can compensate for the decreased nutrient intake occurring as a
result of lower voluntary feed intake. Accessibility to feed is sometimes overlooked as a
limiting factor and can be caused through inappropriate or poorly adjusted feeding
equipment or inadequate feeding space due to overstocking of facilities. The height of the
feeders should be adjusted according to the flock age to provide easy access to the feed
for all the birds.

Water Consumption Rates For Chickens

Water is an essential nutrient for life. Water

consumption can be limited if the water is too hot
or is contaminated with excess minerals. Water
and food consumption rates are interdependent, so
reduced water intake can also lead to reduced
food intake. There are other factors that affect
water intake, with temperature being the most
obvious one. For example, chickens drink
between 30-50% more water when the
environmental temperature is above 32oC
compared with when it is 21oC. Water intake is
also affected by the type of drinkers used. The
rule of thumb for water intake is that water intake is usually 1.5 to 2 times feed intake.

Tables 1 and 2 provide data on typical water consumption levels for layers and broilers,
respectively, at 21oC.
Table 1. Typical daily water consumption for layers
Production Stage Age/Rate of Production Litres of water per 1000 birds at 21oC

Layer pullet 4 weeks 100

12 weeks 160
18 weeks 200
Laying hens 50% production 220
90% production 270
Source: Poultry CRC

Table 2. Typical daily water consumption for broilers at 20oC (litres per 1000 mixed sex birds)
Age (weeks)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Water Intake (litres) 65 120 180 245 290 330 355 370

Feed Ingredients
Feed ingredients for poultry diets are selected for the nutrients they can provide, the
absence of anti-nutritional or toxic factors, their palatability or effect on voluntary feed
intake, and their cost. The key nutrients that need to be supplied by the dietary
ingredients are amino acids contained in proteins, vitamins and minerals. All life
functions also require energy, obtained from starches, lipids and proteins.

Feed ingredients are broadly classified into cereal grains, protein meals, fats and oils,
minerals, feed additives, and miscellaneous raw materials, such as roots and tubers. These
will be discussed in separate headings below. More information on measuring the
nutrient composition of ingredients and the process of formulating poultry feeds is
available in the section on feed formulation.

Cereal Grains
The term “cereal gains” here includes cereal grains, cereal by-products and distillers dry
grains with soluble (DDGS). Cereal grains are used mainly to satisfy the energy
requirement of poultry. The dominant feed grain is corn, whereas wheat is the
predominant supplier of dietary energy for poultry diets in Europe, Canada, Australia,
New Zealand and the Russian Federation. Of course, in reality, a feed manufacturer will
use any grain in a poultry diet if it is available at a reasonable price. In Australia,
sorghum is a key grain during the summer season instead of wheat, while in the
Scandinavian countries barley and rye are used when these grains are at the right price.
Although the amounts and types of cereal grains included in poultry diets will depend
largely on their current costs relative to their nutritive values, care must be taken to avoid
sudden changes can cause digestive upsets that may reduce productivity and predispose
 the birds to disease. The quality of cereal grains will also depend on seasonal and storage
conditions.

In addition to the cereals themselves, their by-products, such as wheat bran, rice bran and
DDGS, are used widely in poultry feed. Cereal by-products are typically high in fiber, or
non-starch polysaccharides (NSP), which are poorly utilized in poultry and are low in
ME.

Table 1. ME value and key nutrient composition of cereal grains

Ingredient Protein ME Calcium Available P Lysine

(%) (kcal/kg) (%) (%) (%)
Wheat 13.0 3153 0.05 0.20 0.5
Corn 8.5 3300 0.05 0.20 0.3
Sorghum 9.0 3263 0.02 0.15 0.3
Barley 11.5 2795 0.10 0.20 0.4
Rye 12.5 2734 0.05 0.18 0.5
Triticale 15.4 3110 0.05 0.19 0.4
Oats 12.0 2756 0.10 0.20 0.4

Protein Meals
Protein is provided from both vegetable and animal sources, such as oilseed meals,
legumes and abattoir and fish processing by-products.

Vegetable Protein Sources

Vegetable protein sources usually come as meal or cake, the by-product of oilseed crops.
The main oilseed crops include soybean, rapeseed/canola, sunflower, palm kernel, copra,
linseed peanut and sesame seed. After the oil is extracted, the remaining residue is used
as feed ingredient. Oilseed meals make up 20-30% of a poultry diet. Inclusion levels do
vary among formulations for different species and for the same species in different
regions.

