INTRODUCTION TO ANIMAL PRODUCTION

- Students should be able to give examples of farm animals.

- Students should be able to acknowledge various uses of farm animals.
- Students should be able to acknowledge the behaviour and handling of animals.
- Students should be able to efficiently feed and/or recommend a diet depending on
the animal’s physiological demand.
- -trouble shoot nutritional problems.

Uses of farm animals

 For food (e.g. meat, milk and blood or any of these combinations) and also as
a reliable food store for years of drought
 As status symbols of wealth
 As a means of accumulation of wealth to be cashed for a number of purposes
(e.g. life threatening events; to meet marriage costs; to provide for pay-back )
 As an edge against inflation
 For fuel (dung for sale or to provide for household cooking)
 For fertiliser production (e.g. dung)
 Draught power
 For religious purposes and/or entertainment (e.g. the fighting rams of
Indonesia)
 Transport
 Raw materials eg hides for leather
 As investment by city business men to create a stake in agriculture which is
often motivated by the possibility of tax relief
 To make use of poor lands which would not otherwise be used for agricultural
purposes.

ANIMAL WELFARE
The definition of “animal welfare” varies. It is the mental health of the animal.
-Others argue that although the physical health and freedom from injury are important.
Ultimately it is how the animal “feels” about its bodily state, how it “perceives” its

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environment and how aware it is of these feelings & perceptions that are crucial for its
welfare.

How do we read or understand the “feelings” of an animal? The “feelings of an animal are
shown through the behavioral patterns which are characteristics of a given species. Studying
the behaviour of an animal under different management practices, scientist can gain an
insight into the private mental world of animals. They can identify likes and dislikes of a
given species.

The following are the basic freedoms of animals and violation of which constitute a breach
of animal welfare.

1. Freedom from thirst, hunger and malnutrition - by ready access to fresh water and a
diet to maintain full health and vigour.
2. Freedom from discomfort due to environment - by providing an appropriate
environment including shelter and a comfortable resting area.
3. Freedom from pain, injury and disease - by prevention or rapid diagnosis and
treatment
4. Freedom from fear and distress - by ensuring conditions and treatment which avoid
mental suffering

5. Freedom to express normal behaviour for the species - by providing sufficient space,
proper facilities and company of the animal's own kind

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 What do you think about the welfare of the

dog pictured here?

BASIC ANIMAL NUTRITION

Focuses on the dietary needs of domesticated animals. Feeds take the greatest proportion
of running costs of any livestock enterprise. Efficiency in the feeding is therefore essential
and an understanding of feeds, their evaluation and utilization is necessary. The study of
anatomy and physiology of digestion in ruminants and non ruminants is necessary before
embarking on this course.

Metabolism
A sequence of chemical processes that take place in a living organism. Some processes
involve degradation of complex compounds into simpler substances while others involve
synthesis of complex compounds from simple substances. Waste products are also
produced during metabolism and these have to be chemically transformed before being
ultimately excreted. Such transformation also form part of general metabolism

Need for metabolism:

 To obtain energy from absorbed food molecules.
 To form or degrade bio-molecules as required by cells.
 To convert exogenous nutrients into precursors of large molecules of cells.
 To assemble such blocks into proteins, carbohydrates, lipids etc.

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All changes that take place in nutrients after they are absorbed from digestive tract.
Succession of chemical processes that take place in a living organism. Involves catabolism or
anabolism.

Catabolism- The conversion or breaking down of complex substances into simpler materials
or compounds- destructive metabolism.

Anabolism- Anabolism is the conversion of simple substances into more complex

substances- constructive metabolism.

Food- refers generally edible material that can be consumed by animal. An animal should be
able to eat, digest, absorb and use the food material in metabolism. Food for farm animals
can be divided into two groups i.e. Roughages and Concentrates; these assume different
usefulness depending on whether the animal is a ruminant or a monogastric- basis of
feeding animals.

Task: compare and contrast the anatomy and physiology of digestion in

ruminant and non ruminant animals.

the four stomach chambers of a ruminant

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Diet- A regulated selection or mixture of feedstuffs provided on a continuous or prescribed
schedule. Balanced Diet is therefore a combination of feeds that will provide essential
nutrients in required proportions

Ration- A fixed portion of feed per given time. Usually expressed as the amount of diet
allowed daily

Nutrient- any food constituent or chemical substance that can be used for maintenance,
production and the health of the animal e.g. Carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals,
vitamins, water, amino acids.

The Functions of Food

1. The mammalian body needs heat and energy to function normally.
2. Nutrients are required for the repair of worn out tissues.
3. Nutrients are required for the body to increase in weight and size.
4. Food supplies nutrients for the production of offspring.
5. Production of meat, milk, wool etc dependent on the supply of food.

1, 2 = Maintenance requirement
3, 4 and 5 = Production requirement

Total nutrient requirement of an animal = Maintenance + Production requirement.

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Main Components of Feed
Feed components fall under 6 fractions based on the proximate analysis of feed ingredients.
Refer to table below:

Fraction Components
1. Moisture Water and volatile acids and bases
2. Ash -Major: Ca, P, Mg, K, Na, Cl, S
-Trace: Fe, Mn, Cu, Co, I, Zn, Mo, Se
3. Crude Protein Proteins, amino acids, amine,
B-vitamins, nitrates, nucleic acids
4. Ether Extract Fats, oils, waxes, fat soluble vitamins (A,
D, E, K) Pigments
5. Crude Fibre Cellulose, hemi-cellulose, lignin
6. Nitrogen-free Extract Cellulose, hemi-cellulose, lignin, sugars,
Starch, fructans, water-soluble vitamins
McDonalds, Edwards and Greenhargh, Animal Nutrition 4th Ed, 1994

MOISTURE (water)
Water is one of most important feedstuffs but one that is often overlooked. Water makes
up 70% of the body of an animal. The body can lose all of its fat, 50% of its protein and still
survive but loss of only 10% of its water will result in death. It is a liquid compound of
hydrogen and oxygen.

Three sources:
1. From food (bound water)
2. Free water (drinking water)
3. Metabolic water- water is by product of many chemical reactions in the body.

