Gas Engines Emissions PDF

APPLICATION AND INSTALLATION GUIDE
GAS ENGINE EMISSIONS
G3600 • G3500
G3400 • G3300
Contents
Natural Gas Engine Combustion.......................................... 2

Combustion Models ...................................................... 2
Rich-Burn ................................................................. 2
Lean-Burn ................................................................ 3
Exhaust Constituents ........................................................ 6
Water Vapor ................................................................ 6
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) .................................................... 6
Nitrogen (N2) ................................................................ 7
Oxides of Nitrogen (NOX) ............................................... 7
Carbon Monoxide (CO) .................................................. 8
Unburned Hydrocarbons ................................................ 8
Hazardous Air Pollutants................................................ 9
Particulates .................................................................10
Sulfur Dioxide..............................................................10
Influence of Fuel Type on Emissions...................................11
Heavy Hydrocarbons ....................................................12
Inert Gas ....................................................................12
Sour Gas ....................................................................12
Exhaust Gas After-Treatment ............................................13
Catalysts ....................................................................13
Three-Way Catalyst .....................................................14
Oxidation Catalyst .......................................................14
Selective Catalyst Reduction .........................................15
Engine Arrangements .......................................................16
G3600 .......................................................................16
G3500 .......................................................................16
G3400 .......................................................................16
G3300 .......................................................................16
Emission Permitting..........................................................17
USA Federal EPA Legislation .........................................17
USA State, County and Local Legislation ........................17
Overseas Legislation ....................................................19
Guidelines for On-Site Permitting or Certification .................20
Field Resetting.............................................................20
Measurement Location .................................................20
Monitoring ..................................................................20
Measurement Devices ..................................................21
Emission Units & Conversions ...........................................22
Parts Per Million (PPM) .................................................22
Milligrams Per Normal Meter Cubed (mg/Nm3) .................23
Mass Units..................................................................24
Molecular Weight.........................................................25
Fuel Rate ....................................................................25
Definitions ......................................................................26
Foreword
This section of the Application and Installation Guide generally describes
Gas Engine Emissions for Caterpillar® engines listed on the cover of this
section. Additional engine systems, components and dynamics are addressed
in other sections of this Application and Installation Guide.
Engine-specific information and data is available from a variety of sources.
Refer to the Introduction section of this guide for additional references.
Systems and components described in this guide may not be available or
applicable for every engine.
Some emission levels and values in this guide are generalized and are
provided only for the purpose of comparison.
Information contained in this publication may be considered confidential.

Discretion is recommended when distributing. Materials and specifications
are subject to change without notice.
CAT, CATERPILLAR, their respective logos and “Caterpillar Yellow”, as well

as corporate and product identity used herein, are trademarks of Caterpillar
and may not be used without permission.
©2005 Caterpillar®
All rights reserved.
Application and Installation Guide Gas Engine Emissions
Gas Engine Emissions

In theory, the ideal combustion of gas and air is revealed in the following
equation: CH4+2O2+7.52N2 = 2H2O+CO2+7.52N2. Note that this equation
is for pure methane and that typical gas fuels are comprised of other
constituents which require different combustion equations.
Unfortunately, combustion in a real-world gas engine is far from ideal.
Undesirable exhaust emissions can be formed by the interaction of a specific
combustion design or the prevailing operating conditions which can cause
imperfect combustion.
Small amounts of oxides of nitrogen (NOX), carbon monoxide (CO) and
unburned or partially burned hydrocarbons are emitted from the exhaust. The
amounts vary greatly depending upon engine design, application, operation
and maintenance.
Critical operating conditions include combustion temperature, air/fuel ratio
of the inlet charge, engine load, engine design (piston crevice volume, spark
plug location, charge turbulence, jacket water temperature) and control
system capability (ignition timing, inlet charge, mixture control).
This guide addresses natural gas engine emissions through description and
discussion of combustion, natural gas fuels, engine configuration,
environmental requirements, permitting and certification.
SECTION CONTENTS
Natural Gas Combustion ....... 2 • Overseas Legislation
• Combustion Models Guidelines for On-Site
Exhaust Constituents ........... 6 Permitting or Certification ....20
Influence of Fuel Type on • Field Resetting
Emissions ..........................11 • Measurement Location
• Heavy Hydrocarbons • Monitoring
• Inert Gas • Measurement Devices
• Sour Gas Emission Units &
Exhaust Gas Conversions .......................22
After-Treatment..................13 • Parts Per Million (PPM)
• Catalysts • Milligrams Per Normal Meter
• Selective Catalyst Reduction Cubed (mg/Nm3)
Engine Arrangements ..........16 • Mass Units
• G3600, G3500, G3400 & • Molecular Weight
G3300 • Fuel Rate
Emission Permitting.............17 Definitions .........................26
• USA Federal EPA Legislation
• USA State, County and
Local Legislation
All rights reserved. Page 1
Gas Engine Emissions Application and Installation Guide
Natural Gas Engine Combustion

