Internal Assessment

of
Animal nutrition and feeding practices

Submitted To
Thaneshwar Pandey
Professor
Department of Animal Nutrition

SUBMITTED BY
Sumit jaishwal.

Roll no.: 94
B. sc.ag 5th semester, Section "B"
Q.1 Nutritional requirement and Nutritional disease of poultry.
Ans: They are as follows;
POULTRY NUTRITION.

Animals eat to acquire the energy and building materials that they need to live and grow.
Animals use energy to perform normal body functions such as breathing, walking, eating,
digesting, and maintaining body temperature. Nutrients provide poultry the energy and
material needed for the development of bone, flesh, feathers, and eggs. Each of these
compounds is important in providing poultry the nutrients they need, and a deficit of even one
can have serious health consequences for poultry.

Feed has six major components:

Water

Carbohydrates

Fats

Proteins

Minerals

Vitamins

WATER

Water is often overlooked, but it is one of the most important nutrients. An animal can live
without food longer than it can live without water. In a laying flock, a shortage of water for just
a few hours can result in reduced egg production, so clean water should be available at all
times. . A laying hen drinks about 25% of her daily water intake during the last two hour of
daylight.Water plays an important role in the body of an animal. Water softens feed and carries
it through the digestive tract. As a component of blood (90% of blood content), water carries
nutrients from the digestive tract to cells and carries away waste products. A baby chick is
composed of about 80% water. Even though this percentage decreases as a bird gets older, the
need for water remains. There is no precise quantity requirement for water because there are
several factors that affect the amount of water a bird needs: age, body condition, diet,
temperature, water quality, and humidity. As a rule of thumb, poultry consume twice as much
water as feed.

CARBOHYDRATES

Carbohydrates (compounds with carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen) are an energy source for
animals and make up the largest portion of a poultry diet. Carbohydrates are typically eaten in
the form of starch, sugar, cellulose, and other non-starch compounds. Poultry typically do not
digest cellulose and the non-starch compounds, referred to as crude fiber, well. However,
poultry are able to use most starches and sugars well. Important sources of carbohydrates in
poultry diets include corn, wheat, barley, and other grains.

FATS

Fats have two and one-quarter times the calories of carbohydrates by weight. Fat provides nine
calories of energy per gram, while carbohydrates while carbohydrates provide only four. At
room temperature, saturated fats are solids and unsaturated fats are liquid. Examples of
saturated fats that can be used in poultry diets include tallow, lard, poultry fat, and choice
white grease.

Fats are composed of smaller compounds called fatty acids. Fatty acids are responsible for cell
membrane integrity and hormone synthesis. Although there are many different fatty acids,
poultry have a specific requirement for one—linoleic acid—so it must be included in the diet.
Linoleic acid is considered an essential fatty acid because poultry cannot generate it from other
nutrients (for example, by converting one fatty acid to another).Fat must be present in the diet
for poultry to absorb the fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K. In addition to its role in nutrition,
fat is added to feed to reduce grain dust. Fat addition also improves the palatability of feed
(that is, makes the feed more appetizing).

PROTEIN

Proteins are complex compounds made up of smaller units called amino acids. After a bird
consumes protein, the digestive process breaks down the protein into amino acids. The amino
acids are then absorbed by the blood and transported to cells that convert the individual amino
acids into the specific proteins required by the animal. Proteins are used in the construction of
body tissues such as muscles, nerves, cartilage, skin, feathers, beak, and so on. Egg white is also
high in protein.

Poultry diets typically contain a variety of feedstuffs because no single ingredient is able to
supply all the necessary amino acids in the right levels.. Protein quality is based on the presence
of the essential amino acids. For poultry, methionine and lysine are the two most critical amino
acids. Deficiencies of either of these will lead to a significant drop in productivity and the health
of the flock. Commercial poultry diets typically contain methionine and lysine supplements.
Because of these supplements, the feed can contain less total protein; without supplements,
the feed would have to contain excessive amounts of the other amino acids in order to meet
the methionine and lysine requirements.
The main sources of protein in poultry diets are plant proteins such as soybean meal, canola
meal, corn gluten meal, and so on.