Functions in animal body:

1) Solvent, transports nutrients within body
2) Medium in which waste products excreted

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3) Chemical reactions brought about by enzymes take place in solution
4) Absorbs the heat produced in reactions with a minimum change in body
temperature
5) Regulates body temperature by the evaporation of water on the skin
6) Synovial fluid, lubricant in the joints
7) Cerebro-spinal fluid, water cushion for nervous system.
8) Ear conducts sound, eye concerned with sight
9) Embryo surrounded by water absorb shock
10) Maintaining cell turgidity

Table showing general water intake in farm animals

Type of animal Average daily water intake (litres)
Beef 26 – 66
Dairy 38 – 110
Pigs 11 – 19
Sheep 4 – 15
Goats 4 – 15
Chicken 0.2 – 0.4
Turkeys 0.4 – 0.6

Quality of Water
Water quality is measured in terms of total dissolved solids per litre (TDS mg/l). This is very
important as water with too much total dissolved solids may result in diarrhoea. The
animals may refuse it ultimately. Different animal species have different levels of tolerance
for total dissolved solids per litre.
Water supplied to livestock has to be of reasonable quality. There are two aspects of quality:
1. The quantity of dissolved solids in water is very important. In most cases the solids
dissolved in water are salts, nitrates, and sulphates. Ruminants can tolerate these
solids up to 1.7g/kg as long as they are non-toxic.
2. Contaminated water with micro-organisms is a major concern especially in young
stock- water borne infections and infestations.
Water intake.

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Several factors affect level of water intake by an animal in a day
 Food intake – Dry matter intake increases water requirements
 Dietary composition – A high protein diet requires more water because excretion of
urine is associated with N content of diet.
 Climatic conditions – hot, warm less humid conditions increase water intake
 Physiological state – Dairy cows require more water with high producing dairy cows
in excess of 100l of water per day. Pregnant cows also need more water.
 Quality of water- high levels of solids decrease intake.

Dry Matter
This is the part that satisfies the nutrient requirements of animal for energy, proteins,
vitamins and minerals.DM classified into organic and Inorganic Matter. However there is no
such sharp distinction as many organic compounds contain inorganic elements

Organic matter

1. Carbohydrates (CHO)
Made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Important source of energy (75% of all dry
matter in plants used as feed). CHO in animal stored in liver and muscles as glycogen and as
dissolved sugars (glucose) in blood. Excess CHO stored as fat. CHO are form more than 75%
of the plant by weight, for that we thank the process of photosynthesis. CHO range from
simple sugars to highly complex compounds (non-sugars). Also carbohydrates form the
structural components of plants like the cellulose and the hemicellulose. Crude fibre
ensures the proper working of the digestive system and give animals the sense of being well
filled.

Sugars
#Monosaccharides e.g. glucose, fructose, galactose
Glucose and Fructose are the most common simple sugars in feed and feed ingredients.
They occur as simple sugars in both plant and animal tissue, but only in small quantities.
Fructose is converted readily to glucose in animals so it is available to body metabolism as
glucose. Other simple sugars are present in feed but in very small quantities.

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#Disaccharides, e.g. sucrose (glucose + fructose), lactose (glucose + galactose), maltose
(glucose + glucose)
These are present in plant tissue in larger quantities than simple sugars. Sucrose is found in
high concentrations in plants such as sugar cane and sugar beet. Lactose is found only in
milk

Non-sugars
These are all polysaccharides. They are complex sugars arranged to make long multiple
branched chains e.g. starch, glycogen, cellulose, hemicellulose. Important polysaccharides:

Starch
Starch is the most important polysaccharides of non-fibrous nature found in plants, found
particularly in grains and tubers. It is composed of units of glucose. Starch hydrolysed to
dextrin, maltose and glucose.

Glycogen
CHO reserve in liver and muscles of animals. It is the main carbohydrate storage in animals
Essential part energy metabolism.

Cellulose
Most abundant plant constituent, forming the fundamental structure in plant cell walls.
Bacteria break it down into glucose, enzymes from the animal cannot break it down and this
makes it less digestible than starch.

Hemicellulose
Composed of glucose, galactose, arabinose, xylose units joined together. More digestible
than cellulose (leafy and woody structures). Closely associated with cellulose.

Lignin

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It is not a carbohydrate. It is a long chain polymer (similar to some plastics) that exists as a
structural component in plant tissues. Gives chemical and biological resistance to cell wall
and mechanical strength to the plant. Causes cellulose to be tough (stalks and stems plants).
As plants age they become lignified. It is of particular interest to animal nutrition because of
its high resistance to chemical degradation. Physical incrustation of plant fibres by lignin
renders them inaccessible to enzymes that normally digest them. Strong chemical bonds
exist between lignin and many plant polysaccharides and cell wall protein, which renders
these compounds unavailable for digestion. Considered indigestible for animals therefore
mature hays and straws are of low digestibility.

 Refer to supplementary diagram on partition of energy

 digestible energy (DE)- is the portion of the gross energy not excreted in faeces
 Metabolisable energy (ME)- is that portion of the gross energy consumed which is
used by the animal to accomplish work, growth, fattening, foetal development, milk
production and for heat production. This basically is the portion of the gross energy
not appearing in the faeces, urine and gases of fermentation.
 Net energy (NE)- is that fraction left after the faecal, urinary, gas and heat loses are
subtracted from the gross energy. The net energy has greater accuracy and is
therefore gaining popularity. It is used first to meet the animals maintenance
requirement and then reproduction & production
 Heat increment- describes the heat produced in the processes of nutrient
metabolism and fermentation (ingestion, digestion and assimilation). In a fasting
animal the quantity of heat produced is equal to the energy of the tissue catabolised
and is known as Basal Metabolism. Represents heat production above basal
metabolism. It represents the heat unavoidably produced by the animal as it uses
the feed.
2. Proteins
Proteins are essential constituent of all tissues and organisms. Exist as the insoluble forms
like feathers, hair, wool and hooves to highly soluble proteins such as plasma proteins. Each
protein has a distinctive function in the body e.g. protection (hair, skin), in defense against
invading microorganisms (antibodies), structural functions (muscle, tendons, hooves, cell
wall) and metabolic functions (blood serum proteins, enzymes, hormones and immune

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antibodies), transportation eg blood and storage form of energy e.g. glycoproteins etc.
Proteins in the blood have an important function of maintaining plasma osmotic pressure.