The main components of natural The primary distinction between the
gas engine exhaust are nitrogen, two is the amount of excess air
water, carbon dioxide, and oxygen admitted prior to combustion.
(in lean burn engines). Rich-burn engines are designed to
Critical operating conditions operate with a minimum amount of
include combustion temperature, air for combustion and lean-burn
air/fuel ratio of the inlet charge, engines use 50% to 100% more air
engine load, engine design (piston than is necessary for combustion.
crevice volume, spark plug location, Rich-Burn
charge turbulence, jacket water Rich-burn engines use only enough
temperature) and control system air to burn all of the mixture in the
capability (ignition timing, inlet cylinder at combustion. This
charge, mixture control).
condition is referred to as
The combustion chamber design stoichiometric combustion or
affects the combustion temperature theoretical combustion.
and efficiency, thereby changing the The objective of stoichiometric
level of emissions. Changing the combustion is to achieve complete
air/fuel ratio, timing, load and fuel fuel burn with no oxygen or fuel left
type also changes the quantities of over after combustion.
certain constituents in the exhaust
stream. Rich-burn engines are often
selected when NOX emission
This section discusses combustion requirements are very low. In these
methods in Caterpillar natural gas cases, an after-treatment system
engines.
(such as a three-way catalyst) can
Combustion Models be added to drop NOX to as low as
Reciprocating engines are grouped 0.15 grams per brake horsepower
into two general categories based on per hour (g/bhp-hr).
the combustion model used in their Rich-burn engines typically produce
design: “rich-burn” and “lean-burn”. emission levels as shown in Table 1.
Page 2 All rights reserved.
Typical Rich-Burn Emission Levels (g/bhp-hr)

NOX CO THC NMHC
Setting (Oxides of (Carbon (Total (Non Methane
Nitrogen) Monoxide) Hydrocarbons) Hydrocarbons)
10% rich (Lambda=0.9)
5.0 40.0 2.0 0.30
of Stoichiometric
Stoichiometric
10.0 10.0 1.5 0.20
(Lambda=1.0)
10% lean (Lambda=1.1)
20.0 1.0 1.0 0.15
of Stoichiometric
Table 1
A rich-burn engine is typically set monitors combustion and adjusts the

upto achieve minimum fuel air/fuel ratio to maintain the proper
consumption which is also the balance.
setting at which NOx emissions are Rich-burn engines are power
the highest. This setting is slightly limited due to high exhaust
leaner than the stoichiometric point, temperatures and in-cylinder
as some extra oxygen must be made detonation. They are most often
available to ensure the most used when fuel efficiency is not the
complete combustion possible. In primary requirement.
terms of lambda (the air/fuel
equivalence ratio = actual air/fuel Lean-Burn
ratio ÷ stoichiometric air/fuel ratio), Lean-burn engines operate with
this is about lambda=1.05. large amounts of excess air, as
much as 50% to 100% more air
On a rich-burn engine, the air/fuel than the stoichiometric requirement.
ratio will vary with changes in load
and/or speed depending on the The excess air absorbs heat during
design of the fuel system the combustion process which
(carburetor, etc.). In general, power- reduces the combustion temperature
specific levels of NOx will vary in and pressure. This results in greatly
the opposite direction of CO and reduced levels of NOX.
THC (i.e., NOx falls while CO and There are two common types of
THC rise and vice versa). lean-burn engines: open chamber
If a three-way catalyst is to be and enriched pre-chamber.
used, the relative levels of NOx, CO Open-chamber
and THC must remain fairly Open-chamber engines draw an
constant. This is accomplished with air/fuel mixture into the cylinder and
an air/fuel ratio control, a device that ignite the mixture with a spark plug.
This technology provides good specific heats which in turn causes