The main vegetable protein sources used in Australian poultry diets are soybean and
canola. Other sources like cottonseed, sunflower, peas and Lupins may be included in
poultry feed formulations if these are available at a reasonable price.

Many oilseeds and legumes contain anti-nutritive factors. Some of these anti-nutritive
factors can be destroyed by heat and are used in heat-treated meals. New cultivars of
some oilseeds and legumes have been developed that are naturally low in anti-nutritive
factors (ANF), permitting higher levels of the unprocessed grains to be included in
poultry diets without ill-effect. The typical energy values and nutrient composition of
vegetable protein sources are shown in Table 2.
 Table 2. ME values and Nutrient composition of vegetable protein sources

Ingredient Protein ME Calcium Available P Lysine Main Anti-

(%) (kcal/kg) (%) (%) (%) nutritional factor
Soybean meal 48.0 2557 0.20 0.37 3.2 Trypsin inhibitor
Canola meal 37.5 2000 0.66 0.47 2.2 Glucosinolates
Cottonseed meal 41.0 2350 0.15 0.48 1.7 Gossypol
Sunflower meal 46.8 2205 0.30 0.50 1.6 High fibre
Peas 23.5 2550 0.10 0.20 1.6 Trypsin inhibitor
Lupins 34.5 3000 0.20 0.20 1.7 Toxic alkaloid

Soybean Canola Seed Lupins (Lupinus Angustifolius)

Animal Protein Sources

The main animal protein sources used in poultry diets are meat meal, meat and bone
meal, fish meal, poultry by-product meal, blood meal and feather meal. Although the
production of animal protein for human consumption has been under continual pressure
and marred by much controversy, the world-wide and domestic consumption of animal
protein continues to grow and much of the future supply of meat protein will come from
poultry. With increased animal protein production there will be increased demand for
feed and, in particular, a demand for ingredients high in protein and energy.

There are some challenges associated with the use of animal protein sources. First, food
safety is the most important concern people have about the recycling of animal protein
meals back through animals as feed ingredients. This is based on the links between the
prion disease bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE – mad cow disease) and a variant
Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease in humans.
 Table 3. ME values Nutrient levels in selected animal protein meals

Nutrient Meat & Bone Blood Feather Poultry

ME (MJ/kg) 11.2 15.2 13.7 13.1
Protein (%) 50.4 88.9 81.0 60.0
Fat (%) 10.0 1.0 7.0 13.0
Calcium (%) 10.3 0.4 0.3 3.0
Phosphorus (%) 5.1 0.3 0.5 1.7
Lysine (%) 2.6 7.1 2.3 3.1
Methionine (%) 0.7 0.6 0.6 1.0
Cystine (%) 0.7 0.5 4.3 1.0
Source: adapted from Hamilton (2002)

Animal protein meals provide a good source of essential amino acids (e.g. lysine and
methionine) and are also good sources of energy and minerals (particularly calcium and
available phosphorus). However, there can be significant variation in availability
(absorption and retention) of amino acids due to the day to day variation in inputs as well
as processing conditions (temperature, moisture, pressure and time). Quality should
include measurements that indicate moisture; nutrient availability (particularly essential
amino acids); levels of minerals (for example, calcium can vary from 8–12%; phosphorus
from 4–6%); and stability of fat (all meals should be stabilised with an antioxidant).

Table 4. ME values and nutrient composition of selected animal protein sources

Ingredient Protein ME Calcium Available P Lysine

(%) (kcal/kg) (%) (%) (%)
Meat meal 50.0 2500 8.00 4.00 3.6
Fish meal 60.0 2720 6.50 3.50 5.3
Poultry by-product 60.0 2950 3.50 2.10 3.4
meal
Blood meal 80.0 2690 0.28 0.28 6.9
Feather meal 85.0 3016 0.20 0.75 1.7

Fats and Oils

Fats and oils, collectedly termed lipids, are regularly used in poultry feed to satisfy the
energy need of the animal as lipids have more than twice the amount of ME compared
with carbohydrates or proteins per kg weight. Lipids are also an important carrier for fat-
soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K) as wells for the provision of an essential fatty acid,
linoleic acid, in the diet. A variety of fats and oils are used in feed, including lipids of
animal origins (usually fats, i.e., tallow, lard, except fish oil) and lipids of vegetable
origin (usually oils, i.e., soy oil, canola/rapeseed oil, sunflower oil, linseed oil, palm oil,
cottonseed oil). In practical feed formulation, the level of lipids rarely exceeds 4% in
compound feed. However, even a small decrease in digestibility can cost dearly in terms
of dietary energy. Like any other nutrient, a varying proportion of lipids are undigested
depending on their sources and the species and age of the animal to which they are fed.
Some of the data are summarized in Table 5.