Composition.
Composed of long chains of amino acids, some proteins contain metals eg haemoglobin
contains iron and casein has phosphorus. Glycoproteins contain carbohydrates and lipo-
proteins contain lipids.
Composed carbon, oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen. Amount of protein in an animal food
equal to amount of N x 6,25. A crude basis for protein calculation. 1/5 of animal body is
proteins) therefore a good supply of proteins is important!. Built up from amino acids (A.A).
About 20 amino acids are needed by the animal. Plants can synthesize all of these from
ammonia and nitrates. Therefore A.A must be supplied in the diet as the body cannot
synthesize them (essential A.A), others produced from other A.A. (non-essential A.A). The
liver is the site of synthesis of amino acids. Ruminants benefit from microbial protein
synthesis, which means they don’t have absolute need foe essential amino acids.
a) Animal based - (Fish, blood, carcass meal)
b) Plant based - (Groundnut, cottonseed, linseed, soyabean oil cake)
c) NPN-Bonds - (urea)
d) Wastage - (chicken litter)
e) Endogenous protein- recycled body cells.
Essential amino acids:
Lysine, Tryptophan, Histidine, Phenylalanine, Valine, Leucine, Iso-Leucine, Threonine,
Arginine and Methionine

Non-essential amino acids:

Glycine, Alanine, Serine, Aspartic acid, Glutamic acid, Proline and Hydroxyproline

Protein Requirements.
Monogastric animals and avians have an absolute need for essential amino acids.
Requirements highest for young growing animals, lactating, pregnant animals and laying
chickens. Requirements are lowest for adult animals on maintenance.

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Protein Deficiency
It is manifested in animals by poor growth rates, lowered birth weights and high infant
mortality, reduced milk or egg production, infertility, pot bellies and poor defense against
invading pathogens. Practically deficiency is most noted in young rapidly growing animals,
lactating animals and laying hens.

Evaluation of proteins
Different approaches to the evaluation of protein sources are necessary for ruminants and
non-ruminants. Some of the most important evaluations are:
 Crude Protein- based on calculation of protein by determination of nitrogen content
of food. CP=N x 6.25. Computations of ruminant protein require based on nitrogen is more
logical.
 True protein- based on determination of true protein from nitrogen based proteins.
Separation can be done laboratorily or by heat to coagulate true proteins then separate.
 Digestible crude protein- based on determination of protein digested and absorbed
into the body.
 Biological value- based on determining the quantity of protein utilized to synthesize
body tissues and compounds.
 Rumen degradable protein (RDP) - protein available to micro-organisms in the rumen.
 Rumen un-degradable dietary protein (RUDP) - escapes degradation in rumen but is
available for digestion and absorption in lower gut.

3. Nucleic acids
They are high molecular weight compounds made up of nitrogen and phosphoric acid.
Nucleic acids occur as a chain called nucleotides. These nucleotides are called ribonucleic
acids (RNA) and deoxyribonucleic acids (DNA). They have two fundamental functions in the
body:
 Store genetic information.
 Spearhead synthesis of proteins.
 Important in cellular metabolism e.g. ATP in energy transformation.

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4. Lipids
Organic compound soluble in organic solvents such as benzene, ether or chloroform but
insoluble in water. True fats are most important part of the group. Composed of Carbon,
Hydrogen and Oxygen. Condensed reserve and source of energy. Structural elements
essential for various reactions. Ordinary roughage very little fat, main sources are oil seeds
(cotton).

Examples of lipids are fats, waxes, phospholipids, glycolipids, lipoproteins, steroids,

carotinoids and some vitamins

Functions of lipids
 Structural components of cell membranes.
 Storage form of carbon and energy.
 A precursor (building block) of other important substances.
 Insulation barrier against thermal and physical shock.
 Functions as vitamins and hormones
 As protective coating to prevent excessive loss/gain of water and infection.
 Important during fasting, hibernation, migration, furrowing and germination in
plants.

Fat releases ± 2,25 times more energy on combustion than proteins and CHOs, because of a
higher C and H content. Chemically they range from fats and oils to complex sterols.
Nutritionally fats and oils are important and are distinguished by melting points, fats being
soluble at room temperature and oils being liquid. Fats can be grouped into essential and
non essential fatty acids. The essential fatty acids are linoleic and linolenic acids. Aracdonic
acid is sythesised from linolenic acid and it becomes essential when dietary linolenic acid is
limited.
In monogastric animals the composition of body fat is determined by the dietary fats, for
example giving oils to pigs will result in a body fat that is more oily and not solid. This is not

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true for ruminants where dietary fats undergo modification in the rumen from M/O. Fats
can be protected from microbial digestion by addition of formaldehyde in the diet.

Ketosis - abnormal breakdown of fats or protein for energy due to shortage of CHO. Ketone
bodies result from C fragments and appear in the blood. This causes an increase in acid
concentration resulting in acidosis which can lead to coma and death. This condition is
responsible for acetonemia in dairy cattle and "pregnancy disease" (Domsiekte) sheep.
Symptoms are high blood and urine ketone levels, low blood sugar, depleted glycogen
reserve, lack of appetite and drop in yield.

effects of feeding excess lipids

Loss of appetite
Oily fat than solid especially in fast growing animals like pigs
Fertility problems
Poor heat regulation
Risk of chronic diseases
Cardiac failures
Off flavours in food
Loss of carcass traits leading to downgrading
etc

5. Vitamins (vital amines)

Organic compounds which are required in small amounts for normal growth, production
reproduction and health maintenance. Their deficiency is easily corrected by supplements.
Most of them strongly related with minerals. They have various uses and for studying
purposeses, these are covered in the study of individual vitamins.
Two main groups:
1. Water soluble (B complexes, Vit. C)
2. Fat soluble (Vit. A, D, E and K)

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VITAMIN CHEMICAL VITAMIN CHEMICAL NAME
NAME
Fat-soluble Water-soluble vitamins
vitamins
A Retinol B complex
D2 Ergocalciferol B1 Thiamine
D3 Cholecalciferol B2 Riboflavin
E Tocopherol Nicotinamide
K Phylloquinone B6 Pyridoxine
Pantothenic acid
Biotin
Folacin
Choline
B12 Cynocobalamin
C Ascorbic acid

FAT SOLUBLE VITAMINS

1. VITAMIN A
Sources
 Liver is a rich source.
 Carotene (provitamin) in plants - yellow pigment - can be converted into Vit. A.
 Manufactured synthetically.
 Green plant material - destroyed by sunlight.
Functions
Most important for growth and maintenance of cell structure - especially epithelial tissue.
Found in the retina - sight.

Deficiency
Reduced resistance to bacterial infections of mucous membranes of lungs, eyes and
reproductive organs.

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Results in:-
 Night blindness - xerophthalmia.
 Abnormal development of skeleton (in utero.)
 Nervous symptoms in cattle, sheep and pigs.
 More of a problem with poultry.
*Grazing animals have a large liver reserve - can be a problem in droughts and with ration
fed animals.

2. VITAMIN D
Sources
 Sun dried roughage and leaves of growing plants.
 Provitamin in skin and skin secretions converted to Vit. A by sunlight.
 Manufactured synthetically.