MINERALS

Minerals play a role in bone formation, but minerals are also needed for several other
important functions, including the formation of blood cells, blood clotting, enzyme activation,
and energy metabolism and for proper muscle function

Poultry require higher levels of macrominerals and lower levels of microminerals in their diets.
The microminerals include copper, iodine, iron, manganese, selenium, and zinc. Although
poultry have lower requirements for microminerals, these minerals play essential roles in the
body’s metabolism. Iodine, for example, is required to produce thyroid hormones that regulate
energy metabolism. Similarly, zinc is involved in many enzyme-based reactions in the body, and
iron aids oxygen transportation within the body.

The macrominerals include calcium, phosphorus, chlorine, magnesium, potassium, and sodium.
Many people are familiar with calcium’s role in proper bone formation and eggshell quality, but
calcium’s important role in blood-clot formation and muscle contraction is less well known.
Phosphorus is important in bone development, and it is part of cell membranes and is required
for many metabolic functions. Chlorine is important in the formation of hydrochloric acid in the
stomach and thus plays a role in digestion. Sodium and potassium are electrolytes important
for metabolic, muscle, and nerve functions. Magnesium also assists with metabolic and muscle
functions.

Grains are low in minerals, so mineral supplements are added to commercial poultry feeds.
Limestone or oyster shell are common sources of calcium. Dicalcium phosphate is a common
source of phosphorus and calcium. The microminerals are usually supplied in a mineral premix.

VITAMINS

Vitamins are a group of organic compounds that poultry require in small quantities. Despite the
low requirement levels, vitamins are essential for normal body functions, growth, and
reproduction. A deficiency of one or more vitamins can lead to a number of diseases or
syndromes.

Vitamins are divided into two categories: fat-soluble and water-soluble. The fat-soluble
vitamins are A, D, E, and K. Vitamin A is required for normal growth and development of
epithelial tissue (skin and the linings of the digestive, reproductive, and respiratory tracts) and
reproduction. Vitamin D3 is required for normal growth, bone development, and eggshell
formation. Vitamin K is essential for blood clot formation.

The water-soluble vitamins include vitamin C and the B vitamins. The B vitamins include vitamin
B12, biotin, folacin, niacin, pantothenic acid, pyridoxine, riboflavin, and thiamin. The B vitamins
are involved in many metabolic functions, including energy metabolism.

NUTRITIONAL DISEASE OF POULTRY.

1.Shell quality defect:

It is caused by lacking of calcium in the feed dietary.

2.Canabilism and feather picking :

It occur in flock fed fiber-free diets. It is considered that chicken diet should contain 3-4%
crude fiber. A methionine deficiency may lead to feather picking apart from limiting wt.gain.

3.fatty liver syndrome :

It is one of the most important metabolic disorder observed during high production period In
laying hens. FLS in chicken is result of excessive accumulation of fat when lipoprotein transport
is disrupted.

4.Rickets:

It is caused by deficiency or imbalancing of circulating calcium, vit D3 or phosphorous. This

condition result in soft bones, which will often become bowed, there by restricting the birds
ability to stand and walk.

5. caged layer fatigue ( CLF):

CLF is described as a nutritional disease & major cause of death in laying hens housed in cages.
The primary cause of CLF is thought to be depletion of the body stores of calcium , usually as a
result of delay in feeding with high calcium feeds during high production .

Q.2 Nutritional requirement and Nutritional disease of swine.