efficiency and NOX emission levels increased expansion work, thereby
as low as 0.5 g/bhp-hr. providing better efficiency.
As the air/fuel ratio increases, Enriched Pre-chamber
combustion speed decreases. Pre-chambered engines use a small
Continuing in this direction, start of enclosure separate from the main
combustion eventually becomes very combustion chamber to ignite the
erratic and lean misfire results. This air/fuel mixture under more
lean limit is marked as point C in controlled conditions. An enriched
Figure 1. pre-chamber provides an additional
Lean-burn engines are specifically fuel feed to alter the air/fuel ratio in
designed to handle a high volume the pre-chamber. This allows the
air/fuel flow with minimal pumping pre-chamber to be ignited at a near
losses. However, adjusting a given stoichiometric ratio, serving as a
engine leaner will increase fuel very high-energy ignition source for
consumption due to increased the very lean main chamber (where
pumping work. lambda may be 2.0 or greater). Pre-
chambers are typically found in
Lean-burn engines are typically
engines with bore diameters greater
more efficient than stoichiometric
than 200 mm and rotating speeds
engines. The lower combustion
less than 1200 rpm.
temperatures raise the ratio of
Air/Fuel Ratio vs. Brake Mean Effective Pressure

for Rich-Burn Combustion Model
Figure 1
Exhaust Constituents
Exhaust Gas Components

Rich-Burn, LAMBDA = 1.0 Lean-Burn, LAMBDA = 1.5
Constituents
% weight % volume % weight % volume
Nitrogen 72 70.7 73.3 73.1
Water 12.7 19.4 8.6 13.3
Carbon Dioxide 13.8 8.6 9.3 5.9
Oxygen 0.5 0.4 7.9 6.5
Oxides of Nitrogen 0.35 0.21 0.05 0.03
Carbon Monoxide 0.45 0.44 0.03 0.03
Unburned
0.08 0.17 0.07 0.15
Hydrocarbons
Table 2
Table 2 displays typical proportions

Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
of various exhaust constituents for
Carbon dioxide (CO2), along with
rich- and lean-burn configurations.
water and nitrogen are the main
Water Vapor components of exhaust from all
Water vapor is water in its purest hydrocarbon combustion processes.
form and is one of the basic However, CO2 is inert and is usable
byproducts of ideal combustion. by plant life as a basic component of
Although it is an exhaust photosynthesis.
constituent, it is non-polluting and Carbon dioxide is not regulated as
thus not an emissions concern. It is, a direct irritant or carcinogen, such
however, a concern of the exhaust as NOX, but some regions are
system components from a considering limits on CO2
serviceability and longevity production.
standpoint. The potential for water Because CO2 is a direct byproduct
vapor condensation must be of combustion, CO2 emissions are
considered in the design of the proportional to combustion
exhaust system. Stainless steel efficiency. When compared to other
silencers, piping, expansion joints, carbon fuels, natural gas delivers the
etc, are commonly used in lowest levels of CO2 produced per
applications where condensation is a unit of energy delivered.
concern.
Nitrogen (N2) (unburned hydrocarbons), NO2 can

Nitrogen is an inert gas that exists promote the creation of O3, or
naturally in the inlet air (and ozone, the primary component of
sometimes in the fuel gas). In its photochemical smog. This ozone is
diatomic form, N2, nitrogen is stable present at or near ground level, in
and non-reactive, thus diatomic contrast with the ozone in the upper
nitrogen found in engine exhaust is atmosphere which shields the Earth
not a regulated constituent. Nitrogen from excessive ultra-violet radiation.
is not typically a concern until it is Ground level ozone damages lung
dissociated by the high temperatures tissue and reduces lung function.
of combustion, enabling the NOx production is heavily
formation of oxides of nitrogen (see influenced by combustion
next section). temperature which, in turn, is
affected by the amount of excess air
Oxides of Nitrogen (NOX) present during combustion. As
Oxides of nitrogen (NOX) is a shown in Figure 2, NOx emissions
family of compounds, including nitric vary greatly with air/fuel ratio,
oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide peaking slightly lean of
(NO2). These compounds are stoichiometry (lambda=1.0) and
produced from combustion with air falling off sharply with successively
which is 79% nitrogen. Nitric oxide leaner mixtures (lambda>1.0).
(NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) are
typically grouped together as NOX NOX production is also strongly
emissions. Nitric oxide is created affected by the amount of exhaust
from the oxidation of atmospheric gas in the cylinder and the ignition
nitrogen. Once NO arrives in the timing. Exhaust gas remaining in the
atmosphere, it reacts with diatomic cylinder or ingested with the intake
oxygen to form NO2. mixture (EGR) contains inert gases.
These inert gases absorb heat and
Nitrogen dioxide is known to reduce the combustion temperature
irritate the lungs and lower the which subsequently lowers the NOX.
resistance to respiratory infections in Retarding the ignition timing reduces
humans. It is also an important the peak cylinder pressure and
precursor to the production of temperature, again lowering the
ozone. In the presence of ultraviolet actual NOX output.
light and volatile organic compounds
Figure 2
dramatically, as can be seen in