Functions
Appears to facilitate deposition of Ca and P in bones. Increases absorption from the
intestine of Ca and P.

Deficiency
 Young animals - Rickets - bones are weak and easily broken. Legs bowed, back
arched, swollen knees and hocks. Stiffness and paralysis.
 Old animals - Osteomalacia - weak brittle bones from reabsorption of bone.

VITAMIN E
Sources
 Widely distributed in foods - green leaves and cereal grains.
Functions
 Biological antioxidant (within and outside body).
 Combines with oxygen preventing oxidation of other vitamins.
 Controls tissue respiration.

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 Deficiency
 Young animals calves, chicks and lambs - muscular dystrophy of heart muscle - death.
 Skeletal muscle - stiffness and abnormal conformation.
 Infertility in rats only.
*Interaction with Se with regard to most deficiency diseases.

Disease conditions caused by vitamin e deficiency

CONDITION ANIMAL TISSUE AFFECTED

Embryonic degeneration, Hen, ewe, Cock, rat Vascular system, Male gonads
Sterility
Muscular dystrophy, Stiff lamb Chick, Lamb, Calf, sheep, Skeletal muscle
disease, White muscle disease lamb
Necrotic liver, Degeneration Rat, pig Liver
Encephalomalacia Chick Cerebellum
Exudative diathesis Rat, chick Capillary walls
Blood protein Chick Blood
Destruction
Body lipid degeneration Pig, chick Depot fat oxidative rancidity
Fatal syncope Pig, calf Heart muscle

3. VITAMIN K
Sources
 Green leafy material.
 Bacterial synthesis.
Functions
 Plays a role in blood coagulation - prevents haemorrhage.
Deficiency
 Haemorrhage - bird injures easily and may bleed to death.
*Deficiency in ruminants and pigs very rare due to synthesised by M/O in rumen

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 *Deficiency can also result from occlusion of bile duct.

WATER SOLUBLE VITAMINS

Micro-organisms in rumen produce all these vitamins hence deficiency diseases observed
with non ruminants.

Summary of the water soluble vitamins

ANIMAL VITAMIN SYMPTOMS OF A DEFICIENCY SOURCES

Pigs and Thiamine (Vit. B1) -Poor appetite, respiratory Germ of grains and
poultry problems and nerve degeneration. green leafy crops.
Pig Riboflavin (Vit. -Poor appetite, skin and eye Green leafy crops,
Chicks B2) problems. synthetic.
-Curled toe paralysis
Pigs Nicotinamide - Enteritis, dermatitis and poor Tryptophan,
Poultry growth. groundnuts and
-Black tongue. sunflower.
Pigs Pyridoxine (Vit. -Poor appetite, anaemia, Poor Cereal grains.
Fowls B6) hatchability and egg production.
Chicks -Jerky movements.
Pigs Pantothenic acid Poor growth, diarrhoea "goose Cereal grains and
Fowls stepping" gait. Poor growth, molasses.
Chicks dermatitis.
Poor hatchability.
Chicks Folacin Anaemia, poor growth. Intestinal bacteria.
Chicks Biotin Lesions on feet. Intestinal bacteria.
Pigs Choline Slow growth, fatty liver. Cereals, green
chicks Slipped tendon. leafy crops, fats.

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Young Cyanocobalamin Poor growth. Intestinal bacteria.
animals. (Vit. B12) Microbial origin in
Fowls Poor hatchability. foods.
Pigs Dermatitis
Ascorbic acid (Vit. Not known in farm animals. Green leafy veg,
C) Synthesised from glucose. citrus fruits.

THE ESSENTIAL MINERAL ELEMENTS (inorganic component of DM)

1. Major elements:
Calcium – Ca, Phosphorus – P, Potassium – K, Sodium – Na, Chlorine – Cl, Sulphur – S,
Magnesium - Mg
2. Trace elements:
Iron – Fe, Zinc – Zn, Copper – Cu, Manganese – Mn, Iodine – I, Cobalt – Co, Molybdenum –
Mo, Selenium - Se
3. Probably essential:
Fluorine – F, Bromine – Br, Barium – Ba, Strontium - Sr

MINERALS (INORGANIC MATTER)

Literature - Animal nutrition McDonald, Edwards and Greenhalgh.

Minerals constitute about 3% of body weight and 80% of this is found in the skeleton and
other hard tissues. Most minerals are supplied by forages. Other sources are drinking water
and supplementation.
Several factors affect the mineral content of plants i.e.
 the genus, species and strain of plant
 the season of the year or climatic conditions
 the soil type on which it grows
 the stage of maturity of the plant.
 The applicatioon of artificial feritilizer, mostly nitrogen.

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"Essential mineral elements" - Those minerals which have been proved to have a metabolic
role in the body.

Functions
1. Many operate in pairs or groups with complex interactions.
2. Structural components in the body.
3. Enzyme activators.
4. Cell metabolism.

MACRO ELEMENTS.

CALCIUM
Most abundant mineral in the body
Sources
1. Green leafy crops (legumes).
2. Fish meal, bone meal.
3. Limestone, di and monocalcium phosphate.

Functions
1. Structural component of bone.
2. Transmission of nerve impulses.
3. Maintains osmotic pressure.
4. Muscle contraction.
5. Coagulation of blood.

Deficiency
1. Rickets.
2. Osteomalacia.
3. Milk fever.

Abnormal Ca : P ratios, P or Vit D deficiency also responsible for rickets and osteomalacia.
Ca : P ratio should be 1:1 to 2:1

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PHOSPHORUS
Functions
1. Structural component of bone.
2. Found in cell nucleus - cell division.
3. Important component of blood.
Plays a role in energy metabolism as adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

Deficiency – Is very common in grazing animals as the content is very low on mature grass.
The recommended intake is between 3 – 7 grams per day for cattle.

1. Rickets and osteomalacia.

2. "Pica" - Abnormal appetite.
3. Chronic def- stiffness and muscular weakness.
4. Prolonged def- low fertility and milk yield.

Sources
 Milk.
 Cereal grains.
 Fish and bone meal.
 Monoclcium phosphate, dicalcium phosphate
 Phosphorous supplementation gas resulted in improved fertility and better growth of
calves.

SODIUM
Functions
1. Osmotic regulation of body fluids.
2. Component of blood plasma.

Deficiency
1. Retards growth.
2. Reduced utilization of proteins and energy.

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3. Affects egg production.

Sources
1. Carcass meal and marine foods.
2. Common salt.

