UNIT 9 ELEMENTS OF FOOD SCIENCE

Structure
9.0 Objectives
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Definition of Food
9.3 Constituents of Food, Properties and their Significance
9.4 Quality Attributes of Food
9.5 Aroma of Food
9.6 Food Safety
9.7 Food Bib-Technology
9.8 Food Additives
9.9 Food Spoilage and its Effect
9.10 Recent Trends in Food Processing and Preservation
9.11 New Products and Equipment's
9..12 Food Evaluation
9.13 Let Us Sum Up
9.14 Key Words
9.15 Some Useful References
9.16 Answers to Check Your Progress

9.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you should be able to:
• . understand definition of food, its constituents, properties and their significance.
• know about quality attributes of food like flavour, odour, colour etc.
• learn regarding aroma of food and its importance
• know about safety aspects of food -like toxicity, hazards and food adulterants.
• understand importance of food biotechnolo~ and its applications alongwith
functions of food additives.
• know fac!orS responsible for spoilage of food and its effects. ,
• learn regarding recent trends in food processing and preservation alongwith
products and preservation.

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9.1 INTRODUCTION
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Food has been a basic part of existence of all living organisms. It is not only
intimately woven into the physical, economical, psychological and,social life but
also part of social, community, national and religious life of human being. It is also
be used as an expression of love, friendship and social acceptance. Virtually all
foods are derived from living source such as plants and animals, thus it consists of
"edible bio-chemicals."

Because food is primary need for human being so, scienti c study of food is essential
endeavor and adventurous for mankind. Food Science can be defined as a
application of basic sciences and engineering to study the fundamental physical, 5
Basic Principles-II chemical, biological,biochemical and behavioral science to nature offood, principles
of food processing and marketing of food.

9.2 DEFINITION OF FOOD

Food may be defined as material, usually of plant or animal origin, that contains
or consists of essential body nutrients, such as carbohydrates, fats, proteins,
vitamins, or minerals, and is ingested and assimilated by an organism to produce
energy, stimulate a growth, and maintain life.

Western food law defines four categories of object as food:

• Any substance or product, whether processed, partially processed or
unprocessed, intended to be, or reasonably expected to be ingested by humans'
whether of nutritional value or not;
• Water and other drinks;
• Chewing gum;
• Articles and substances used as an ingredient or component in the preparation
of food. '

9.3 CONSTITUENTS OF FOOD, PROPERTIES AND

THEIR SIGNIFICANCE
All plants and animals need food to survive. However, the term food is very
general. We need molecules that serve as a source of energy, which serve as '
components for cells and tissues, and that serve as energy reservoirs. There are
three main group of constituents and their derivatives in food namely carbohydrates,
fats, and proteins. In additionto these there are inorganic, organic and minerals
component present in comparatively small proportion 'that includes vitamins,
enzymes, emulsifiers, acids,oxidants, anti oxidants, pigments and flavours. All of
these molecules are classified as nutrients. There is also the ever present and very
important constituent, water. These components are arranged in different foods to
give the food their structure, texture, flavour, colour, and nutritive value. In this
section we will study molecules that give us energy (carbohydrates), those which
are cell components and building blocks (proteins), those which serve as energy
reservoirs (lipids), and the 'helper' molecules (vitamins and minerals).

Water :- Water is considered a nutrient because it is essential to life, as we know

it. Under certain conditions, a person may survive without food for about 5 weeks
but cannot survive without water for more than a few days. Living things are mostly
water. It is part of our cells and our blood and it helps to control waste and body
temperature. Water is needed at molecular level, cellular level and at the metabolic
and functional level. It is major solvent for organic and inorganic chemicals involved
in biochemical reaction, which is essential for life. Water is principal medium for
transporting nutrients in body and also control and maintain normal body
temperature .

Carbohydrates :- Energy producing food substances made up, of carbon,

hydrogen and oxygen that make up about half of our food intake. Carbohydrates
are organic compound having basic structure Cx (H20)y. Carbohydrates can be
found in mamy forms. Plants are the main source for carbohydrates and provide
the major part of the energy iri our diets and assist in the utilization offats.
6 Carbohydrates, consist of starch, sugars and some related substances such as sugar
 a1cohols (e.g; sorbitol) and organic acids (e.g; citric acid). Carbohydrates are mainly Elements of Food Science

found in cereal foods, fruits and vegetables. They may be in simple (sugars) or
complex (starches and fiber) form. The most important types of carbohydrates in
food are sugars, dextrin's, starch, cellulose, hemi-cellulose, pectin's, gums and lignin.
Simple sugars are most easily digested, followed by starch, hemi cellulose, lignin,
and then cellulose. .

Carbohydrates play a major role in food. It is stored as energy reserves as a starch

in plants and as glycogen in case of animals. Carbohydrates may also act as primarily
supporting structure in plant kingdom as a cellulose and function as essential
component of vitamins. Glucose in the blood is a ready source of energy for animals.
Carbohydrates consumed by body in form of food help the body to use fat efficiently
JJy supplying organic acids formed as an intermediate in the oxidation. of
carbohydrates. This organic acid is required for the complete oxidation of fat to
CO2 and water. Carbohydrates also exert a protein-sparing effect.

Some carbohydrates such as glucose, fructose, maltose, sucrose and lactose are
readily soluble in water to form syrup and act as sweeteners in food. They supply
energy and also prevent a growth of microorgahism in higher concentration. Some
of them combine with protein to give dark colour and also give body and mouth
feel to solutions in food.

Starches are of plant origin and quite important in foods. They are not sweet and
not soluble in cold water but form paste and gel in hot water. Starches work as
reserve energy sources in plants and supply energy in nutrition. They not only have
effect on texture of a food but also use as food ingredient in a special type of food
.to get desired viscosity at minimum heating. .