Carbon Monoxide (CO)
Figure 2. Lean of stoichiometry, the
Carbon monoxide (CO) is the result
CO level is fairly stable, increasing
of incomplete combustion of carbon
slightly at high lambda due to
and oxygen. Carbon monoxide is
decreased combustion efficiency.
formed when insufficient oxygen or
poor charge mixing interferes with CO concentration is also affected
the mechanism to produce CO2. CO by combustion chamber design. For
formation is greatest when the fuel chambers with a large crevice
mixture is rich (lambda less than 1); volume between the top piston ring
however, CO also forms when a and the top of the piston, CO
very lean mixture cannot sustain production will be increased.
complete combustion. Unburned fuel will emerge from the
crevice during the expansion process
Carbon monoxide enters the
and some will partially oxidize into
bloodstream of humans and reduces
CO.
the delivery of oxygen to the body's
organs and tissues. Exposure to CO CO levels increase when there is a
is most serious for people with large amount of CO2 in the fuel,
cardiovascular disease, but even in such as landfill or digester gas.
healthy people, CO can impair work Carbon dioxide will dissociate and
capacity, manual dexterity and increase CO levels by 40 to 60%.
learning ability.
Unburned Hydrocarbons
Carbon monoxide emissions in gas Hydrocarbon emissions result from
engines are controlled primarily by incomplete combustion of
the air/fuel ratio. For engine hydrocarbon fuels. The composition
operation fuel lean of stoichiometric, will vary some according to the
excess oxygen is available to oxidize incoming composition of the fuel.
CO into CO2. Moving fuel rich of The reactivity of particular
stoichiometry, oxygen is in short hydrocarbon molecules varies
supply and CO production increases considerably, some being nearly inert
physiologically and some being very • Absorption and desorption of

reactive in the production of fuel in the oil layer (25%).
photochemical smog. Methane has a • Incomplete combustion from
very low reactivity and for this either partial burning or
reason is often excluded from complete misfire.
hydrocarbon regulations and
Since many fuels contain a
measurements. Heavier
majority of methane, the exhaust
hydrocarbons are generally more
reactive. hydrocarbons are mostly methane.
On Caterpillar engines using natural
Unburned hydrocarbons are gas, the non-methane hydrocarbons
typically grouped into three generally do not exceed 15%
categories: (volume) of the total hydrocarbon
• Total Hydrocarbons (THC) level.
• Non Methane Hydrocarbons NMNEHCs are all unburned fuel
(NMHC) except methane and ethane. To
• Non Methane, Non Ethane predict NMNEHC emission levels,
Hydrocarbons (NMNEHC) the fuel composition must be
known.
A THC measurement will include
all exhaust emissions of methane, Hazardous Air Pollutants
ethane, propane, butane, pentane The US EPA has recently
and higher molecular weight recognized specific pollutants as
hydrocarbons. being hazardous air pollutants
A NMHC measurement, sometimes (HAPs). Although numerous HAPs
referred to as volatile organic may be emitted from the engine
compounds (VOC), will account for combustion, only a few aldehydes
all hydrocarbons except for account for virtually all of the mass
methane. of HAPs from a reciprocating engine.
Hydrocarbon emissions versus These four are:
air/fuel ratio are shown in Figure 2. • Formaldehyde
At rich and very lean air/fuel ratios, • Acrolein
combustion efficiency deteriorates
• Methanol
as THC levels increase.
• Acetaldehyde
Unburned hydrocarbons have four
main sources:
• Flame quenching at cylinder
walls, leaving a small layer of
unburned air/fuel mixture
(10%).
• Crevice volumes that fill with
air/fuel and do not combust
(65%).
Note: Aldehydes resulting from Particulates