MAGNESIUM
Functions.
1. Associated with Ca and P in the skeleton.
2. Activator of enzyme systems.
3. Important function in blood.

Deficiency.
1. Hypomagnesaemic tetany of adult ruminants, nervousness, staggering, convulsions -
death. Treat with Mg sulphate injection.

Sources.
1. Vegetable protein concentrates.
2. Clovers.
3. Mineral supplement - magnesium oxide.

MICRO ELEMENTS

IRON
Functions.
1. Component of haemoglobin (Hb)- protein involved with transport of oxygen in blood.
2. Activates enzymes.

Deficiency.
Anaemia especially with piglets - Fe content of milk is low. Piglets are most affected because
their fast growth rate cannot match supply of the mineral in the diet. Milk is a poor source
of Iron.

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Sources.
1. Retained when red blood cells (Hb) are catabolised.
2. Widely distributed in leafy plants and legumes.

COPPER
Functions.
1. Formation of blood - fixation of Fe in Hb molecule.
2. Preservation of the nervous system.
3. Pigmentation of wool and hair.
4. Maintains normal crimp.
5. Calcification of bone.
6. Maintenance of fertility.

Deficiency.
1. Anaemia.
2. Degeneration of C.N.S.- Swayback in lambs and calves, difficult to treat.
3. Decolouration of wool and hair.
4. Lack of crimp in Merino wool.
5. Reproductive problems.

Sources.
1. Common in most feeds.
2. Fertilize pastures with copper sulphate.
3. Copper sulphate licks.
4. Dose with copper oxide or inject.
Excess copper given to animals can be toxic.

COBALT
Functions.
1. Required by micro-organisms for synthesis of vit B12.
2. Required by micro-organisms for digestion of roughage.

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3. Necessary in the synthesis of haemoglobin.

Deficiency.
1. Anaemia
2. Weakness, emaciation, listlessness, loss of appetite and weight - death.

Sources.
1. Most foods and pastures.
2. Fertilize pastures.
3. Licks
4. Dosing and injection.

IODINE
Functions.
Constituent of hormone thyroxine which controls metabolic rate of the body.

Deficiency.
1. Goitre - enlarged thyroid gland.
2. Reproductive failure.
3. Low metabolic rate sluggishness.
4. Youthful aging.

Sources.
1. Trace amounts in most foods especially marine foods.
2. Iodised salt.

MANGANESE
Present in very small amounts in animal body.

Functions.
1. Activates enzyme reactions.

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Deficiency.
1. Animals grow slowly, bone structure affected.
2. Reproductive failure - irregular ovulation, testicular degeneration.
3. Perosis - slipped tendon and head retraction in chicks.
4. Lameness in pigs.

Sources.
Widely distributed in foods.

SELENIUM
Mostly known for its toxicity:-

1. Alkali disease - ingestion of plants that have a high Se content (10 - 30ppm) - dullness,
stiffness, lameness, loss of hair and hoof deformities.
2. Blind staggers - ingestion of plants that have a very high Se content (4000ppm).

Deficiency.
1. Exudative diathesis -> Vit E.
2. Liver necrosis in pigs -> Vit E.
3. Muscular dystrophy -> Vit E.
4. White muscle disease - young animals.
5. Infertility.
6. Poor growth.
7. Embryonic death.
8. Mastitis -> Vit E.
9. Affect the immune system - susceptibility to disease - mastitis, diarrhoea.

Factors associated with Se deficiency

1. Soils - leached acid soils, high S in soil.
2. Antagonists in feed , polyunsaturated F.A.

Sources.

26
1. Fertilizing land with Se.
2. Dosing (Selenite) and injecting - vet.
3. Mineral supplement - not advisable - toxicity.
4 H.P.C high in Se - reason for growth responses? - toxicity.
5. Chicken litter - Se content?

Mineral interaction/imbalance
This is interaction of minerals where an under/over supply of a mineral will affect availability
of the other. Examples include:
 Ca and P- should occur in the ratio of 1:1 or 2:1. An abnormal supply will lead to the
deficiency in favour of the other.
 Selenium and vitamin E- they substitute each other in most body function. A
deficiency of any may lead to accelerated shortage of the other. Oversupplying selenium is
toxic to the body.
 Copper-molybdenum-sulphur (cu-mo-s)- any effects on mo would affect retention of
cu in the presents of sulphur. Sulphur combines with mo forming a compound that binds
with cu thereby making cu unavailable to the animal.
 Sodium and Potassium - required for active transportation in the body. Should be 1:4.
An upset in one makes the other unavailable.m

ANTI-NUTRITIONAL FACTORS (ANFs)

These are factors that that negatively affect feed palatability, digestibility and utilisation of
nutrients. We start to talk of ANFs when intake and performance do not match predicted
results based on proximate analyses. ANFs can be chemical or physical (spines, leaf
coarseness, hairs, cutin etc)
The effects of ANFs can be:
1. Chronic- effects seen after prolonged ingestion.
2. Acute- seen soon after ingestion (toxic).

Effects of ANFs:
1. Depressed palatability

27
 2. Interfere with digestive system
3. Inhibit growth
4. Damage vital organs
5. Poor reproduction
6. Interfere with absorption
7. Interfere with utilisation of nutrients
8. Hormonal changes

ANFs are classified into:

1. Toxic- e.g. alkaloids, cynogenic glycosides, toxic amino acids, saponins, iso-flavonoids,
urease.
2. Non-toxic- e.g. lignin, silica, oxalates, tannins, flavonoids, amines, trypsin inhibitors.

Alkaloids- these are bitter in taste. They contain 1 or more nitrogen with a cyclic system e.g.
nicotine, quinine and colchicines. They inhibit protein synthesis in liver. They raise pH of
blood.
Cynogenic glycosides- very poisonous as they release cyanide like compounds. Cyanide will
combine with haemoglobin and inhibit respiration.
Toxic amino acids- these counter the process of mitosis. They are found in forages and
causes loss of appetite, salivation, uncoordinated gait and poor wool growth. Examples are
mimosine and indospicine.
Saponins- produce soap like reactions resulting in bloat.
Urease- enzyme found in raw soyabeans. It is responsible for conversion of urea to
ammonia and carbon dioxide in the rumen. High levels of ammonia in the rumen will result
in urea toxicity.
Trypsin inhibitors- these are enzyme-binding protein capable of bonding trypsin, amulase or
lipase. If consumed in excess, they are capable of reducing and/or prevent digestion of
nutrients and possibly impair body metabolism. Growth is also depressed.
Tannins- slower digestion, astringent in the mouth and reduce permeability of nutrients.
Gossypol- a toxic compound found in raw cotton seed. Other carbohydrates form the
structural components of plants 2like the cellulose and the hemicellulose. These
carbohydrates form the crude fibre. Both ruminants and non-ruminants do not easily digest

28
this crude fibre. However, it is still very important. Crude fibre ensures the proper working
of the digestive system and gives the animals the sense of being well filled.
Afflatoxins- commonly known as moulds. Will develop as a result of storing grains in humid
environment. These are fungi species that are common in cereal grains. They are poisonous
to animals and reduce growth. Their growth can be prevented by vacuum packing and
eradicating humid conditions.