Table 5. Lipid source and bird age on total tract digestibility of lipids
Lipid source Digestibility (%) Bird age (week) Digestibility (%)
Tallow 73.6 1 53.2

Soy oil 85.0 2 80.7

Tallow-soy blend 75.4 3 85.9
Poultry fat 82.1 5 85.7
Palm oil 77.2 Average 76.4
Tancharoenrat 2012.

Minerals and Vitamins

Minerals are vital for normal growth and development in poultry, such as bone formation
and body processes such as enzyme activation. Some minerals such calcium and
phosphorus are required in large quantities. For example, laying hens require between
3.5-4% calcium, 0.3-0.4% available phosphorus and 0.2% sodium in their diets for egg
production. Other minerals, such as copper, iron, manganese, zinc, selenium, cobalt,
iodine and molybdenum, are required in milligram quantities but deficiency of these
minerals will lead to serious health problems in mild cases and death in severe cases.

Similarly, vitamins are essential for the body systems of poultry. Both fat soluble (A, D,
E, K) and water soluble (biotin, choline, folic acid, niacin, riboflavin, thiamine,
pyridoxine, pantothenic acid and B12) are needed in the diet to maintain proper health
and wellbeing of poultry.

Anti-Nutritional Factors
Anti-nutritional factors are substances that when present in animal feed or water reduce
the availability of one or more nutrients. It is important to have knowledge of anti-
nutritional factors because they can adversely affect the health of your poultry flock.

Plants contain starch polysaccharides and non-starch polysaccharides (NSPs). A

polysaccharide is a chain of sugar molecules (also known as monosaccharides) linked
together. Polysaccharides are identified based on the carbon atoms of each sugar involved
in the bond and the orientation of the hemiacetal oxygen atom (alpha/α or beta/ß). Some
polysaccharides are anti-nutritional factors.

Starch is made up of glucose molecules connected together in what is referred to as an α-

glycosidic link. In starch, the glucose molecules are connected by α-(1→4) linkages with
a few α-(1→6) linkages. The α-(1→4) and α-(1→6) linkages in starch are easily broken
by endogenous enzymes in birds and mammals. The α-(1→2) linkages between glucose
and fructose in sucrose and the ß-(1→4) linkage between glucose and galactose in lactose
also are easily broken during digestion. All other glycosidic bonds are resistant to
endogenous digestive enzymes of animals. They can be digested by microbe-derived
enzymes.

NSPs contain sugars other than glucose and/or have linkages other than the α-(1→4) and
α-(1→6) linkages common in sugar. An example of an NSP is cellulose. Like starch,
cellulose is a chain of glucose molecules, but the molecules have ß-(1→4) linkages
between them. The different orientation of the ß-links (compared to α-links) makes them
resistant to digestion by endogenous digestive enzymes of animals. NSPs are part of plant
cell walls and are closely associated with other polysaccharides or non-carbohydrate
materials such as protein and lignin. These associations affect the behavior of the NSPs,
especially with regard to solubility. NSPs generally are categorized as water-soluble or
insoluble. Plants generally contain a mixture of both water-soluble and insoluble NSPs;
the ratio of the two types changes with type and stage of maturity of the plant. Cellulose
is insoluble in water and is considered fiber. Arabinoxylans and beta-glucans, two other
NSPs, are partially soluble in water. Most NSPs adversely affect digestion in animals
consuming them. Soluble NSPs affect the viscosity of the material in the digestive tract.
This action, affects the ability of the digestive enzymes to reach their target. Absorption
of any released nutrients is also reduced. This reduction in nutrient absorption results in
reduced feed efficiency. The sticky nature of the digestive material also can result in the
collection of sticky material around the vent of a chicken.