combustion are dependent on the Particulates have been linked to
type of fuel burned. For example, aggravated respiratory functions,
partially burned CH4 results in the reduction of the human body's
creation of formaldehyde and defense against foreign materials
partially burned C3H8 creates and increased levels of cancer.
propanaldehyde.
The combustion of natural gas
Of these four compounds, produces virtually no particulates.
formaldehyde is found in greatest However, small amounts are
quantities in engine exhaust. produced from the normal
Formaldehyde is a human combustion of engine oil in the
carcinogen and can cause irritation combustion chamber. Typical oil
of the eyes and respiratory tract. consumption of a modern natural
Acrolein is corrosive and can cause gas burning engine is less than 0.24
severe irritation of the eyes, nose, g/bhp-hr. A majority of this oil will
throat and lungs, but is not burn in the combustion chamber. It
considered a carcinogen in humans. is conservatively estimated that less
than half the oil consumed becomes
Methanol in acute doses can cause particulate in the exhaust stream at
blindness, coma and death. a level of 0.1 g/bhp-hr. Frequently,
Acetaldehyde can irritate the eye particulate information is requested
membranes, skin and upper as PM-10, or particulate matter less
respiratory tract and is a probable than 10 microns in diameter.
carcinogen in humans.
The EPA has determined which
Sulfur Dioxide
Sulfur will only be present in the
stationary engines are affected and
exhaust of a gas engine when it is
when the rule applies, according to
present in the fuel or oil. Most
power, application, combustion type
pipeline fuels contain only a trace or
(rich-burn or lean-burn) and fuel
no sulfur compounds. Natural gas
type, among others. Not all
engine oils typically have very little if
stationary engines are affected by
any sulfur. Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is
the rule. Those that are affected
the most common sulfur-bearing
may require the addition of an
compound found in gaseous fuels,
oxidizing catalyst in the exhaust
often occurring in landfill, digester
stream. This catalyst will remove the
and wellhead or associated gases.
HAPs prior to reaching the
Caterpillar limits for sulfur bearing
atmosphere. Also, some engines will
compounds in the fuel can be found
require periodic inspection and
in the Fuels Application and
maintenance of the catalyst. We
Installation Guide. The H2S in the
recommend that you consult with
fuel will be burned in the combustion
your dealer to determine if your
chamber to yield very low levels of
engine is affected by this rule.
sulfur dioxide and sulfuric acid.
Influence of Fuel Type on Emissions

Variations in the heating value of a actually means that there is more
fuel or in the temperature of the fuel (mass) present in a given
incoming fuel can significantly affect volume. Since the carburetor will
levels of exhaust emissions on continue to deliver the same volume
engines that do not have air-fuel of fuel for a given volume of air, the
ratio control. increased mass flow of the fuel will
A change in the heating value of a result in a richer air/fuel ratio. The
fuel will change the air/fuel ratio hotter mixture raises NOX emissions.
required to maintain a certain Cooler combustion reduces NOx but
emission level. Carburetors are increases CO.
designed to maintain a constant In order to maintain a nearly
air/fuel ratio (on a volume-to-volume constant emission level for an engine
basis) for a given engine load. without the use of an air/fuel ratio
Therefore, any change in the heating control system, the guidelines
value of the fuel will result in a less shown in Table 3 should be
desirable air/fuel ratio for a specific followed.
emissions level. Changes in heating
value are generally not a problem
with commercially available natural Fuel Temperature ±5.5°C
to Carburetor* (±10°F)
gas or propane. However, digester
gases, manufactured gases and field Fuel LHV
±0.43 MJ/Nm3
gases can be subject to large ±11 Btu/scf
variations in heating value if strict * Relative to intake air temperature.
controls are not placed on the
Table 3
process by which the gas is
produced.
Changes in fuel temperature, Emission data presented in TMI
assuming a constant air and on specification sheets is valid
temperature, can also change the for a particular fuel. The emissions
emission levels of a given engine. data given for natural gas should not
This is because the carburetors used be used for propane or landfill gas.
in Caterpillar gas engines meter fuel
into the incoming air on a volume-to- Propane fueled engines require a
volume basis. Changes in fuel lower compression ratio to avoid
temperature will change the density detonation.
of the fuel and result in a different When burning propane, THC
air/fuel ratio on a mass-to-mass emissions equal NMHC emissions
basis. because there is no methane in the
For example, if the incoming fuel is fuel.
cooled, the density of the fuel will THC emissions for landfill gas are
increase. The increase in fuel density comprised almost entirely of
methane because the only combustion chamber. Consequently,

hydrocarbon contained in landfill gas its impact is limited to situations
is methane. In this case, NMHC where it forces an engine to be
emissions levels are nearly zero and derated due to inadequate fuel
result from oil consumption. delivery capacity.
CO2 carries a greater molecular
Heavy Hydrocarbons
mass which gives it the ability to
Heavy hydrocarbons impact
absorb heat energy and thus slow
ignition timing for open-chamber
the burn rate. This reduces the
engines. However, the timing is
tendency to detonate, but increases
optimized for the altered burn rate to
the exhaust port temperature. The
achieve similar detonation margins.
impact is largely limited to methane
NMHC and NMNEHC would be
only. CO2's impact on heavier
directly impacted by the change in
hydrocarbons has been shown to be
fuel composition however.
much less.
Inert Gas
Sour Gas
Inert gases have an apparently
Sour gas contains a sizeable
limited impact on performance and
presence of H2S, thus the emissions
emissions.
of SOX will be proportionately
N2 does little more than occupy higher.
space in the fuel system and
Exhaust Gas After-Treatment