Ans; They are as follows:

NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS OF PIGS

Pigs require a number of essential nutrients to meet their needs for maintenance, growth,
reproduction, lactation, and other functions. The National Research Council (NRC), in its
publication, Nutrient Requirements of Swine (updated in 2012), provides estimates of the
amounts of these nutrients for various classes of swine under average conditions.
Swine require six general classes of nutrients: water, carbohydrates, fats, protein (amino acids),
minerals, and vitamins. Energy, although not a specific nutrient, is an important nutritional
component and is primarily derived from the oxidation of carbohydrates and fats. In addition,
amino acids (from protein) that exceed the animal’s requirements for maintenance and tissue
protein synthesis provide energy when their carbon skeletons are oxidized. Antibiotics,
chemotherapeutic agents, microbial supplements (prebiotics and probiotics), enzymes, and
other feed additives are often added to swine diets to increase the rate and efficiency of gain,
to improve digestibility, and for other purposes, but they are not considered nutrients.

Water:

Pigs should have free and convenient access to water, beginning before weaning. The amount
required varies with age, type of feed, environmental temperature, status of lactation, fever,
high urinary output (as from high salt or protein intake), or diarrhea. Normally, growing pigs
consume ~2–3 kg of water for every kg of dry feed. Lactating sows consume more water
because of the high water content of the milk they produce. Water restriction reduces
performance and milk production and may result in death if the restriction is severe.

Energy:

Energy requirements are expressed as kilocalories (kcal) of digestible energy (DE),

metabolizable energy (ME), or net energy (NE). DE and ME values are used most commonly, but
there is a trend in the industry to formulate diets on the basis of NE. The NRC determines
energy requirements on the basis of NE, and then DE and ME are estimated from NE. Energy
requirements of pigs are influenced by their weight (which influences the maintenance
requirement), their genetic capacity for lean tissue growth or milk production, and the
environmental temperature at which they are housed. The amount of feed consumed by
growing pigs allowed to consume feed ad lib is controlled principally by the energy content of
the diet. If the energy density of the diet is increased by including supplemental fat, voluntary
feed consumption decreases. Pigs fed such a diet generally will gain faster, and efficiency of
gain will improve, but carcass fat may increase. If the diet contains excessive amounts of fiber
(>5%–7%) without commensurate increases in fat, the rate—and especially the efficiency—of
gain are decreased.

Protein and Amino Acids:

Amino acids, normally supplied by dietary protein, are required for maintenance, muscle
growth, development of fetuses and supporting tissues in gestating sows, and milk production
in lactating sows. Of the 22 amino acids, 12 are synthesized by the animal; the other 10 must be
provided in the diet for normal growth. The 10 dietary essential amino acids for swine are
arginine, histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine,
tryptophan, and valine. Cystine and tyrosine can meet a portion of the requirement for
methionine and phenylalanine, respectively. The percentages of crude protein listed in {blank}
Dietary Nutrient Requirements of Growing Pigs Allowed Ad Lib Feed (90% dry matter) a,b,c and
{blank} Reproductive Measures and Dietary Nutrient Requirements of Gestating and Lactating
Sows a,b provide the required levels of lysine (the first limiting amino acid) and sufficient
amounts of the other essential amino acids in diets consisting of corn and soybean meal. The
dietary lysine requirement during the early starter phase is quite high (1.70%) but decreases to
1.53% and 1.40% during the middle and final starter phases, respectively. The requirement
continues to decrease throughout the growing-finishing stage from 1.12% during the early
growing phase to 0.71% during late finishing.

Minerals:

These nutritional elements have many important functions in the body.

Calcium and Phosphorus:

Although used primarily in skeletal growth, calcium and phosphorus play important metabolic
roles in the body and are essential for all stages of growth, gestation, and lactation. The NRC
estimates requirements of 0.66% calcium and 0.56% total phosphorus for growing pigs of 25–
50 kg body wt. The requirements are higher for younger pigs and lower for finishing pigs, but
the ratios of calcium:phosphorus are approximately the same for all weight groups. These levels
are adequate for maximal growth (rate and efficiency of gain), but they do not allow for
maximal bone mineralization. Generally, maximal bone ash and strength can be achieved by
including 0.1%–0.15% additional calcium and phosphorus in the diet.