Common anti-nutritional factors include the following substances:

Arabinoxylans
Beta-glucans
Cyclopropenoid fatty acids
Gossypol
L-canavanine
Lectins
Phytate
Protease inhibitors
Saponins
Tannins
 NUTRITION REQUIREMENTS OF MEAT CHICKENS (BROILERS)

Meat chickens or ‘broilers’

The intake of nutrients is defined by the nutrient levels in the feed and the amount of feed
consumed. Nutrient requirements of meat chickens (broilers) are outlined in Table 1.

Table 1. Body weight and cumulative feed consumption for male and female broilers
Male Female
Age (weeks) Body weight (g) Cumulative Body weight (g) Cumulative
Feed Intake (g) Feed Intake (g)
0 40 0 40 0
1 170 150 165 145
2 450 480 420 460
3 865 1120 780 1030
4 1410 2020 1250 1825
5 2250 3200 1750 2830
6 2700 4500 2300 4020
7 3350 6000 2800 5400
8 3900 7400 3300 6800
9 4400 8800 3700 8200
Source: Poultry CRC

Nutrient Levels For Broiler Diets

Feeding strategies for broiler chickens will vary depending on the target market for the
final product. Strategies for feeding broilers destined for the whole bird market will differ
from strategies for broilers destined to be sold as pieces. Furthermore, the nutrient intake
of fast growing broilers must be carefully controlled to prevent metabolic diseases such
as ascites and leg weakness.
 Table 2 provides data on typical levels of selected nutrients for broiler diets.

Nutrients Units Starter Grower Finisher

0-10 days 11-24 days >25 days
Protein % 22-25 21-23 19-21
Metabolisable energy Mj/Kg 12.60 13.30 13.50
Kcal/kg 3010 3175 3225
Total Arginine % 1.48 1.31 1.11
Digestible Arginine % 1.33 1.18 1.00
Total Lysine % 1.44 1.25 1.05
Digestible Lysine % 1.27 1.10 0.92
Total Methionine % 0.51 0.45 0.39
Digestible Methionine % 0.47 0.42 0.36
Total Methionine +Cystine % 1.09 0.97 0.83
Digestible Methionine +Cystine % 0.94 0.84 0.72

Total Threonine % 0.93 0.82 0.71

Digestible Threonine % 0.80 0.70 0.61
Total Trypophan % 0.25 0.22 0.19
Digestible Tryptophan % 0.22 0.19 0.17
Total Valine % 1.09 0.96 0.81
Digestible Valine % 0.94 0.83 0.70
Calcium % 1.0 0.90 0.85
Av.phosphorous % 0.50 0.45 0.42
Sodium % 0.16 0.16 0.16
 Nutrient Requirements of Egg Laying Chickens

Table 1 provides data on typical feed consumption for modern brown-egg laying hens in
relation to target body weight. From Week 18, hens start to enter their laying period,
reaching peak of lay around 32 weeks of age, and typically maintaining egg production
until 65-68 weeks of age. Feed intake will increase to a steady level of 100-105 grams per
day and hen body weight will reach a mature level of 1700-1800 grams.

Table 1. Body weights and associated feed consumption for a brown-egg laying breed during the
growing period

Age Body Feed consumption Age Body weight Feed

(wk) weight (g) (g/bird/day) (wk) (g) consumption
(g/bird/day)
1 70 13 10 870-970 56
2 115 20 11 960-1080 61
3 190 25 12 1050-1117 66
4 280 29 13 1130-1250 70
5 380-390 33 14 1210-1310 73
6 480-500 37 15 1290-1370 75
7 580-620 41 16 1360-1430 77
8 680-750 46 17 1500-1540 80
9 770-860 51

Growing Period Nutrition Recommendations

Chicks require a diet that can provide the nutrients needed for rapid growth and feather
development. Chicks are given relatively high levels of energy, protein and the vitamins
 and minerals for the starter period. Once the chicks are fully feathered their energy
requirements are reduced. Feeding management for layer pullets aims to maintain a
growth rate that will lead to the pullet reaching sexual maturity at the desired age while
avoiding obesity. The stage at which a pullet will start laying eggs is affected by age,
body weight and day length. On a percentage basis, layer pullet diets have lower energy
and protein levels than chick diets. Different breeders recommend different feeding
strategies for their birds, including the number of different diets fed during the pullet
growing stage. Many breeders recommend a pre-lay diet that increases some of the
nutrient levels, such as calcium, that will be required by the bird when it begins to lay
eggs. Table 2 provides data on typical nutrient levels for layer diets for the growing
period.