When emission level requirements catalyst operation. The functional
are below the levels attainable by minimum temperature is known as
the engine, exhaust gas treatment “light-off”. It is the point at which
may be applied. There are various the conversion efficiency becomes
types of after-treatment for gas greater than 50%. The maximum
engines and they are based on the temperature is below the point at
use of catalysts. Three-way which the noble metals begin to melt
catalysts, oxidation catalysts and and pool on the substrate. This
selective catalyst reduction (SCR) clumping of noble metals reduces
are the more common aftertreatment the effective surface area and
devices used. Each method has diminishes catalyst efficiency. High
particular attributes that provides temperatures will occur if large
appropriate after-treatment for amounts of unburned fuel pass into
various gas engine fuel systems and the catalyst device. The device
most gaseous fuels. manufacturer can provide specific
minimum and maximum
Catalysts temperatures.
In discussion of exhaust after-
The conversion efficiency of a new
treatment, the term catalyst can be
catalyst device can be as high as
used to describe the after-treatment
95%, but through normal use will
device or the noble metals used in
continually deteriorate. Deterioration
the device.
is caused by catalyst fouling and
The after-treatment device catalyst poisoning.
(catalyst) consists of a high
Catalyst fouling is usually a result
temperature tolerant substrate
of combustion byproducts, such as
coated with noble metals (catalyst).
ash or silicon, coating the noble
The devices are designed to provide
metals. Catalyst fouling can often be
a very high surface area to maximize
reversed by periodic cleaning.
contact between the exhaust gas
and the noble metals. Note: Engine applications that
require high ash oil or have a fuel
Platinum, palladium and rhodium
with contaminants should not apply
are typically the noble metals used
catalysts. This typically includes
to enable and accelerate a chemical
landfill and digester gas applications.
reaction within a temperature range.
The reaction combines byproducts Catalyst poisoning is a result of
of incomplete combustion with compounds being adsorbed into the
available oxygen, converting them to noble metals. Catalyst poisoning
less troublesome compounds. permanently interferes with catalyst
function. Sulfur-bearing compounds
Catalyst efficiency is greatly
adsorbed into specific noble metals
affected by temperature; there is a
are irreversible and require the
specific temperature window for
replacement of the catalyst device.
Three-Way Catalyst Figure 3 shows the window of

Three-way catalysts use oxygen to operation for three-way catalysts.
treat exhaust emissions; however,
three-way catalysts do not use Oxidation Catalyst
unburned combustion oxygen to On lean-burn engines, oxidation
reduce emissions, they make use of catalysts using platinum and
the oxygen within the constituent palladium are effective at lowering
compounds. Oxygen from NOX is CO and NMHC levels in exhaust
used to oxidize the CO and HC. This emissions.
converts the three pollutants into Methane is difficult to oxidize at
more innocuous elements of N2, CO2 exhaust temperatures provided by
and H2O. lean-burn engines; therefore, the
Catalysts may be used in series to conversion efficiency for methane
obtain lower emission levels. can be very low. No air-fuel ratio
control system is required with this
Note: Three-way catalysts are type of catalyst and it can be applied
rendered ineffective by excess to either rich-burn or lean-burn
oxygen leftover from the combustion engines.
process. Therefore, this after-
treatment is used on rich-burn
engines only and requires the use of
an air-fuel ratio control system.
Typically, the reduction level for
NOX is 90 to 95%, CO is 50 to
90%, and HC is 50%.
Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals
Figure 3
SCR may require a closed-loop