Sodium and Chloride:

These minerals are provided by common salt, which contains 40% sodium and 60% chloride.
The recommended level of salt is 0.25% in growing and finishing diets, 0.5–0.75% in starter
diets, and 0.5% in sow diets. These levels should provide ample sodium and chloride to meet
the animal’s requirements. Animal, fish, and milk byproducts can contribute some of the
sodium and chloride requirement.

Iron and Copper:

These minerals are involved in many enzyme systems. Both are necessary for formation
of Hgb and, therefore, for prevention of nutritional anemia.
Iodine:
The thyroid gland uses iodine to produce thyroxine, which affects cell activity and
metabolic rate. The iodine requirement of all classes of pigs is 0.14 mg/kg of diet.
Stabilized iodized salt contains 0.007% iodine; when it is fed at sufficient levels to meet
the salt requirement, it will also meet the iodine needs of pigs.

Manganese:
Although essential for normal reproduction and growth, the quantitative requirement
for manganese is not well defined. Manganese at 2–4 mg/kg in the diet is adequate for
growth, but a higher level (25 mg/kg) is needed by sows during gestation and lactation.

Zinc:
Zinc is an important trace mineral with many biologic functions. Grain-soybean meal
diets must contain supplemental zinc to prevent parakeratosis (see Parakeratosis).
Higher levels of zinc may be needed when dietary calcium is excessive, especially in diets
typically high in phytic acid such as corn-soybean meal diets. Pharmacologic levels of
zinc (1,500–3,000 mg/kg) as zinc oxide have consistently been found to increase pig
performance during the postweaning period.

Selenium:
This trace mineral is regulated by the FDA, and the maximal amount of selenium that
can be added to swine diets is 0.3 mg/kg.

Chromium:
This trace mineral, which is a cofactor with insulin, is required by pigs, but the
quantitative requirement has not been established. In some studies, chromium at a
supplemental level of 200 mcg/kg (ppb) improved carcass leanness in finishing pigs and
improved reproductive performance in gestating sows, but these effects have been
somewhat inconsistent.
Cobalt:
Cobalt is present in the vitamin B12 molecule and has no benefit when added to swine
diets in the elemental form.

Vitamins:
Vitamin A:
This fat-soluble vitamin is essential for vision, reproduction, growth and maintenance of
epithelial tissue, and mucous secretions. Vitamin A is found as carotenoid precursors in
 green plant material and yellow corn. β-Carotene is the most active form of the various
carotenes. Unfortunately, only about one-fourth of the total carotene in yellow corn is
in the form of β-carotene. The NRC suggests that for pigs, 1 mg of chemically
determined carotene in corn or a corn-soybean mixture is equal to 267 IU of vitamin A.
Vitamin D:
This antirachitic, fat-soluble vitamin is necessary for proper bone growth and
ossification. Vitamin D occurs as the precursor sterols, ergocalciferol (vitamin D2) and
cholecalciferol (vitamin D3), which are converted to active vitamin D by UV radiation.
Although pigs can use vitamin D2 (irradiated plant sterol) or vitamin D3 (irradiated
animal sterol), they seem to preferentially use D3. Some of the vitamin D requirement
can be met by exposing pigs to direct sunlight for a short period each day. Sources of
vitamin D include irradiated yeast, sun-cured hays, activated plant or animal sterols, fish
oils, and vitamin premixes. For this vitamin, 1 IU is equivalent to 0.025 mg of
cholecalciferol.
Vitamin E:
This fat-soluble vitamin serves as a natural antioxidant in feedstuffs. There are eight
naturally occurring forms of vitamin E, but d-α-tocopherol has the greatest biologic
activity. Vitamin E is required by pigs of all ages and is closely interrelated with
selenium. The vitamin E requirement is 11–16 IU/kg of diet for growing pigs and 44
IU/kg for sows. Some nutritionists recommend higher dietary levels for sows in the
eastern corn belt of the USA, where selenium levels in feeds are likely to be low. Vitamin
E supplementation can only partially obviate a selenium deficiency.