Table 2. Growing period nutrition recommendations

Nutrient Units Starter Grower Developer Pre-Layer
0 – 6 wks 6 – 12 wks 12 – 15 wks 15 wks –
Prod.
Protein % Min 20.0 17.50 15.50 16.50
Metabolizable Energy Mj/Kg 11.5-12.4 11.5-12.6 11.3-12.4 11.4-12.4

Metabolizable Energy Kcal/Kg 2750-2970 2750-3025 2700-2970 2725-2980

Kcal/Lb 1250-1350 1250-1370 1225-1350 1235-1350

Lysine % Min 1.10 0.90 0.66 0.80

Methionine % Min 0.48 0.41 0.32 0.38

Methionine + Cystine % Min 0.82 0.71 0.58 0.65

Tryptophan % Min 0.20 0.19 0.18 0.19

Threonine % Min 0.73 0.55 0.52 0.55
Calcium % Min 1.00 1.00 1.00 2.75*

Av Phosphorus % Min 0.45 0.43 0.42 0.40

Sodium % Min 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.18

Chloride % Min 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.18

*At least 30-65% of the added limestone should have a minimum particle size of 2250
Microns.

Nutrient Levels for Layer Diets

The aim of layer diets is to optimize egg production (in terms of egg numbers, egg size or
egg mass), provide the nutrition required to safeguard health and maintain the desired body
weight. As with layer pullets, different breeders recommend different feeding strategies for
 their birds, including the number of different diets fed during the laying stage. Calcium is
increased for egg shell formation. Table 3 provides data on typical nutrient levels for layer
diets. Feed intake increases to 100-105g per day

Table 3. Examples of layer diets (at 100 grams per day intake level)

Nutrients Units 1-32 wks 32-44 wks 44-55 wks > 55 wks

Metabolizable Energy MJ/kg 11.60-11.97 11.41-11.97 11.20-11.97 10.68-11.83

kcal/kg 2770-2860 2725-2860 2675-2860 2550-2825

Crude protein % 19.80 17.50 17.00 16.00

Lysine % 1.02 0.93 0.89 0.83

Methionine % 0.51 0.46 0.41 0.38

Linoleic acid % 1.10 1.60 1.60 1.60

Calcium % 4.40 4.25 4.50 4.75

Av.phosphorous % 0.48 0.40 0.36 0.35

 NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS OF TURKEYS
The principles behind formulating turkey diets are similar to those for broiler chickens.
Table 1 provides data on typical nutrient levels for turkey diets.

Commercial turkey flock

Table 1. Examples of turkey diets

Nutrients Starter Starter Grower Grower Developer Finisher

1 2 3 4 5 6

Crude protein (%) 28 26 23 21.5 18 16

ME (kcal/kg) 2900 3000 3050 3100 3200 3300

Lysine (%) 1.70 1.60 1.50 1.30 1.15 1.00
Methionine (%) 0.62 0.55 0.50 0.47 0.42 0.34
Calcium (%) 1.4 1.3 1.2 1.3 1.0 0.90
Av. phosphorous 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.6 0.5 0.40
(%)
Sodium (%) 0.18 0.18 0.17 0.17 0.17 0.17

Source: Commercial Poultry Nutrition, 2nd Ed. S. Leeson and J. D. Summers. Pub
University Books, Canada, 1997
 NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS OF DUCKS
Ducks typically lay more eggs than chickens. Commercial chickens lay about 250 eggs a
year, but commercial ducks can lay 300-350 eggs per year. Large chicken eggs weigh 24-
26 ounces per dozen while duck eggs weigh 32-34 ounces per dozen. Duck eggs are also
higher in omega-3 fatty acids and stay fresher longer. While ducks consume 20-30%
more feed per dozen eggs produced than chickens, they can forage to meet some of their
nutritional requirements. Ducks lay more than 95-98% of their eggs in the morning by 9
AM so eggs can be collected in the morning before the ducks are let out to forage during
the day.
In commercial operations, the three breeds or crosses of ducks most commonly raised for
meat production include

• the white Pekin (Anas platyrhynchos),

• Muscovy (Cairina moschata),
• Hybrid, or mule, ducks, which are a cross of the first two breeds.