Selective Catalyst Reduction
control to manage the urea injection
Selective Catalytic Reduction
rate. The closed-loop control
(SCR) is an exhaust gas after-
measures the actual NOX level out of
treatment that specifically targets
the catalyst to determine if the urea
the NOX in engine exhaust and
injection rate is adequate.
converts it to N2 and H2O. Unlike the
three-way catalyst which uses Some of the expense of an SCR
oxygen from the exhaust stream to installation is in the form of an
treat emissions, SCR injects a oxidation catalyst. Because SCR
compound into the exhaust stream lowers only NOx levels, any limits
to start the reaction. pertaining to CO or THC must be
addressed by adding an oxidation
The process begins when a small
catalyst to the system. Oxidation
amount of urea, a nontoxic and
catalysts require high temperatures
biologically harmless compound, is
for optimal operation and should be
injected into the exhaust stream.
placed upstream of the SCR. Note
After hydrolysis, the urea becomes
also that NOx levels do increase a
ammonia and reacts with NOX to
small amount across an oxidation
break down into nitrogen and water.
catalyst; this effect should be taken
On closed-loop control systems into account when sizing the SCR.
SCR can reduce gas engine NOX by
greater than 95%. Engine Arrangements
Figure 3 shows that emission
Although prices have declined, levels are affected by the air/fuel
SCR systems are generally ratio. Emission levels will also
expensive. An SCR requires change with changes in load, speed
ammonia tanks and ammonia and compression ratio. Figure 1
metering. Without precise control, shows a map of possible areas of
the system may let ammonia pass operation for a gas engine.
through the catalyst, a phenomenon
known as “ammonia slip”. Ammonia The area for rich-burn operation is
slip can be avoided if the urea indicated by point A and the lean-
injection is metered to match the burn operation by point B. Reduced
NOX that the engine is producing. NOX is achieved by moving leaner.
This requires an air/fuel ratio control Operating with NOX levels close to
to stabilize the NOX emissions level. the lean limit, generally below 1.5
In cases where the NOX level will grams NOX/bhp-hr, usually require
still vary due to external factors, the the use of an air/fuel ratio control.
Engine Arrangements
compression ratio and are designed
G3600 to operate at speeds ranging from
All G3600 engines employ 1000 to 1200 rpm. NOX emissions
enriched pre-combustion chambers from the rich-burn are approximately
in order to get excellent efficiency 10 g/bhp-hr. Applications of these
and very low emissions. The G3600 engines are for areas where
engines are designed for not more emissions are not regulated or where
than 0.7 g/bhp hr NOX operation. regulations are such that a three-
The pre-chamber produces an way catalyst must be used.
aggressive combustion allowing
excellent engine efficiency with very G3400
low NOX levels. All G3600 engines G3400 engines are all open
have an air/fuel ratio control as chamber and are available in lean-
standard equipment. burn and stoichiometric or rich-burn
configurations. NOX levels and fuel
G3500 consumption levels are
G3500 engines are all open proportionately similar to that of the
chamber and available in both lean- non-LE G3500 engines.
burn and stoichiometric or rich-burn
configurations. The lowest NOX G3300
levels are achieved with lean-burn, G3300 engines are all open
high speed and high compression chamber and are available in rich-
ratio. The minimum NOX is 0.5 burn configurations. An 8:1 and
g/bhp-hr for a high compression ratio 10.5:1 compression ratio are offered
configuration and 1.5 g/bhp-hr for with speeds ranging from 1000 to
an 8:1 compression ratio 1800 rpm. NOX levels and fuel
configuration. The lowest emission consumption are proportionately
levels require the use of an air/fuel similar to the non-LE G3400 and
ratio control. G3500 stoichiometric engines.
The rich-burn (stoichiometric)
engines are available in 9:1
Emission Permitting
Caterpillar published emission data or CO in an attainment area, a
for stoichiometric and G3600 Prevention of Significant
products are provided at "not to Deterioration (PSD) review is
exceed" levels for all exhaust required. Attainment refers to
constituents. NOX levels are nominal an area in compliance with
for G3400 and G3500 low emission Federal guidelines for that
products since the engine can be particular constituent.
adjusted in the field to the NOX level. • If the site is in a non-
Upon request, Caterpillar will attainment area (where
provide a detailed emission Federal emissions guidelines
chemistry data sheet to help in the have been exceeded), a PSD
permitting process for your engine. review is required.
CO and HC emissions information
provided by Caterpillar includes a USA State, County and Local
margin above the nominal Legislation
measurement value to account for Federal regulations require each
differences in emission measurement state to implement a plan to bring
equipment, engine-to-engine areas of non-attainment into
variations and fuel fluctuations. compliance. In addition, counties or
It is the customer's responsibility municipalities may have their own
to obtain the required operating requirements. Required emission
permits from the appropriate levels and how one should achieve
regulatory agency. The process can operating permits vary considerably.
be lengthy, so proper consideration In general, an engine or group of
should be given when ordering the engines will be considered either a
engine. In some cases, the customer major or a minor source. These
or dealer may do the permitting. usually require an operation permit
There are times when a consultant which can take 3 to 8 months to
should be hired to help complete the obtain. Many of these local
permitting process. The cost of legislations will have horsepower
permitting can be significant and minimums. Below these horsepower
must be quoted as part of the total levels, the engine may be fully
job. It is essential to the success of exempt and only need to file a
the job that permitting is completed. notice of intent.
Stationary engines are defined as
USA Federal EPA Legislation
those which remain in a fixed
In the USA, review of a project
position for 12 months or longer.
takes place at a federal level when
These engines are regulated by state
one of two events takes place:
and local air boards, which typically
• If the site exceeds 250 have specific pollution requirements.
tons/year of NOX, SO2, HC, O3 Consult with your Caterpillar dealer
or local air regulating agency to

know what requirements you may Not only do these various entities
need to follow. have different emission targets, they
Note: the current exception to this can also determine what control
general rule is the recent technology, such as lean-burn or
requirement by the USA EPA to rich-burn with three-way catalyst, is
regulate hazardous air pollutants used through application of Best
(HAPs). Available Control Technology
Examples of a few North American (BACT). Consult with your local
regulations are shown in Table 4. regulatory agency to determine the
The values in the table are subject to current requirements.
change without notification.
North American Regulations*
Location NOX CO NMHC
California 2003 0.15 g/bhp hr 0.5 g/bhp hr 0.6 g/bhp hr