..Cellulose and Hemi cellulose are abundant in plant kingdom, which act as a
supporting structure in plant tissue. They are insoluble in cold and warm water and
-are digested by man so does not yield energy. They are important in food because
they hold together in bundles forming fiber and act as a dietary fib er.

Pectin form gels when mixed with sugar and acid, commonly used in gem and jelly
manufacturing. Pectin's and gums are added to food as a thickener and stabilizer
agent. They also' control viscosity in fruits and vegetables pulp like tomato 'paste
and stabilize fine particles illjuices

Lipids :- Lipid is anessential nutrient that provides concentrated energy, contributes

to the palatability of food, acts as a carrier of fat-soluble vitamins, and supplies·
essential fatty acids. Lipids are the second energy compounds next to carbo-
hydrates. Lipids can be found in both solid and liquid forms. Those lipids that are
liquid at body temperature are commonly referred to as oils, while those that are
solid at body temperature are referred to as fats. Lipids contain more hydrogen
and oxygen, respectively, than carbohydrates ofthe same size. 1his means that
lipios contain more energy than carbohydrates, approximately 2.5 times as much.
Lipids are not providing ,a structural strength to plant and animals tissues. Alllipids
are made from chains of fatty acids. These chains contain carbon atoms .linked to
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each other, with hydrogen atoms attached to the open slots of the carbon atoms.
Each fatty acid has a carboxyl end, which has a carbon atom attached to the
previous carbon, a hydroxyl (OH) group, and double bonded to and oxygen atom.
The opposite end ofthe chain has a carbon atom ~ttached to the previous carbon
atom, and also attached to three hydrogen atoms'. This is called a methyl group
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 Basic Principles-If A1llipids are classified as either saturated or unsaturated. Saturated fatty acids have
no double bonds between the carbon atoms. This means that all carbon atoms in
the chain, except the two terminal carbon atoms, are attached to two carbon atoms
and two hydrogen atoms, all by single bonds. Thus, ifthe chain contains as many
hydrogen atoms as it can hold, it is saturated. Unsaturated fatty acids have carbons,
except the two terminal carbon atoms, that can be double bonded to the previous
or next carbon atom in the chain. Thus, the chain does not have as many hydrogen
atoms as it could hold and is considered unsaturated.

Lipids can also be classified into three different groups: simple, compound, and
derived.

Simple lipids can be classified as either true fats or waxes. True fats contain fatty
acids, which are attached to a molecule of glycerol. Waxes contain fatty acids
attached to an alcohol molecule via an ester-type bond.

Compound lipids are those molecules that have other groups besides the fatty acids
and glycerol or alcohol. These extra groups are attached via an ester bond. Groups
can include nitrogen, carbohydrates, to form glycolipids, phosphoric acid, to form
phospholipids, and proteins, to form lipoproteins.

Lipid molecules that are made from either simple or compound lipids by the process
of hydrolysis are called derived lipids. Cholesterol is an example of a derived lipid. /
Lipids also supply a polyunsaturated fatty acids, one of which Linoleic acid is called
essential fatty acids because animals cannot synthesize it adequately. In human
infants absence of linoleic acid interferes with normal growth rates and results in
skin disorder. Linoleic and other unsaturated fatty acid when present in higher high
proportion of dietary fats can lower cholesterol levels under certain dietary
condition. Lipids also physically insulate the body from rapid changes in temperature
and help cushion organs from sudden injury.

Amino Acids :- Amino acids are nitrogen-containing compounds that are the
building blocks of proteins. Amino acids are primarily composed of carbon, oxygen, ,
hydrogen, and nitrogen process of making an antibody against a foreign antigen.
There are 22 different amino acids in living things from which every protein in the
body is rnade up of. Proteins are composed of different combinations of amino
acids assembled in chain-like molecules. Amino acids are classified as essential
amino acids and non essential amino acid. An essential amino acid is an amino
acid that cannot be synthesized by the organism because humans do not have all
the enzymes required for the biosynthesis of all of the amino acids. and therefore
must be supplied as part of its diet and non essential amino acid is an amino acid
that can be synthesized by the organism. There are ten essential amino acids that
.are not manufactured by the body and must come from the diet, out of which eight
amino acid are generally regarded as essential for humans: tryptophan, lysine,
methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, valine, leucine, :~soleusine.Two others, histidine
and arginine are essential only in children. An non essential amino acid are for an
organism and can be synthesized by the organism in a body in sufficient quantity.

It
In chemistry, an amino acid is any molecule that contains both amino and carboxylic
acid functional groups: In biochemistry, this shorter and more general term is
frequently used to refer to alpha amino acids: those amino acids in which the amino
and carboxylate functionalities are attached to the same carbon consisting ofa
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carbox~l group (COOH), an amino group (NH2) and a side chain.
All the tissues of hair, skin, nails and organs are made up of proteins and therefore Elements of Food Science

will be influenced by the amino acids. In addition to the tissues digestive and
regulatory enzymes, hormones, blood sugar, blood proteins and brain chemicals
are also composed of amino acids. So amino acids are to support muscle growth,
fat regulation, brain stimulation, or dietary fortification in animals. Unlike fat and
starch, the human body does not store excess amino acids for later use. So, the
amino acids must be in the food every day.