Vitamin K:

This fat-soluble vitamin is necessary to maintain normal blood clotting. The requirement for
vitamin K is low, 0.5 mg/kg of diet. Bacterial synthesis of the vitamin and subsequent
absorption, directly or by coprophagy, generally will meet the requirement for pigs. Although
rare, hemorrhages have been reported in newborn as well as growing pigs, so supplemental
vitamin K is recommended at 2 mg/kg of diet as a preventive measure.

Riboflavin:

This water-soluble vitamin is a constituent of two important enzyme systems involved with
carbohydrate, protein, and fat metabolism. Swine diets are normally deficient in this vitamin,
and the crystalline form is included in premixes. Natural sources include green forage, milk by-
products, brewer’s yeast, legume meals, and some fermentation and distillery by-products.

Niacin (Nicotinic acid):

Niacin is a component of coenzymes involved with metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, and
protein. Pigs can convert excess tryptophan to niacin, but the conversion is inefficient. The
niacin in most cereal grains is completely unavailable to pigs. Swine diets are normally deficient
in this vitamin, and the crystalline form is included in premixes. Natural sources of niacin
include fish and animal byproducts, brewer’s yeast, and distiller’s solubles. Based on recent
research, the NRC increased the niacin requirement to 30 ppm during all phases of growth.

Pantothenic Acid:

This vitamin is a component of coenzyme A, an important enzyme in energy metabolism. Swine

diets are deficient in this vitamin, and the crystalline salt, d-calcium pantothenate, is included in
vitamin premixes. Natural sources of pantothenic acid include green forage, legume meals, milk
products, brewer’s yeast, fish solubles, and certain other byproducts.

Vitamin B12 :

This vitamin, also called cyanocobalamin, contains cobalt and has numerous important
metabolic functions. Feedstuffs of plant origin are devoid of this vitamin, but animal products
are good sources. Although some intestinal synthesis of this vitamin occurs, vitamin B12 is
generally included in vitamin premixes for swine.

Thiamine:

This vitamin has important roles in the body, but it is of little practical significance for swine
because grains and other feed ingredients supply ample amounts to meet the requirement in
pigs.

Vitamin B6 :

A group of compounds called the pyridoxines have vitamin B6 activity and are important in
amino acid metabolism. They are present in plentiful quantities in the natural feed ingredients
usually fed to pigs. The requirement for vitamin B6 in young pigs (5–25 kg) was increased by 3–
4 fold in the 2012 NRC publication compared with the previous edition.

Choline:

Choline is essential for the normal functioning of all tissues. Pigs can synthesize some choline
from methionine in the diet. Sufficient choline is found in the natural dietary ingredients to
meet the requirements of growing pigs. However, in some studies, choline supplemented at
440–800 mg/kg of diet increased litter size in gilts and sows. Natural sources of choline include
fish solubles, fish meal, soybean meal, liver meal, brewer’s yeast, and meat meal. Choline
chloride, which is 75% choline, is the common form of supplemental choline used in feeds.

Biotin:
This vitamin is present in a highly available form in corn and soybean meal, but the biotin in
grain sorghum, oats, barley, and wheat is less available to pigs. There is evidence that when
these latter cereal grains are fed to swine, especially breeding animals, biotin may be marginal
or deficient.

Fatty Acids:

Linoleic acid, arachidonic acid, and probably other long-chain, polyunsaturated fatty acids are
required by pigs. However, the longer chain fatty acids can be synthesized in vivo from linoleic
acid, so linoleic acid is considered the dietary essential fatty acid. The NRC estimates the linoleic
acid requirement at 0.1% for growing and breeding swine. The requirement is generally met by
the fat present in natural dietary ingredients. The oil in corn is a rich source of linoleic acid.

NUTRITIONAL DISEAAE OF SWINE.