Control of ANFs
 Heat treatment
 Soaking or steeping in water i.e. saponnins, trypsin.
 Sprouting grains e.g. soyabeans
 Adopt plant breeding techniques to breed for low levels of ANFs
 Reduce levels in diet
 Formulate diet using young feedstuffs as these factors will not yet be active i.e.
tannins, flavonoids.
 Acid or enzyme hydrolyses
 Uses of microbes i.e. to degrade tannins, lectins.
 Proper storage conditions.

Examples of antinutritional factors found in common feed concentrates.

feedstuff Anti-nutritional factors Control/treatment
barley  Aflatoxin (mould)  Anaerobic storage
 Bloat  Treatment with
 Awns (when feeding poultry) mould inhibitor
 Removal of awns
 Slow inclusion in
ration
maize  Bloat  Mould inhitors
 Yellow maize may taint  Anaerobic storage
products  Diet withdrawal
 Mould development

29
wheat  Glutein reduces palatability  Do not finely grind
 Doughy mass in crops wheat
 Aflatoxin (mould)
 Bloat
Soyabean meal  Allergenic  Pre-heat soya before
 Goitrogenic formulation
 Anticoagulants
 Urease inhitors
 Too much oils
Groundnut meal  aflatoxins See barley
Cottonseed meal  gossypol (strictly controlled by Destroyed by heat and
law) treatment with iron or
copper sulpahates

Feed Additives
An ingredient or a combination of ingredients added to the basic feed mix or parts thereof
to fulfil a specific need. Usually added in micro quantities and requires careful handling and
mixing.
Feed ingredients of non-nutritive nature which will stimulate growth or other types of
performances or improve the efficiency of feed utilisation or which may be beneficial in
some manner to metabolism or health of the animal.

Feed additives are an important component of modern day livestock production especially
intensive operations.

Non- Nutritive Feed Additives

The feed may be used as a carrier for a wide range of additives, drugs and other non-
nutritive substances. Local legalisation may control the use of these products.

Enzymes: There is growing evidence that feed enzymes act partly by modifying the gut
micro flora in a beneficial direction. This may lead to complex interactions between the use
of enzymes, antibiotic growth promoters and dietary substrates, such as soluble non- starch
polysaccharides. Control of these interactions, especially when wheat is used as the main
cereal, is important in successful broiler feeding.

Carbohydrates enzymes will allow higher levels of barley to be included in the ration. These
enzymes will also be economically beneficial in wheat-based feeds. Enzymes are also
available for maize- soya feeds. Phytase may be used to enhance phytate phosphorus
utilization. Increasing use of heat processing of broilers feeds leads to loss of enzyme
activity. This may be avoided by spraying enzymes on to the feed at the end of processing.

30
Medicinal and Prophylactic Drugs: A wide range of drugs e.g. coccidiostats, antibiotics etc
may be administered through the feed. Veterinary control and authorization in accordance
with local regulations is essential.

Antibiotic Growth Promoters / Digestion Enhancers:

Although these products are being phased out in some parts of the world, their use is still
widespread. Those products developed most recently are characterized by being active only
in the digestive tract and are not absorbed. The mode of action is complex, but will
normally involve modification of the gut microflora, with consequential changes in nutrient
utilization. There are some interactions between these wheat- or barley- based feeds or
with other sources of soluble, non- starch polysaccharides.
Antibiotic will reduce the incidence and severity of a number of diarrhoeal diseases. Also
have sparing effect on dietary needs of some B-complex vitamins and amino acids in chicks
and piglets

Antibiotics
Most widely used feed additives. Have been effective as production improvers when used at
low levels to young growing animals. Their use tend to result in an increased feed intake

Probiotics: Probiotics introduce live micro- organisms into the digestive tract to assist with
the establishment of a stable and beneficial micro flora.

Prebiotics: Prebiotics are a group of substances, which stimulate the growth of beneficial at
the expense of harmful, microorganisms. Oligosaccharides form the largest group of these
products at present.

Organic Acids: Acidification of feed is of growing importance in broiler production. Organic

acid products can reduce bacterial contamination of feed (e.g. after heat treatment) and can
also encourage a beneficial microflora to develop in the bird’s digestive tract.

Absorbents: Absorbents are used specifically to absorb mycotoxins. They may also have a
beneficial effect on general bird health and nutrient absorption. Various clay products,
charcoal and proprietary products are used as absorbents.

Antioxidants: Antioxidants can provide important protection against nutrient loss in broiler
feeds. Some feeds ingredients e.g. fishmeal
and fats, will usually be protected. Vitamin premixes should be protected by an antioxidant
unless optimum storage times and conditions are provided. Additional antioxidants may be
added to the final feed where inadequate or prolonged storage conditions are unavoidable.

Anti-mould Agents: Mould inhibitors may be added to feed ingredients, which have become
contaminated, or to finished rations to reduce growth of fungi and production of
mycotoxins. Cereals and vegetable feed ingredients are susceptible to fungal growth if
stored in hot, humid conditions. Fungi produce mycotoxins that, dependent on degree of
contamination, may reduce growth rate and feed conversion of broilers. Litter condition
may be adversely affected, which in turn could result in increased downgrading of broiler

31
carcases. If the manufacturers’ recommendations are exceeded, palatability problems may
occur.

Pelleting Agents: Pelleting agents are used to improve pellet hardness. Pellet binders (e.g.
hemicellulose, bentonite, guar gum) may be added at levels up to 2.5% of the diet.

Other products, of possible use in broiler production, include essential oils, nucleotides and
specialized plant extracts.

INTERNATIONAL FEED CLASSIFICATION

In this system feeds are classified into eight (8) classes.

Class 1- is the forage or roughages. This comprises of very fibrous feed, which contain more
that 18 percent crude fibre. In this class we find all forms of hay, both legume and non-
legume hays. Crop residues like maize, wheat, barley stovers, sunflower and groundnut
hulls and shells.