Proteins :- Proteins are highly complex nitrogenous compounds found in all animal
and vegetable tissues and is one of the basic components of food and makes all
life possible and a~e large compounds that are formed by linking amino acids
together in long chains. They contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen like
carbohydrates and lipids, but they also contain nitrogen. Some proteins may also
contain sulfur, phosphorus and iron. Proteins are the building blocks or cells, tissues,
and organs. Proteins are fimdamental components of all living cells and include many
_substances, such as enzymes, hormones, and antibodies, which are necessary for
the proper functioning of an organism. They are essential in the diet of animals for
the growth and repair of tissue. Proteins are used for specific vital process such
as growth, replacement of metabolic losses and damaged tissue, reproduction,
lactation as well as being a component of all living cells. They provide for the
transport of nutrients, oxygen and waste throughout the body. They provide the
structure and contracting capability of muscles. Protein can also be used an energy
source only when carbohydrates and fats are not available. Proteins are essential
for growth and repair. They also play a crucial role in virtually most of biological
processes in the body. An enzymes are proteins and are vital for the body's
metabolism. Muscle contraction, immune protection, and the transmission of nerve
impulses are all dependent on proteins. Proteins in skin and bone provide structural
support. Many hormones are proteins. Protein can also provide a source of energy.
Generally the body uses carbohydrate and fat for energy but when there is excess
dietary protein or inadequate dietary fat and carbohydrate, protein is used. Excess
protein may also be converted to fat and stored.

In addition to their natural value, Proteins are selected for specific functional
attributes including dispersibility, viscosity, cohesion, elasticity, emulsifying effect,
formability, foam stability and fiber formation.

Vitamins :- Vitamins are needed by humans in very small 8l110untSto maintain

health. They are also organic compounds. Most vitamins act as eo factors in
reactions that take place in the body. Many vitamins can be synthesized in the body,
and therefore, do not need to be included in the diet. However, some vitamins
cannot be synthesized by the body and must be supplied. Vitamins functions in
enzyme systems which facilitate the metabolism of proteins, carbohydrates and fats.

Vitamins are conventionally divided in two groups, fat soluble vitamins and water
soluble vitamins. Fat soluble vitamins are A, D, E and K, while water soluble
vitamins are C and several members of vitamin B complex.

Vitamins are require for essential metabolic aC~~':itiesand several functions as a

t-' =rt of enzymes. Vitamins increased absorption of calcium and phosphorus from

intesti ..~1 tract, essential for blood clotting, necessary for the normal function of
protein collagen and function in transmission of nerve impulse. Vitamins act as anti
oxidants, favour absorption of iron and play important role in maintaining stability
of biological membranes. Vitamins are also remedies for numerous diseases and
as an agent to prolong youth and increase sexual potency.
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Basic Principles-II Minerals :~Like vitamins, minerals are needed in only small amounts. However,
minerals are not considered to be organic compounds. Minerals are actually
elements. They can be classified according to their need into two groups: macro-
and micro minerals. Minerals also act like vitamins in that they help to control many
body processes.

Minerals are essential part of every living cell. Minerals are necessary for function
of several enzymes system, control of fluid and maintain e1ectricpotential in cell
and nerve membranes, helps in regulate and maintain osmotic pressure, pH
equilibria, body fluid volume in body. Some minerals are essential constituent of
enzyme involved in carbohydrates, protein metabolism and nucleic-acid synthesis.

9.4 QUALITY ATTRIBUTES OF FOOD

Sensory Analysis :- Sensory science is a fast developing branch of food science
and technology and is getting the attention of an Indian Food Industry. Sensory
analysis is defined as " a scientific discipline used to evoke, measure, analyze and
interpret the reaction to those characteristics of foodlbeverage as they are
perceived by the senses of sight, taste, touch and hearing". Sensory quality of food
products is described in terms of colour and appearance, odour, texture, mouth
feel, aroma, taste and after taste.

Sensory evaluation of quality by a panel of judges is essential in most food

experiments. Sensory perception of Food Quality is flavour, odour, mouth feel,
colour etc.

1) Elements of flavour
A. Taste-
1. Sweet substances/ mostly nonionic/ tip oftongue.
2. Bitter substances- back of tongue.
3. Saltiness- tip of tongue.
4. Soumess- sides of tongue.
B. Odor- Pleasant sensations in eating come more from odor than taste-four
fundamental Odor Sensations are
a) Fragrant of sweet (flowery)
b) Acid or sour
b) Burnt or scorched
c), Caprylic or goat-like
C. Mouth-feel
1. Sense of touch
a. Temperature
b. Tactile sensations- characteristics of food which influence tactile aspect
of mouth-feel:
c. Consistency- important in fudge, ice cream, etc (smooth)
2) Pain Sense
a) Pungency: onions, garlic, horseradish, vinegar, allspice, cloves, sage, mints,
mustard, cabbage, turnips
10 b) Bite-ginger, red, white, black pepper
D. Other aspects of sensation known as "flavour" Elements of Food Science

1. Alkaline taste
2. Unclassified - mono sodium glutamate
3. Psychological factors with reference to flavour unpleasant associations
rejected
Physical Methods of Food Evaluation
1) Volume
2) Texture
3) Rheology- flow of matter (viscosity)
4) Appearance:- Colour

Chemical Analysis :- A chemical analysis is being done to correlate the results of

sensory analysis with analytical data. It also helps to find out the significance of
both analysis. Analytical data not only reflects on quality of food but also helps to
improve quality of food. These results help in improving keeping quality and storage
of food.

It is observed that both sensory and chemical analysis when consider together give
true picture of product quality. In chemical analysis different properties or attributes
of food are found out with help of different chemical methods and instruments.
T" .amples are pH, moisture, fat, protein, carbohydrates, colour, texture, etc.

.) pH- acidity and alkalinity

2) Sugar concentration- refractometer

9.5 AROMA OF FOOD

As commercial environment of food industry become more competitive, there is
an increasing need for maintenance and improvement of food and drink quality.
Flavour is generally accepted as a most important sensory characteristic associated
with food. Flavour perception consists of two components Aroma and Taste. Out
of which aroma plays a very important factor related to quality and analysis of
food. There are hundreds of volatile compounds that define the nature ofthe food
and product identity, as well as contribute to consumer preference between brands
of product. These compounds are also responsible for occurrence of off flavour
and taints, which arise due to chemical and biochemical changes, microbial action
or contamination.