Protein Deficiency:

Protein deficiency, which may result from suboptimal feed intake or a deficiency of one or more
of the essential amino acids, causes reduced gains, poor feed conversion, and fatter carcasses in
growing and finishing pigs. In lactating sows, milk production is reduced, excess weight loss
occurs, and sows may fail to exhibit postweaning estrus or have delayed return to estrus.

Fat Deficiency:

Certain long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids are essential for swine. Linoleic acid is essential
in the diet and is used to produce longer-chain fatty acids that are probably also essential. A
linoleic acid deficiency induces hair loss, scaly dermatitis, skin necrosis on the neck and
shoulders, and an unthrifty appearance in growing pigs.

Mineral Deficiency:

Deficiencies of calcium or phosphorus result in rickets (see Rickets in Animals) in growing pigs
and osteomalacia (see Osteomalacia in Animals) in mature pigs. Signs include deformity and
bending of long bones and lameness in young pigs, and fractures and posterior paralysis (a
result of fractures in the lumbar region) in older pigs.

Pigs fed diets low in salt (NaCl) grow poorly and inefficiently, largely because of a marked
reduction in feed intake. Although not specific for salt deficiency, poor hair and skin condition
may also develop. There have been reports of salt-deficient pigs attempting to consume urine
of other pigs.Sows fed diets deficient in iodine produce hairless pigs that are weak or stillborn.

Deficiencies of iron and copper reduce the rate of Hgb formation and produce typical
nutritional anemia. Signs of nutritional anemia in suckling pigs include low Hgb and RBC count,
pale mucous membranes, enlarged heart, skin edema about the neck and shoulders,
listlessness, and spastic breathing (thumps). Iron deficiency is more common than copper
deficiency and is most common in nursing pigs that do not receive an iron injection or oral iron
early in life.

A deficiency of zinc results in parakeratosis (see Parakeratosis) in growing pigs, particularly

when fed diets high in phytic acid (or phytate, the primary form of phosphorus in cereal grains
and oilseed meals) and more than the recommended amount of calcium.

Vitamin Deficiency:

Most commercial diets are fortified with vitamins, and vitamin premixes are readily available
for farm-mixed feeds, so deficiencies are less common than they were years ago. Deficiency of
vitamin A results in disturbances of the eyes and the epithelial tissues of the respiratory,
reproductive, nervous, urinary, and digestive systems. Reproduction is impaired in sows, and
they may farrow blind, eyeless, weak, or malformed pigs. Herniation of the spinal cord in fetal
pigs is reported as a unique sign of vitamin A deficiency in pregnant sows. Growing pigs
deficient in vitamin A show incoordination and develop night blindness and respiratory
disorders. Vitamin A deficiency is rare because of the ability of the liver to store this
vitamin.Signs of vitamin D deficiency include rickets, stiffness, weak and bent bones, and
posterior paralysis.

Vitamin E deficiency can result in poor reproduction and impaired immune system. Many of the
signs of vitamin E deficiency are similar to those of selenium deficiency .

Pigs deficient in vitamin K have prolonged blood clotting time and may die from hemorrhages.
Certain components in moldy feed can interfere with vitamin K synthesis. Also, excessive levels
of dietary calcium interfere with vitamin K activity, causing these signs.

In pigs deficient in riboflavin, reproduction is impaired; postpubertal gilts fail to cycle but show
no other clinical signs. Deficient sows are anorectic and farrow dead pigs 4–16 days
prematurely. The stillborn pigs have very little hair, often are partially resorbed, and may have
enlarged forelegs. Growing pigs fed diets low in riboflavin gain weight slowly and have a poor
appetite, a rough coat, an exudate on the skin, and possibly cataracts.

Pigs deficient in niacin have inflammatory lesions of the digestive tract and exhibit diarrhea,
weight loss, rough skin and coat, and dermatitis on the ears. Intestinal conditions can be due to
niacin deficiency or bacterial infection. Deficient pigs respond readily to niacin therapy and,
although not a cure for infectious enteritis, adequate dietary niacin probably allows the pig to
maintain its resistance to bacterial invasion.