Class 2- we have succulents. This group includes the green plants or pasture. These could
be cut and feed green to animals. They have characteristically high moisture content of
greater than 65 percent.

Class 3- is the silages. These are feed material produced by controlled fermentation of a
crop of high moisture content. This material could be legume or non-legume or a mixture of
both.

Class 4- energy feeds have less than 18 percent crude protein content. In this class we find
most of the grain cereals and their by-products.

Class 5- is made of the feeds that have a crude protein content of equal to or greater than
20 percent. Most oil seeds and grain legumes fall into this class.

Class 6- is made up of feedstuffs that are mineral supplements. They are source of minerals
to the animals. The best example is monocalcium phosphate. This will be used to supply
both calcium and phosphorus. Can you think of vitamin supplements?

Class 7- comprises of vitamin supplements. These will only be fed to animals specifically to
supply the vitamins.

Class 8- which are made up of feed additives. Feed additives are ingredients or substances
or chemicals added to a basic feed mix, usually in small quantities for the purpose of

32
fortifying the basic mix with certain nutrients, stimulants and or medicines. The use of feed
additives is controversial. In some countries, they have been banned completely, whilst in
other they are still being used. In Zimbabwe some of these are available and registered for
use.

PROPERTIES OF ANIMAL FEED INGREDIENTS

Fish meal
 65% crude protein
 Biological value
 Good lysine and methionine supply
 Mainly for monogastrics animals, cattle do not need such expensive source. Also
can contain salmonella which will then get to milk
 Inclusion level low in a diet. 3% in straight feed and 4% in concentrates
 not more than 5% inclusion in other diets
 has strong smell which may be in products- meat and
 $1650/ton

Carcass meal
 High biological value
 Should exclude hair, horn, hooves, and feathers – contain highly indigestible
proteins
 50% crude protein
 Protein quality is not as good
 High calcium 14% and P16%
 Source is bovine species
 $850/ton

Corn gluten
 20% crude protein
 Methionine and lysine source

33
  Derived from maize protein and is imported

Blood meal
 Derived from the bovine species
 91% crude protein
 Should be pure and dried by temperatures not above 130ºC (redox)
 Poor Ca and P content
 Rich in iron, lysine (8.5%)
 Highly unpalatable
 Inclusion level is 2% in a diet. May lead to problems in taste , appetite and promote
cannibalism
 Fed to monogastrics animals
 $600/ton

Soya bean meal

 Is +/- 19% oil
 Crushing takes out the oil and residual content contains about 2-3% oil.
 Solvent extraction separates all the oil through fractional distillation
 Soya cake is +/- 40% CP
 Soya meal is +/- 45% crude protein
 The more oil is extracted, the more the crude protein content
 Contains a number o toxic, stimulatory and inhibitory substances including
allergenic, goitrogenic and anti-coagulant factors
 Poor source of B-vitamins. Need for supplementation or addition of fish meal
 +/- $800/ton
Three methods of extraction are used these are: pressing, wringing and extraction.

Full fat Soya

 Cooked by extruder
 +/- 15% CP
 Has protein and carbohydrates
 $745 /ton

34
Cotton seed meal
 Fed mainly to ruminant animals because of high CF content
 39% crude protein
 Cotton cake has 26%CP
 Crushed seed + lint
 Derived from oil solvent extraction
 Contains gossypol – concentration depends on soil type, climate and seed variety
 Gossypol controlled by heat above 100ºC or treat with Ca or Iron sulphate
 Aflatoxins are also a challenge
 Inclusion levels in cattle >10%, and >5% in pigs and sheep
 Ruminants consume it without problems
 Pigs do not readily accept it because of its dusty nature
 No use in poultry because of high crude fibre
 Rich in lysine, methionine and crude fibre
 $390/ton

Mono calcium phosphate- MCP

 21% phosphorous

Maize
 Can be white or yellow
 Yellow maize preferred because it contains crypto-xanthin which is a precursor of
vitamin A
 Yellow maize apart from providing vitamin A provides an attractive colour of the
yolk
 Yellow maize also produces yellow pigmented meat especially in chickens, a quality
not desirable to desirable to consumers. Corrected by supplying white maize close
to slaughter
 Mainly used as a source of energy in diets 60% starch
 Low in protein esp. lysine and tryptophan and available protein is of poor quality
9%CP

35
  Low in fibre
 High metabolizable energy value
 Low oil levels 40-60g/kg (4-6% fat )
 Low levels of calcium but rich in potassium and phosphorous
 Price variable - $250- $280/ton

Sunflower meal
 40%oil 15-40% CF, +/- 20%bypass protein
 Inclusion levels less than or equal to 20% adult cattle, and less >10% calves and
>10% in pigs
 Extract oil just like any other oil seed

Poultry waste
 Derived from poultry excreta with or without litter
 Vary considerably in composition for example caged layer waste has a lower fibre
content than broiler litter which has a base straw
 Broiler litter composition varies also depending on number of batches put through
and changes of litter between the batches
 High ash content
 Protein varies between 25-35%
 60% of nitrogen is available as non protein nitrogen
 Excellent source of calcium. Layer waste contains up to 6.5%
 Inclusion rate is 25% in dairy cows and 40% in fattening cows
 Presence of drug and pesticide residues- major limiting factor in the use poultry
waste
 Salmonella infection has been experienced in milk of cattle fed poultry waste
 Heat treatment is required to control pathogens

FEED PROCESSING, VOLUNTARY FEED INTAKE AND FEEDING STANDARDS

Feed processing refers to performing all the operations needed to achieve the maximum
potential nutritional value of a feedstuffs. It involves changing the feed ingredients in a way

36
that will maximize their natural value and the net returns from their use. The methods can
be physical, chemical, thermal or bacterial. It is economically important that the feed is
processed in such manner as to make maximum efficiency. Little improvement in feed
efficiency make for large increases in profits. Feed processing affects the handling and
storage properties of the feeds. The primary purposes of processing feeds are;
 to change moisture content,
 to change density,
 to change acceptability (palatability),
 to change nutrient content,
 to alter particle size,
 to increase nutrient availability,
 to detoxify or remove undesirable ingredients,
 to improve keeping quality,
 to reduce transport and storage space and cost,
 to lessen fungi, salmonella and other micro-organisms that may grow on the feed.

The processing method

De-hulling
De- hulling is the process of removing the outer coat of grain, nuts and some fruits. The hulls
have high fibre and low digestibility in pigs, poultry and other monogastric animals. This
process is normally done to barley, oats, and rice. The protein content of unhulled
(undecorticated) oilseeds such as soyabeans, cottonseeds, peanuts and sunflower is lower
than when de-hulled.