Because of different growth rates, the nutritional requirements for the three duck types
differ somewhat. Pekin ducklings are typically marketed at 6 to 7 lb., obtained at seven to
nine weeks of age, having consumed 20 to 25 lb. of feed. Mule and Muscovy ducks take
somewhat longer to reach the same weight and require more feed. Although Muscovy
ducks take longer to reach market weight, they do not have as much fat as the Pekin
breed.
NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS
Some early research indicates that ducklings have a higher protein requirement for the
first two weeks of life (20% of the diet should be protein) but the requirement decreases
rapidly after this age. Research has shown that there is no benefit in feeding a diet
composed of more than 16% protein (in a well-balanced feed) after two weeks of age.

For a newly hatched duckling, a duck or waterfowl starter or grower feed is required. In
most feed stores, these feeds contain 18% to 20% protein. Although duck-specific diets
are best, if your local feed store does not sell duck feed, A chick starter or grower diet is
formulated to meet the needs of egg-type chicks, which have a lower niacin requirement
than ducks. If you use a chick starter or grower diet, you need to add supplemental niacin
to the ducks’ water.
A broiler starter or grower feed is formulated for the needs of the fast-growing cross-
breed of Cornish and White Rock, which has a niacin requirement similar to that of
ducks. The protein content, however, may be higher than ducks require in the later stages
of growth. Turkey or game bird starter or grower diets contain sufficient niacin for ducks,
but the much-higher protein content can be detrimental to the health of ducklings.

FEEDING METHODS
In the 1930s ducks were typically given a wet mash at different times throughout the day.
Today feed is typically given as pellets. Pelleting reduces the labor required in feeding
ducks, increases growth performance, and reduces feed waste

The use of antibiotics appears to be unwarranted, and some antibiotics and 3-nitrophenylarsonic
acid (a growth promoter) can be toxic. Ducklings should be started on a diet containing 20%
protein within 36 hours of hatching. Maintain this protein level for 2 weeks and then reduce it to
17% until marketing. Higher protein rations may be used if faster growth is required. As high-
energy rations tend to cause too much fat to be deposited, they are not recommended.

Both riboflavin and niacin must be added to the diet because deficiencies of these B
group vitamins restrict growth and development in ducklings. Grains, which form the
bulk of the ration, are deficient in these vitamins. Salt generally makes droppings more
watery and should not be added to rations. One-quarter per cent (0.25%) of common salt
is not harmful, but ducklings up to the age of 3 weeks are very sensitive to salt. Give
ducklings free access to feed crumbles and give them starter feed (in shallow trays) up
until they are 2 weeks of age.
Table 1. Minimum basic nutritional requirements of ducklings

Nutrient Starter Grower Breeder

Protein (%) 20-22 17-19 16
Calcium (%) 1 1 3
Fat (%) 5 5 5
Methionine + Cysteine(%) 0.76 0.77 0.80
Lysine 1.16 0.90 0.94
Arginine 0.94 1.0 0.60
Threonine 0.84 0.66 0.60
Phosphorus (%) 0.40 0.35 0.40
Manganese (mg/kg) 60 50 40
Niacin (mg/kg) 55 40 55
Pantothenic acid (mg/kg) 15 10 20
Pyridoxine (mg/kg) 3 3 3
Riboflavin (mg/kg) 10 6 10
Vitamin A (mg/kg) 3100 1720 4130
Vitamin D3 (mg/kg) 300 22.5 62.5
Vitamin K (mg/kg) 2.5 2 2.5
Energy (kcal/kg) 2900 3000 2750

Rations For Growing Ducks

If mash is fed to the ducklings, moisten it slightly with water. (Table 2 gives ration
mixtures.) Give five equally spaced feedings throughout the day and make sure they do
not have more than they can eat at one feeding.

Cheap food, such as stale bread and kitchen refuse, can greatly reduce feeding costs when
used in the ration correctly. These substitute ingredients should be fed only to ducklings
that are over the age of 2 weeks. Kitchen refuse should be boiled to kill any harmful
bacteria and to make the feed more palatable before it is fed to ducklings. After boiling,
thoroughly mix the refuse with the mash. Because the quality and type of food from
kitchen refuse varies tremendously, no general recommendations can be made for
proportions of refuse to mash.

Bread has a protein content of about 9%, and can be used to provide up to 40% of the
total ingredients. Use it to replace equal amounts of crushed grain, but adjust so the
reduced protein and amino acid content are increased.