Pigs with a choline deficiency exhibit incoordination and an abnormal shoulder conformation.
At necropsy, they may have fatty livers and usually show kidney damage. Sows deficient in
choline have reduced litter size and may give birth to spraddle-legged pigs.

Biotin deficiency includes excessive hair loss, skin ulcerations and dermatitis, exudates around
the eyes, inflammation of the mucous membranes of the mouth, transverse cracking of the
hooves, and cracking or bleeding of the footpads.

Neonatal pigs fed synthetic diets low in vitamin B12 show hyperirritability, voice failure, and
pain and incoordination in the hindquarters. Histologic examination of the bone marrow reveals
an impaired hematopoietic system. Fatty livers are also noted at necropsy.

Q.3 points to be consider while formulating ration for poultry and write the procedure how to
formulate ration for poultry .

Ans; Poultry Feed formulation is the process of quantifying the amounts of feed ingredients
that need to be combined to form a single uniform mixture (diet) for poultry that supplies all of
their nutrient requirements. Four major factors should always keep in mind during poultry feed
formulation that are as follows:

1. Cost: The cost is one of the most important factors when it comes to poultry feeds
formulation. Fortunately for many poultry feed producers and poultry producers, the nutrient
requirements of chickens can be met by a host of combinations of various feed ingredients.
When you look at the costs of all these feed ingredients, you will only need to have a single
least cost formulation. The least cost feed formulation should at the end of the day ensure that
the nutrient requirements of the chickens are met and that you have been able to meet your
objectives when preparing your poultry feeds.

2. Presence of Toxins and Anti-Nutritional Factors: Anti-nutritional factors in the poultry feeds
will affect the digestion of the feeds and potentially deny the birds essential nutrients. An
example of an anti-nutritional factor is the anti-trypsin that is found in soybean meal. There are
various ways to control or mitigate the impact of the anti-nutritional factors in your poultry
feeds.
3. Digestibility: The nutrients used in the poultry feeds have to be digestible and released into
the birds’ gastrointestinal tract for the nutrients to be used by the birds. The digestive system
of the chickens does not generally favour food rations with high fibre content.

4. Adaptability: The feeds that you formulate should be palatable in order for it to stimulate
intake by the targeted poultry. If the birds refuse to eat the formulation because it is not
palatable, then you will have wasted a lot of money as the poultry feeds must be eaten by the
birds for the food to serve its purpose.

The procedure to formulate poultry ration are as follows;

a. Fix a slack space for nutrient or non- nutrient feed additives or

natural feeds added for balancing the ration.
b. Fix level of protein: 10kg for broiler, starter, finisher and chick feeds.
However, in feeds of growers or layers it can be reduced to 7kgs.
c. Fix amount of cereal by products: 8kg and increased by 15-20% for
growers and layers.
d. Calculate the proportion of energy feed and vegetable protein requirement
through Pearson’s square method.
e. Balance the metabolic energy content by creating equilibrium in demand
and supply of the feed.
f. Balance available P: Only 30% of total phosphorus in vegetable sources is
considered available, while it’s 100% in case of animal sources. Any
shortage of phosphorus can be met by DCP dicalcium phosphate.
g. Balance calcium content: Any shortage of calcium in diet can be
maintained by addition of limestone powder.
h. Balance sodium content: Normally Sodium supply from feed is not
calculated and common salt is incorporated at 0.5%.
i. Balance critical amino acids: (lysine + methionine) Calculate the supply of
both these amino acids from all of the above ingredients and total it. If it is
insufficient, then add synthetic L-lysine and DL methionine available in
market.
j. Check crude fibre level: It must not be higher than the standard value.
Finally, there should be equilibrium in quantities of nutrients supplied in the diet and the
requirement of the poultry.

Q.4 write about prebiotics, probiotics and synbiotics on non-ruminants.