Aroma in food is perceived by nose and mouth. There are appox. 1000 odorant
receptor genes in the genome, the combinatorial receptor coding system should
permit recognition of vast number of diverse aromas. Even if each odorant were
encoded by these receptor, the no. of odorants that could be discriminated would
be nearly 1 billion. Aroma of a substance depends upon its volatility, which are
constantly throwing off molecules which are possibly odorous. Aroma is perceived
when odorous molecules mixed with air are inhaled. At the top and back of the
nose there are is a 0 patch of few cm. of yellowish skin, which is the sensitive
area of allclfsction. As a odorous air passes through sensitive area the odorant
molecules are absorbed by it. Odorant molecules are in rapid state of motion
travelling at room temperature at a speed approaching that of sound and are hitting
olfactory sensitive surface.
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Basic Principles-lI It is yet unknown how signals generated from different receptors in nose and mouth
are dealt with in a brain. It is known that signals from olfactory neurons in the
nose are ultimately sent to different brain areas, in some of which the conscious
perception of odors mediate emotional and physiological effect.

Check Your Progress 1

Note: a) Use the spaces given below for your answers ..
b) Check your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. Define food and its constituents.

2. What are basic properties of Protein and Carbohydrates?

3. What are quality attributes offood. Discuss sensory evaluation food.

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9.6 FOODSAFETY
The safety of food is of utmost significance and has gained a worldwide attention.
The concern about safe food is definitely not new, but the food safety crisis still
exists in several parts of world including India. The chemicals which are used in
the growing or processing of food is alleged to cause adverse effect in human and
mammals. Coffee is normally adulterated with charcoal, cocoa with sawdust, olive
oil with coconut and butter with margarine. An understanding of food safety is
improved by defming two other basic concepts Toxicity and Hazard ..

Toxicity:- Toxicity is the capacity of a substance to produce harm and injury of \

any kind under any condition.

Hazard :- Hazard is the relative probability that harm or injury will result when
the substance is used in a proposed manner and quantity. Rawfood such as meat,
fish, milk, fruits and vegetables are likely to be contaminated with harmful
microorganism. Microorganisms are generally destroyed during cooking or
processing of food. But some ofthe microorganism may survive due to inadequate
heat processing. These pathogenic microorganisms are commonly found in
contaminated food and are responsible for illness.

Food Adulteration :- Food adulteration is defined as the process by which the

quality Or nature of food product is adversely affected through the addition of
foreign or an inferior substance and removal of vital element, such 2<:; fat from milk
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 ~d addition if water to it. Adulteration may be intentional or incidental Intentional Elements of Food Science

adulteration caused by addition of foreign or an inferior substance in food like sand,

chips, stone, mud, chalk powder, mineral oil, harmful colour etc. Incidental
adulteration is caused by some toxic pesticide residue, by rodents and insects, tin
from can, larvae in food, microorganism etc.

Food Industries, however are most concerned about the microbiological safety of
its products. Big food companies in many parts of the world adhere to a code of
manufacturing practice known as "Good Manufacturing Practice" (GMP). This
code helps to assure that products are manufactured in conditions of proper
storage and sanitation. Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) are
followed to make sure that there is no chance of contamination or error during
processmg.

The safety of food has gained a worldwide attention due to scientific awareness.
Safe food has replaced adequate food. People have right to expect the food they
eat to be safe and suitable for consumption. Everyone including farmer and grower,
manufacturer, processor, food handlers and consumer has ~responsibility to assure
that food is safe and suitable in consumption. We should practices clean habits in
handling, cooking and storage of food to ensure the complete safety.

9.7 FOOD BIOTECHNOLOGY

The traditions of food and the modem knowledge of biology are blended effortlessly
to provide tailored solutions to the food industry and develop cost effective, bio
friendly technologies pursuing health and nutrition to all sections of the society. It
has been observed that there is no food technology without biotechnology .
. Biotechnology is not a single area but a multiplication of many areas into one.
Whenever something is produced from a living process-living plants, animals,
bacteria, fungi etc., biotechnology is the 'intentional addition of a step somewhere
in the value addition chain to make the product better. In the 1990's the impact of
molecular biology was felt. This impact took us into enzyme engineering, protein
engineering, relooking at nucleic acids and even looking at nutrition from the
metabolic point of view. Then from the late nineties the entire perspective has shifted
to the level of molecular mechanisms, with the knowledge gained through
biotechnology. Like in plant biotechnology, it is the specialized areas of algal
biotechnology and tissue/cell culture of plants as also molecular biology and genetic
<,engineering. It has pioneered the development of technology for cultivation of
international-quality Spirulina, and its utilization in food, feed and pharmaceutical
sectors: It includes processes of extraction of natural colors (a rare natural blue
pigment phycocyanin from cyanobacterial biomass) and food flavourants by bio
transformation of algal cells (Vanilla flavor compound). We do not understand the
biotechnology involved because we take it for granted. Now the question is are
we optirnizing these processes? How do we make them better? All this knowledge
has to be formalized, made reproducible and hygienic. Tomorrow food technology
in the world is related to biotechnology on the health basis. We should focuson
this as we have the required expertise, the database, the tradition and the
biodiversity. There exists a large opportunity not only from the business point of
view but also from the point of usefulness to the end consumer.

9.8 FOOD ADDITIVES

Food Additives are certain compounds that are non nutritive substance added
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Basic Principles-II to food generally in small quantity to enhance taste, provide colour, or protect
against the growth of microorganisms. It is any substance or mixture of substa?ces
other than the basic foodstuff, which is present in food as a result of any phase of
production, processing, packaging, or storage.