Grinding

Grinding is the most common method of processing grain. It is simple and cheap. It is done
using a hammer mill. This hammer mill, through impact, reduces the particle size of the
grain until it passes through a screen of a certain size. The nature of the ground feed
depends on the screen size, hammer mill size, power and speed, type of grain and moisture
content of the grain. Generally, it improves the digestibility of small hard grains like
sorghum. Ruminants prefer coarse grinding to fine grinding. Fine grinding is common for
poultry and pigs, it also makes the feed dusty. Feed makers commonly call a feed mixture in

37
which all the ingredients are ground mash or meal. The mash is more used when referring
to poultry rations and meal when referring to rations of four-legged animals.

Rolling/cracking

This is the passing of the grain between a closely fitted set of rollers, which are grooved on
the surface. This breaks the seed coat and thus has similar effect to coarse grinding. It
improves digestibility by ruminants.

Popping and micronizing

This is the sudden expansion of grain that ruptures the endosperm as a result of rapid
application of dry heat. It increases the utilization of starch. It reduces feed density.
However, the feed can be rolled to increase the density. Micronizing is similar to popping
only that infra red light is used to provide the heat.

Roasting
This is when the grain is passed through a flame to heat it. Some expansion occurs. It
improves palatability and feed efficiency of maize. In other feedstuffs, it destroys some anti-
nutritional factors that may be present.

Extruding

This is the passing of the grains through a machine with a spiral screw and it forces the grain
through a tapered head. The grain is thus ground and heated. A ribbon like product called a
cake is the result. It is generally used for pet food.

Steam rolling

The grain is subjected to steam for 3 to 5 minutes and then rolled. Generally there is little
improvement in animal performance over dry rolling. It results in larger particles with fewer
fine particles.

Steam flaking

The grain is subjected to steam for 15 to 30 minutes to raise the moisture content 18 to 20
percent. This is then rolled to rather flat flake. Starch granules are ruptured better. The

38
desirable physical and texture is produced. Animal performance and feed efficiency are
improved.

Pelleting

The feed is ground and then forced through a thick die (mould) to form pellets. The physical
nature of pellets is much liked by animals relative to meals. Feed in pellet form can be fed
on the ground or in windy areas. It reduces dusty feeds that are not liked by animals. Most
common in rabbit feeds.

Pressure cooking

This is involves cooking under steam pressure and rolling. It produces product that is like
the steam flaked grain but with less time (1-2minutes) required for cooking. The flakes are
less susceptible to breaking during handling. It is expensive.

Soaking

This involves soaking for 24 hours in water, sometimes with heat. It softens grain, which
then swells. The resulting product is a palatable product. The product may be rolled. The
grain may sour on storage. Storage space increases therefore difficult to handle.

Reconstitution

The end product is similar to soaking. Add water to grain until 25 – 30 percent moist and
store the wet grain in an oxygen-limiting silo for 14 – 21 days before feeding. The result is
better animal performance and feed conversion efficiency with maize and sorghum in cattle
on high production.

High-moisture grain

This is grain that is harvested at 20 – 35 percent moisture and stored in silo to preserve.
Useful when weather does not allow normal drying in the fields and avoids artificial drying.
Good animal performance and feed conversion in cattle.

Acid preservation of high-moisture grains

Propionic, acetic and formic acids singly or in mixture are thoroughly mixed with high
moisture (22-30 percent) grain. This retards moulding without reducing animal performance

39
significantly relative to dried grains. The purpose is to save energy used in artificial drying of
newly harvested grains.

VOLUNTARY FEED INTAKE

These should be determined basing on ad-lib feeding programmes. The factor are generally
grouped as follows:
physiological condition-lactating, pregnant, laying etc.
Immunological factors- diseases, pathogen load etc.
Environmental factors- temperature, humidity, air circulation etc.
Social factors- space, group size, regrouping etc
Feed factors- dry matter, texture, nutritional composition, rate of passage etc

SUPPLEMENT FEEDING
 Feeding growing animals
 Feeding pregnant animals
 Feeding and drought management
 Use of winter blocks

MANAGING ANIMALS DURING DROUGHT.

Drought characterized by exceptionally hot season, low rainfall and low soil moisture. A
drought season has to be proclaimed by the Minister of Agriculture for it to be official.
Localized dry conditions have to be managed by the farmer himself hence animal farmers
have to be abreast with rainfall trends.

Keep prepared for drought by:

 Always having a drought plan at hand.
 Maintain feed reserves.
 Ensure adequate water supply
 Manage the environment
 Keep a stable financial back-up.

40
Management of animals in the drought includes the following activities:
 Supply adequate water, shade and shelter against harsh conditions.
 Early culling/de-stocking where possible
 Daily monitoring of animal performance.
 Dietary changes should be gradual.
 Most poisonous plants flourish earlier and selective grazing is limited. Therefore reduce
plant poisoning.
 Practice early weaning.
 Be very careful to prevent animals from becoming trapped in drying dams and rivers.
 When de-stocking, start with animals in good condition.

De-stocking procedure
 Cull any cow with no calf by her side, not the right time to think of the next year
production.
 Cull any replacement stock not already in production. These usually have lo weaning
weights and have the lowest re-breeding potential.
 Inspect the teeth, feet, legs, udders and calf quality and remove anything undesirable.
 When de-stocking, start with animals in good condition.
 Once exhausted and still there is need for de-stocking, consider uniformity. Sell smaller
and larger end of cows.

Restocking
To be done when the drought is over.

41
 IN CONCLUSION

Effects of under nutrition

In general when nutrient supply is inadequate animals lose body condition. Young animals
develop poorly, this heads to delayed puberty and subsequently sub-fertility. In females
you get infantile ovaries and in male there will be poor testicular growth. Poor sperm count
will be the end result. In case of vitamin and mineral deficiency disorders will be noticed.
These were covered above in their relevant sections.

Effects of over nutrition

Over feeding animals is not good either. Females become sub-fertile. In heifers, the udders
become fat infiltrated. Such heifers, in dairy will be poor milk producers. In beef they will
fail to raise their own calves. Still in dairy, in mature cows you get the fat liver syndrome,
which may eventually kill the cow. In young male animals the testes may not descend
properly. Tailless spermatozoa will be produced which leads to sub-fertility. In older males
you get impaired sex drive (libido). It is also wasteful and in the end costly to over feed
animals. Remember feeding is done to make profits.

42