Ans; In past antibiotics and other medicinal substances had been used broadly in order to modify
the elementary microbiota and to boost productivity and animal growth. Long term use of such
substances has led to development of drug resistant microorganism Which are posing threat to
consumers health and this has induced the discovery of alternative natural substances, ensuring
similar effects i.e., Prebiotics, Probiotics, synbiotics.
The gastrointestinal tract of non-ruminant is a very dynamic organ that interacts with nervous
circulatory Endocrine and immune system. Therefore, the function of gastrointestinal tract
affects the entire physiology, health and wellbeing of an animal. It is reported that there is more
than 400 intestinal microflorae in pigs alone.
Prebiotics are non digestible feed ingredients fermented in lower got to select for beneficial
bacteria. During the fermentation there is production of volatile fatty acids, mostly acetic,
propionic and butyric acid, that reduce intestinal pH value. And many pathogenic bacteria do not
reproduce well in an acidic environment. Prebiotics allows specific changes both in composition
or in activity of the gastrointestinal microflora. Prebiotics have immunomodulatory properties
and potential to reduce inflammation when supplemented into pigs’ diet.

Probiotics refer to group of non-pathogenic organisms that, when administered in sufficient

numbers, are known to have beneficial effects on the health of host animal. Most common
probiotics are Bacillus (Gram positive spore forming bacteria), lactic acid producing bacteria
(Lactobacillus, Bifidobacterium and enterococcus) and yeast. Probiotics, acidifies intestinal
content and are attached to intestinal epithelial surface thus prevents pathogen attachment.
Probiotic have shown to improve feed intake in pigs in different stages. Bifidobacterium have
shown to increase the feed intake of salmonella challenged pigs.

Q.5 Feeding of high yield cattle.

Ans; Cows Yielding more than 20 kilogram per day are high yielding cattle. And nutrient
requirement for such high yielders varies with stage of lactation and gestation. Five distinct
phases can be defined to attain optimum production, reproduction and health of dairy cows. The
world.
Phase 1: Early lactation from 1-70 days after Calving.
Phase 2: Peak dry matter intake, 70-140days.
Phase 3: Mid and late lactation period, 140-305 days.
Phase 4: Dry period, 60-140 days before next lactation.
Phase 5: Transition or close up period. 14 days before parturition.
The rate of milk let down in high yielding cattle in first six weeks of lactation is so high that the
secretion of nutrients exceeds the uptake of nutrients from the digestive tract. This imbalance or
deficiency in nutrients is compensated by diversion of nutrients from body reserves
(metabolization of body fats and proteins) resulting in weight loss. And too large or lost in body
weight can be harmful.
In early lactation phase, the appetite of animal is reduced by 2-3kg/day. Thus, we need to supply
the nutrients within this appetite limit. High energy diets are to be formed and challenge feedings
is to be adopted. Usually, such high yielding cattle will remain in negative energy balance for
first months of lactation.

Challenge feeding: It starts two weeks before Calvin. Concentrate mixture should be started at
500 gram per day and increased gradually to a level of 500-1000gm per hundred Kg body
weight.
High milk producing animals are feed on increasing quantity of feed challenging them to
produce at maximum potential. This challenge feeding will condition her digestive system for
increased quantity of foods to provide sufficient nutrients to initiate lactation.

Feeding soybean to high yielding cows:

Soya bean has to be fed as both whole oil seed and solvent extracted soybean meal to cows
during lactation. More so during the first three to five months to overcome the negative energy
balance.
Some examples of Concentrate mixture.
1) GNC :35Kg
Wheat bran: 20kg
Maize: 15 kg
Oat, bajra, sorghum: 15kg
Gram chunnies: 12kg
Mineral mixture: 2 Kg
Common salt :1Kg

2) Mustard cake: 20kg

Wheat bran: 45kg
Green grain cake: 32kg
Mineral mixture:2kg
 Common salt: 1kg

3) GNC: 20kg
Rice bran :25kg
Wheat bran :10kg
Gram husk: 27kg
Cotton seed cake: 15kg
Mineral mixture: 2kg
Common salt: 1kg