Food additives serve five main functions:

1. Food additives maintain product consistency provide a consistent texture and
prevent products from separating. It provides thickness, uniform texture as well
as anti caking agents properties to free flow of food.
2. Food additives improve or preserve the nutrient value fortification and
enrichment of foods and make it possible to improve the nutritional status. For
example, vitamins and minerals are added to many foods including flour,cereals,
margarine, and milk. All products that contain added nutrients must be labeled.
3. Food additives maintain the wholesomeness and the palatability of foods. It
reduces the spoilage in food through air, fungi, bacteria, or yeast and also help
baked goods preserve their flavour by preventing the fats and oils from
becoming rancid. They also keep fresh fruits from turning brown when exposed
to the air, which allow food-borne illnesses to occur.
4. Food additives control the acidity and alkalinity in food to provide leavening,
specific additives assist in modification of the acidity or alkalinity of foods to
obtain a desired taste, colour, or flavour.
5. Food additives provide colour and enhance a flavour in food. Certain colours
improve the appearance of foods. There are many spices and natural and
synthetic flavours that bring out the best in the flavour of food.

The food additives are mainly classified under 11 broad groups

1. Preservatives:- These are a chemicals that preserve food from bacteria, yeasts
and moulds. Most common are sodium benzoate, sodium and calcium
propionate, sorbic acid, benzoic acid etc.
2. Antioxidants:- These are a compounds which are used to prevent oxidation
of fats in many food. It also helps to protect food from developing rancidity
due to length oftime during storage. The important antioxidants are butylated
hydroxy anisole, butylated hydroxy toluene, propyl gallate, ascorbic acid etc.
3. Sequestrates:- These are chelating agents and sequestering compounds which
react with trace elements presents in food and remove it from solution because
trace elements are active catalysts of oxidation and discoloration in food
products. Sequestrates such as ethylene diamine tetra acetic acid, poly
phosphates and citric acid react with trace elements and inactivate them.
4. Surface active agents :- Mainly these are emulsifiers normally use to stabilize
oil in water and water in oil mixtures, gas in liquid and gas in solid mixture.
Most common synthetically prepared emulsifiers are mono and diglycerides
and their derivatives.
5. Stabilizers and thickeners z- Stabilizers and thickeners are additives which
stabilize and thicken foods by combining with water to form gels. These includes
gum arabic, carboxyl methyl cellulose, pectin, amylase, gelatin and others.
6. Bleaching and maturing agents :- These are oxidizing agents used in food
to improve its colour, baking and solubility properties. Benzyl peroxide is used
as an oxidizing agent which bleach yellow colour, hydrogen peroxide is used
to whiten the colour of milk for certain kind of cheese.
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 7. Food colour:- Food colour are added to many food items, to improve desire Elements of Food Science

appearance, to give public appetizing and attractive qualities in food. Colours

. from natural materials such as annatto, caramel, carotene, and saffron are most
preferred in food.
8. Non-nutritive and special dietary sweeteners :- These are normally used
as non-nutritive sweeteners used in manufactured food and soft drinks to
maintain low calories mainly for diabetic and calories conscious people. The
well known substance are saccharin, aspartame etc.
9. Nutrient supplements :- Basically these are vitamins and minerals added
as supplements and enrichment mixtures to a number of products like vitamin
D added to Milk, vitamin A added to margarine. .
10. Flavouring agents :- These are a chemicals used in natural and synthetic
form act as a flavouring agents in a food. Some well known natural flavouring
agents are spices, herbs, essential oils, plant extracts etc., Well known synthetic
flavouring agents are benzoldehyde, ethyl butyrate, methyl anthanilate etc.
11. Miscellaneous :- A various types of solvents are used in manufactured food
and soft drinks like dichloromethane and trichloroethylene are used for
decaffeinating of coffee and tea.

9.9 FOOD SPOILAGE AND ITS EFFECTS

Food is very sensitive commodity and it directly affects human health. All foods
deteriorate, some more rapidly than others. So, it is very essential to handle it
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properly right from raw material through processing, packing, storage and transport
to the consumers. Spoilage in food is directly related to poor sanitation practices
and improper food handling. When food spoilage starts, it undergoes various
physical and chemical changes that lead food to inedible and hazardous. The major
type of food spoilage is microbiological, biochemical, physical/mechanical and
chemical.

Microbiological Spoilage ;- Micro-organisms activity are considered to be a

primary cause of food spoilage. Micro-organisms are found everywhere, they are
present in soil, water, air, and on fruits and vegetables. The factors responsible for
growth of micro-organisms are suitable temperature, humidity and substrate to live
.on such as food and beverage. The most common form of micro-organisms are
moulds, yeast, bacteria and virus. All micro-organisms need a food, a favourable
temperature, a favourable moisture to grow. So, in food preservation it is impossible
to eliminate food as a factor in microbial growth, attention must be given to control
of other conditions that aid growth.

Biochemical Spoilage ;- Biochemical spoilage is mainly cause by natural food

enzyme present in food. Enzymes are organic catalysts produced by living cells.
These are compact catalysts that initiate many complicated chemical reactions in
plants and animals tissues like ripening offruits and maturing of vegetables, natural
tendering and ageing of meat etc. Enzymes are proteins and it also be responsible
fordevelopment of off-odours, off-colour, off taste in food, if enzyrnatic reactions
are un controlled. Normally enzymes are activate between 0 °C to 60°C and
optimum temperature of its action is 37°C but all enzymes are inactivate at 80 "C.