Ducklings should have access to insoluble grit, and to plenty of fresh drinking water in a
container that enables immersion of the head.
Table 2. Rations for growing ducks*

Ingredients Day-old to marketing

Ration 1 (%) Ration 2 (%)
Crushed grain 46 19
Bread – 40
Bran 18 10
Pollard 18 10
Meat meal 10 11
Soybean meal 3 3
Lucerne meal 3 4
Milk powder 2 3
Ground limestone – –
Total 100 100
*A vitamin and mineral premix should be added to the rations in Table 2.

Rations For Breeding Stock

Rations for breeding hens are usually adequate for breeding ducks. Rear potential
breeding stock on a similar diet to that given to ducklings raised for meat consumption.
When ducklings are about 8 weeks of age, transfer them to a breeder’s ration. Breeding
ducks should then be restrictively fed to about 80% of their normal daily feed intake until
2 weeks before the onset of egg production. This will prevent the ducks from becoming
over-fat.

Breeding stock require the basic nutritional levels given in Table 1. The same rules apply
to feeding both meat ducklings and breeding stock. Ducks can be fed on both mash and
pelleted feed, but crumbles and pellets are more economical because less feed is wasted
and weight gains are higher.

Also, mash tends to stick to ducks’ bills, causing some birds to choke. Crumbles or
pellets can be placed in hoppers so ducks have access to them at all times, or wet mash
may be fed twice daily. Each duck will eat about 225 g of feed per day. Provide about
40% of this in the morning feed and 60% in the evening feed. Ducks must have access to
unlimited soluble grit, such as shell grit, and to unlimited fresh drinking water
Table 3. Rations for breeding ducks*

Ingredients Breeders
Ration 1 (%) Ration 2 (%)
Crushed grain 39 20
Bread – 40
Bran 18 10
Pollard 25 10
Meatmeal 6 8
Soybean meal – –
Lucerne meal 5 5
Milk powder 5 5
Ground limestone 2 2
Total 100 100
*A vitamin and mineral premix should be added to the rations in Table 3.

Feed Consumption
Table 4 serves only as a guide to expected feed consumption. The actual amount of feed
eaten will depend upon factors such as quality of feed, strain of ducks and method of
management.

Table 4. Average feed consumption of Pekin ducks (mixed sexes)

Age (weeks) Feed for week (kg) Cumulative feed (kg)

0-1 0.15 0.15
1 0.40 0.55
2 0.75 1.30
3 0.95 2.25
4 1.00 3.25
5 1.30 4.55
6 1.65 6.20
7 1.80 8.00
8 1.60 9.60
 NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS OF GEESE

The digestive tract of the goose is similar to that of any other poultry species, but it has
some adaptations that enable geese to digest large amounts of high-fiber feedstuffs. The
gizzard of a goose uses higher pressures for grinding food than that of a chicken or duck.
Geese are excellent foragers.

Table 1: gives the minimum nutritional requirements of geese. Table 2 and Table 4 give
suggested rations for goslings and breeding stock.

Table 1. Minimum basic nutritional requirements of geese

Nutrient Grower Breeder
Protein, starter 20% 16%
Protein, finisher 16% –
Energy 11 100 kJ/kg 10 500 kJ/kg
Fibre 4% 5%
Fat 5% 4%
Calcium 1% 3%
Methionine 0.30% 0.25%
Phosphorus 0.60% 0.50%
Vitamin A, as retinyl (acetate) 3100 mg/kg 41 300 mg/kg
Vitamin D3 300 mg/kg 65 mg/kg
Riboflavin 10 mg/kg 10 mg/kg
Calcium pantothenate 15 mg/kg 20 mg/kg
Niacin 55 mg/kg 55 mg/kg
Manganese 60 mg/kg 40 mg/kg
 Gosling feeding
Goslings show a rapid weight gain during the first 4 weeks, they need more protein. The
heavy breeds of geese weigh approximately 85–100 g at day-old and may weigh up to 1.6
kg at 4 weeks of age. Provided there is plenty of green feed, goslings can begin to graze
at just a few weeks of age.
The live weight of geese will increase by up to 50% during their first 2 months of life.
Goslings grow more rapidly when housed and fed a completely prepared and well-
balanced ration than when they graze. To 10 weeks of age, goslings reared in cages will
weigh up to 20% more than floor-reared goslings. Day-old birth weight and rate of
growth in the first month influence a gosling’s weight at 10 weeks.
A starter diet containing 20% protein is recommended for the first 4 weeks in conjunction
with good grazing. After 4 weeks, feed goslings a finisher ration containing 16% protein.
Starter and finisher rations may be fed either wet or dry, in mash or pelleted form.