Physical! Mechanical Spoilage ;- Physical/mechanical spoilage can be brought

out by temperature changes, moisture and dryness, cut injury, compact injury,
vibration injury, impact injury. Excessive heat destroy emulsion, dehydrate food
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Basic Principles-I1
.and destroy vitamins. Freezing also cause deterioration like freezing of milk break
emulsion, cause fat to separate. Excess amount of moisture cause caking, lumping,
stickiness etc. in powder and also support growth of micro-organism.

Chemical Spoilage :- Such type of spoilage caused by interaction of certain

ingredients contained in food with air, light, time, temperature etc. It causes
undesirable change in food such as destruction of food colour, flavour, vitamins.

Check Your Progress 2

Note: a) Use the spaces given below for your answers.
b) Check your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. What do you understand by Food adulteration?

.
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2. What are basic function of Food additives?

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3. Define different Food spoilage .

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9.10 RECENT TRENDS IN FOOD PROCESSING AND

PRESERVATION
Preservation by Irradiation :- Irradiation heating employ radiant energies which
affect foods when their energy is absorbed. Food irradiation is used primarily as
. a preservation method through gamma rays, but ~talso has potential as a more
general unit operation to produce specific change in food material. This radiation
will kill or harm the microorganisms that are on the food. The radiation passes
through the food and is not storsd in it. Gamma rays have the most potential for
use in foods. Cobalt-60, a radioactive isotope of cobalt, is commonly used as the
source for the gamma rays. These gamma rays workby stripping electrons from
atoms in the microbe. Commonly, these electrons are stripped from atoms that
help to make up the DNA ofthe microbe. The microbe is then irreversibly damaged
because this DNA is the blueprint for the life functions of the microbe, such as
reproduction as protein formation. The potential uses of irradiation heating in food
industry are extension of storage life by inhibiting of sprouting, delay in maturation,
sterilization of food, elimination of specific pathogen, increasing digestibility,insect
disinfestations etc.

Microwave Heating> Microwave heating is form of radiant energy fall between

16 radio waves and infrared radiation with wave-lengths is equivalent between 0.025-
 0.75 m. For food application the approved and most commonly used microwave Elements of Food Science

frequencies are 2450 MHz and 915 MHz. Microwaves travel in straiglv 1:ne,
reflected by metals, pass through air and absorbed by several food con .ituonts
. including water. When they passing through a material to the extent that are
absorbed, they heat the absorbing material and lose its electromagnetic energy.
The current and potential uses of microwave heating in food industry are -r- .' any
and of growing importance in baking, concentrating, cookingcuring, drzing,
pasteurizing, sterilizing, thawing etc.

Fermentation t-It may define as oxidation of complex organic compouno : nainly

carbohydrates with help of enzyme produci.ng micro-organism, It plays im] ortant
role in preservation of food from earlier tune; like production of cheese, cure, butter
from milk, production of alcoholic beverages, pickle, sausages, vinegar, bread,
biscuits etc. In fermentation a waste matenal or inexpensive raw material convened
in to valuable material through micro-organism. In this process a selected m.cro-
organism cause oxidation at control environmental condition to grow and covert a
organic compound in to valuable products. A most common enzymes 110ml<111y used
in a food industry are amyJase, pectinase, protease, invertase etc.

Modified Atmospheres :- Modifying the atmosphere in which a food is packaged

can have a effect on the shelf-life of'th . food. His because of this extension of
shelf-life and other effects that many companies are now using modified atmospheres
for their products. The process in which modified atmospheres work is the use of
carbon dioxide (COJ There have been many studies on the effects of carbon
dioxide to microorganisms. It affects the permeability ofthe membranes surrounding
the cells. Carbon dioxide interferes with protein '!lnding amino acids in .he cell
And finally it has been suggested that the carbon dioxide interferes with enzymes
and their activity. Even carbon dioxide under pressure has a greater anti microb-al
effect than carbon dioxide that'isnot under pressure.

Vacuum Packaging :- In vacuum packaging, the food product is firs placed into
a gas-impermeable bag. The air within the bag is then sucked out and he bag is
sealed. This reduces the pressure inside of the bag. Microbes on the [god product
continue to respirate, but there is now a finite amount of oxxgen In the bag, find
since the bag is impermeable to gases, the ceroon dio: idc that is' gi ven 0:' Ecannot
escape. This buildup of carbon dioxide and the decrease m available oxygen is
principle behind vacuum packaging.

9.11 NE\V PRODUCTS A~D

-----,--------
~QUIPME, TS
----------·-~------r--·-----
Medicinat Value Products :- It has been seen, that the use ut"medicinal plant :s
fOW1din all the four Vedas namely Rigveda, Samveda.Yajurveda and Atharvaveda.
Ayurveda is a text on the preventive and curative aspects of disease, is a part of
Atharvaveda. In today's scenario, India is also emerging as one of the leading
manufacture and exporter of raw herbs and their allied products in international
market. According to latest reports, the uS of herbs and their allied products like
Q

sytups,. candies, p~wder etc ..are. increasing rapidly in most of devel0r,ed as well
as leading developing countnes m a world Latest research shows that herbs have
. a great potential to protect human civilization from non-chronic as well chronic
diseases without affecting human metabolism and with out causing anyl side effects
on human body. Even in most part of the world, large number of p~pulation is
switching over to herbal products: Because even a single herb can protect the
human body from different diseases and keeps it healthy and fit.
Basic Pr inclptes-Ll Low Calories Products :- Today, inthe fast growing world, most of the people,
mainly urban population of world are 'more conscious about their diet to stay healthy
, 'and fit. Therefore, people need such type' of products which not only have low
calories and low contents of-sugar, fat and carbohydrates but also have a good
nutritive and therapeutic values. Aspartame is use as a non-caloric sweetener in
number of products. It was discovered in 1965 and entered the market in the 80 '~.
A number of national and international organizations have assessed the safety of
aspartame. Aspartame is "200 times sweeter" than ordinary sugar resulting in
consumption offewer calories. For a weight conscious society, low calories are
always a source of attraction. Keeping in view the above, basic aim is to develop
a quality product for diabetic and calories conscious people by keeping the basic
properties of raw' material intact i.e. low glycemic index. This will result in products
with good preservative and herbal properties, sensory evaluation, mass acceptability,
and easy consumption by diabetic population. The most common low calories
products are fruit juices in form of ready to serve drinks' squashes, cordials, syrups,
dry powder, tablets etc. '

Vacuum Puffmg Dryer :- In this process, a puffing units consists essentially of a

shallow receptacle with an air tight lid, connected through a quick opening valve
to a vacuum reservoir maintained at 60-:-64cm Hg vacuum. The lid of the receptacle
can be closed and opened instantly by a pneumatic cylinder, which open by the
suction from the reservoir. The entire operation of transferring trays to receptacle,
closing a lid, applying and releasing the vacuum and open the lid, can be completed
within 15 sec. The puffed porous piece be dried in a dryer at about 66 QCwith an
air velocity of 300 rnlrnin. Aproduct consists of a excellent consumer acceptance.

Freeze Dryer :., In normal drying process a product looses its weight as well as
"~_ its shape, which is not acceptable in certain cases from consumer point of view.
But in this process product looses its weight but not shape and products remain
firm after processing. In freeze drying, a material is placed in the lower chamber
at very low temperature and frozen material is dried in upper chamber under very
-high vacuum. The material is directly dried by sublimation of ice without passing
through intermediate liquid stage. Such type of products are highly hygroscopic,
excellent quality of taste, flavour and easily reconstituted.

9.12 FOOD EVALUATION

Evaluation of food is an important part of developing new food products and
analyzing its market potential. It has also effect on economical preparation and
distribution of safe and nutritious food. Evaluation provides information pertinent
to the quality of food products involving chemistry, physics, technology of food,
degree of excellence, which encompasses taste, aroma, texture, appearance,
nutritional.content, as well as factor that determine the safety of food. Evaluation
of food could be conducted by two ways.
1. Subjective evaluation

.. 2. Objective evaluation

Subjective evaluation :- The evaluation of food is conducted by human sensory

, organs is called subjective evaluation. The important sensory organ by which man
. perceives his food is sight, smell, taste, touch and hearing. Most important sensory ,
properties offood isflavour, taste and odour, temperature consist of hot and cold,
appearance including colour, texture and mouth-feel. Food preparation on large
18
 or small scale is a art of combination of these properties to please the eyes, nose Elements of Food Science

and palate. SQ,sensory evaluation is a scientific discipline used to evoke, measure,

analyse, and interpret reaction to these characteristics of food that are perceived
by senses. There are two main group Ofmethods of sensory evaluation (a) analytical
method (different ranking and quality test) (b) subjective method (preference,
consumer and market tests).

Objective evaluation :- The evaluation of food is conducted by use of instruments

is called objective evaluation. Objective evaluation is conducted by instruments
provided they give.information that correlates well with sensory characteristics,
because sensory evaluation is costly as well as time consuming. Objective
measurementof food is preferable to subjective measurement only if the objective
tests can provide a precise measure of sensory quality. Objective evaluation
involving instruments may be categorized into two types (a) imitative measurement
(b) non-imitative measurement. hnitative measurement is done by instruments that
imitate the way in which human perceive the sensory property like a machine that
duplicate the bite of human teeth. Non-imitative measurement includes any .
determination of chemical! physical properties of food system that statistically
correlates with sensory properties like taste intensity of particular solution may be
predicted by determining the hydrogen ion concentration.

Check Your Progress 3

Note: a) Use the spaces given below for your answers.
b) Check your answers with those given at the end ofthe unit.
1. What do you mean by preservation of food by Irradiation?
.................................................................... , .
.................................~ ' ,. .

..................... " .
\

2. How Freeze Dryer works?

/
............. ; ' .
................... '

. '.
' .

3. How can you evaluate a Food?

9.13 LET US SUM UP

Food' Science consists of basic sciences and engineering to study the fundamental
physical, chemical, biological, biochemical and behavioral science to nature of food,
principles of food processing and marketing of food.

A basic aim of food science is to provide a food, which consists not only processing
, of food to maintain its nutritive value but also considers to increasds shelf-life of a
food. It also consists of different evaluation of food products to maintain a better 19
Ba si c Pri n c ip lc s-Ll quality and reduce spoilage of food and its wastage. Even though a basic aim is
also to develop new techniques of-preservation and keeping quality of food and
to develop new products having good nutritive value and quality with help of different
branches of science and engineering. .

9.14 KEY WORDS

Food Additives Food Additives are non nutritive substance

J
added in to food in small quantity during
processing to enhance its quality and shelf-life.
Fermentation Fermentation is a oxidative process to convert
complex organic compound to a valuable
product.
Preservatives Preservatives are a chemicals that preserve
food from bacteria, yeasts and moulds.
Food Adulteration Food Adulteration is define as addition of
foreign or inferior material and removal of vital
elements from food.
Antioxidants Antioxidants are a compounds that are used
to prevent oxidation of fats in food to' protect
a food from developing rancidity.
Toxicity Toxicity is the capacity of a substance to
produce harm and injury of any kind under any
condition.