Table 2. Suggested rations for goslings (a vit and min premix should be added to these rations)
Ingredients Starter (%) Finisher (%)
Wheat meal 34.75 40.75
Sorghum meal 20.00 30.00
Bran 10.00 6.00
Pollard 8.00 6.00
Coconut meal – –
Meat meal 18.00 12.00
Lucerne meal 5.00 3.00
Milk powder 4.00 2.00
Ground limestone – –
Salt 0.25 0.25
Total 100.00 100.00

Restricted feeding program

Where good grazing is available, practice supplementary feed restriction when the
finisher ration is fed. Allow 500 g feed per head per week for goslings between the ages
of 4 and 8 weeks, then 1 kg feed per head per week to 12 weeks of age. At the end of the
restricted feeding program, allow goslings an unrestricted ration to marketing.
The type of restricted feeding program adopted depends on many factors, including
• The required gosling weight for marketing,
 • The amount of pasture available,
• The quality of the pasture and the time of year. Suggested programs for restricted
feeding are given in Table 3.
Table 3. An indication of expected performance from a restricted feeding program
Program Age (weeks) Bodyweight (Kg)
Complete ad lib feeding to marketing. 10 >4.0
Full complete feeding to 4 weeks of age. 15 5.0
Pasture plus 130 g of complete feed to 12 weeks of age.
Full complete feeding to marketing.
Full complete feeding to 3 weeks of age. 21 6.5
Pasture only to 18 weeks of age.
Full complete feeding to marketing.

Feeding breeder
Good grazing for all breeding stock is needed for up to 6 weeks before the breeding
season. Then, up to and during the breeding season, feed geese a ration with about 16%
protein. Rations for laying hens are suitable. Breeding geese in full lay should be given
about 200 g of prepared feed a day, depending on the amount of pasture or green feed
available.
Table 4. Suggested rations for breeding stock (a vitamin and mineral premix should be added to
these rations)
Ingredients Ration 1 (%) Ration 2 (%)
Wheat meal 30.75 57.75
Sorghum meal 20.00 22.00
Bran 12.00 –
Pollard 12.00 –
Coconut meal 8.00 –
Meat meal 10.00 13.00
Lucerne meal 5.00 5.00
Ground limestone 2.00 2.00
Salt 0.25 0.25
Total 100.00 100.00
Geese should have access to both soluble and insoluble grit at all times. Soluble grit is in
the form of limestone chips (5 mm) or shell grit, whilst insoluble grit is usually supplied
as blue metal or basalt chips screened to 5–6 mm.
Grazing pasture
Geese are more like grazing animals than any other type of poultry. Their beak and tongue
are particularly well-equipped for grazing. The beak has sharp interlocking serrated edges
designed to easily cut and divide grass and other plant tissue. The tongue at the tip is
covered with hard, hair-like projections, pointing towards the throat, which quickly convey
the pieces of grass and other vegetable material into the throat. This rough covering on the
point of the tongue enables geese to bite off plants even closer to the ground than sheep can.
Because of this, overstocking must be avoided as the ground will become bare.

Because geese have virtually no crop in which to hold feed, they tend to feed and graze
frequently. In summer they may continue to graze and feed at night.

A system of rotational grazing should be practiced to ensure geese have access to good
pasture all the time. Where paddocks are fenced off and allowed to spell, the pasture will
regrow quickly and the paddocks will be more hygienic. Overseas research has shown
overall performance of breeding geese is greatly improved when they have access to good
pasture.

If pasture for grazing is not available then breeders should be fed chopped green feed. Geese
prefer to pick their own green feed and may reject cut grass unless it is fresh and very finely
chopped.

Geese can be very selective in the pasture they eat and tend to pick out the more palatable
pastures. They reject narrow-leaved tough grasses and select the more succulent clover and
grasses.

The stocking density for geese on pasture will vary depending on the quality of the pasture
and the age and size of the geese. But as a guide, growing geese can be stocked at a density
of 50–100 birds/ha, and breeding geese at about 20 birds/ha.

During the non-breeding season, breeding geese only need access to pasture to fulfil their
total feed requirements.