9.15 SOME USEFUL REFERENCES

--~----------------
1. GC Birch, JG Brennan and KJ Parker, Sensory Properties of Food, Applied
Science Publication.
2. JR Piggot, Sensory Analysis offood, 1984, Elsevier Applied Science Publisher.
,
3. S Ranga, Hand book of Analysis and Quality control for fruits and Vegetables,
Tata Mac Graw Hill Publication.
4. Govindrajan US, Ginger- chemistry, technology and quality evaluation: Part I,
Food Sci : Nutrition 1982:17(1):1-96.
5. Vijaya Khader, Text book of fo~d science and teclmology, Indian Council of
Agriculture Research.
6. Drewnowski, "Taste Preferance And Food Intake" Annual Review Of Nutrition,
vo1.17:237-253(volume publication date July 1997)
7. Harry H. Sister, Calvin A. Vonder Werf, Food Chemistry, Van Reinhold
Company.

9.16 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check Your Progress 1

1. Material, usually of plant or animal origin, that contains or consists of essential,
body nutrients, such as carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, or minerals, and
is ingested and assimilated by an organism to produce energy, stimulate a
growth, and maintain life. A basic food constituents are Water, Carbohydrates,
Lipids, Amino acids, Proteins, Vitamins, Minerals.
20
2. Proteins are main components of all living cells, its include many substances, Elements of Food Science

such as enzymes, hormones, and antibodies etc. which are necessary for the
proper functioning of an organisms and are essential in the diet of animals for
the growth and repair of tissue, growth, replacement of metabolic losses and
damaged tissue, reproduction, lactation in living cells. Carbohydrates play a
major role in food. Carbohydrates are organic compounds having basic
structure Cx(H20)y. Provide the major part ofthe energy in our diets, assists
in the utilization of fats. Carbohydrates consist of starch, sugars and some
related substances such as sugar a1cohols and organic acids.
3. The quality attributes of food are
Sensory Analysis
Chemical Analysis
Sensory analysis may defme as scientific discipline used to evoke, measure,
analyze and interpret the reaction to those characteristic of foodlbeverage as
they are perceived by the senses of sight, taste, touch and hearing. Sensory
quality of food products is described in terms of colour and appearance, odour,
texture, mouth feel, aroma, taste and after taste.
Check Your Progress 2
1. Food adulteration is defined as the process by which the quality or nature of
food product is adversely affected through the addition of foreign or an inferior
substance and removal of vital element, such as fat from milk and addition if
water to it. Adulteration may be intentional or incidental Intentional adulteration .
caused by addition of foreign or an inferior substance in food like sand, chips,
stone, mud, chalk powder, mineral oil, harmful colour etc. lncidental adulteration
is caused by some toxic pesticide residue, by rodents and insects, tin from
can, larvae in food, microorganism etc.
2. The basic function of Food additives are
1. Food additives provide a consistent texture and prevent products from
separation. It provides thickness, uniform texture as well as anti caking
agents properties to free flow a food.
2. Food additives improve or preserve the nutrient value fortification and
enrichment of foods and make it possible to improve the nutritional status.
3. Food additives maintain the wholesomeness and the palatability of foods
and also keep fresh fruits from turning brown when exposed to the air,
which allow food-borne illnesses to occur.
4. Food additives control the acidity and alkalinity in food to provide
leavening, specific additives assist in modification of the acidity or alkalinity
of foods to obtain a desired taste, color, or flavor.
5. Food additives provide color and enhance a flavour in food.
2. Spoilage in food is directly related to poor sanitation practices, faulty processing
and improper food handling. When food spoilage starts, it undergoes various
physical and chemical changes that leads a food to be inedible and hazardous,
The major type of food spoilage is microbiological, biochemical, physical!
mechanical and chemical.

Check Your Progress 3

1. Food irradiation is used primarily as a preservation method through gamma

rays, but it also has potential as a more general unit operation to produce
specific change in food material, This radiation will kill or harm the
21
Basic Principles-II microorganisms that are on the food. The radiation passes through the food
and is riot stored in it. These' gamma rays work by stripping electrons from
atoms in the microbe. Commonly, these electrons are stripped from atoms that
help to make up the DNA of the microbe. The potential uses of irradiation
heating in food industry are extension of storage life by inhibiting of sprouting,
delay in maturation, sterilization of food, elimination of specific pathogen,
increasing digestibility, insect disinfestations etc.
2~ In freeze drying a material is placed in the lower chamber at very low
temperature and frozen material is dried in upper chamber under very high
vacuum. The material is directly dried by sublimation of ice without passing
through intermediate liquid stage. Such products are highly hygroscopic,
excellent quality oftaste, flavour and easily reconstituted.
3. Evaluation of food is an important part of developing new food products, lower
down cost of production and analyzing its market potential. Evaluation provides
informationpertinent to the quality of food products involving chemistry,physics,
technology of food, degree of excellence, which encompasses taste, aroma,
texture, appearance, nutritional content, as well as factor that determine the
safety of food. Evaluation of food could be conducted by two ways.
1. Subjective evaluation
2. Objective evaluation
Subjective evaluation :- The evaluation of food is conducted by human
sensory organs is called subjective evaluation. The important senses organ by
which man perceives his food is sight, smell, taste, touch and hearing. There
are two main group of methods of sensory evaluation (a) analytical method
(different ranking and quality test) (b) subjective method (preference, consumer
and market tests).
Objective evaluation :- The evaluation of food is conducted by use of
instruments is called objective evaluation. Objective evaluation is conducted
by a instruments provided they give information that correlates well with sensory
characteristics. Objective evaluation involving instruments may be categorized
into two types (a) imitative measurement (b) non-imitative measurement.
Imitative measurement is done by instruments that imitate the way in which
human perceive the sensory property like a machine that duplicate the bite of
human teeth. Non-imitative measurement includes any determination of
chemical! physical properties of food system that statistically correlates with
sensory properties like taste intensity of particular solution may be predicted
by determining the hydrogen ion concentration.
-,..

/ ;,.
,J'
Y

22
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