Connecticut 2.5 g/bhp hr – –
Massachusetts 2.5 g/bhp hr – –
New York 0.5 g/bhp-hr 3.2 g/bhp-hr -
New Jersey 0.07 g/bhp-hr 0.5 g/bhp-hr 25 ppm @ 15% O2
East Texas 0.15 g/bhp hr - -
* Provided as an example only. Consult with your local regulatory agency to determine the current
requirements.
Table 4
on these and other overseas

Overseas Legislation
countries.
Regulations vary widely around the
world. Some common regulations Note: Most European regulations
are seen in Table 5. Countries such require dry reporting with the
as China, India and Brazil are oxygen level adjusted to 5%. A
currently establishing emissions change is underway; however, to
standards. Consult your Caterpillar convert these values to 15% oxygen
dealer for information on standards level to be more directly comparable
to turbine emission levels.
Common Worldwide Regulations*

Country NOX CO NMHC
Australia 500 mg/Nm3 @ 5%O2 650 mg/Nm3 @ 5% O2 –

3 3
Denmark 650 mg/Nm @ 30% elec 650 mg/Nm @ 5% O2 –
England 500 mg/Nm3@ 5% O2 650 mg/Nm3@ 5% O2 –
3 3
Germany 250 mg/Nm @ 5% O2 650 mg/Nm @ 5% O2 150 mg/Nm3 @ 5% O2
Holland 140 g/GJ @ 30% mech –
3
Hungary 3.4 g/m – –
3 3
Italy 500 mg/Nm @ 5% O2 650 mg/Nm –
Japan 200 ppm @ 0% 02 – –
Spain 300 ppm 500 ppm –
Sweden 500 mg/Nm3@ 5% O2 650 mg/Nm3 @ 5% O2 –
3 3
Switzerland 80 mg/Nm @ 5% O2 650 mg/Nm @ 5% O2 –
* Provided as an example only. Consult with the local regulatory agency to determine the current
requirements.
Table 5
Guidelines for On-Site Permitting or Certification

generally a negotiated item in the
Field Resetting permitting process which, if
When an engine leaves the factory, required, will add significant cost to
it has been set under factory the project. Periodic measurements
conditions. Field conditions will vary are done by portable meters at a
from the factory and some reasonable cost.
adjustments will be required. The
Direct measurement of NOX and
engine should be field-set to the
adjustment to the engine are easily
desired emission level. If certification
done with NOX meters. The oxygen
is a process involving one emission
level in the exhaust is proportional to
measurement on site without notice,
the air/fuel ratio as shown in Figure
hire an emission contractor before
1. This oxygen level should correlate
this test to set the engine for site-
closely with the desired NOX level. If
specific conditions. Even if this is
certification is to be done, it is
not the case, it is a good practice to
strongly advised that a NOX meter
fine-tune the engine two weeks in
be used to set the NOX instead of an
advance; this will allow for any
oxygen meter. Changes in air/fuel
maintenance needed to bring the
ratio, timing, intake manifold
application into compliance. A
temperature and fuel composition
contracted emission measurement
affect NOX must be accounted for by
service may cost between $3000,
readjustment of the engine or by use
and $10,000.
of an automatic air/fuel ratio control.
Measurement Location For a lean-burn engine, it is not
To correlate with Caterpillar possible to adjust the engine to
emissions reports, measurements significantly change the level of
should be made downstream of the carbon dioxide and hydrocarbons.
turbocharger. Some conversion of After-treatment will be required if
CO to CO2 occurs in the relatively CO or HC levels exceed the
high temperature exhaust upstream regulations. Rich-burn engines
of the turbocharger. Emission levels should be carefully adjusted when
provided by Caterpillar represent using a catalyst, as CO levels rise
measurements at the engine quickly as the air/fuel ratio move rich
exhaust, not downstream at the site of stoichiometric.
stack outlet.
Monitoring
The preferred method of
monitoring gas engine emissions is
periodic measurement of NOX. Some
regulatory bodies may require
continuous monitoring. This is
CO2 concentration in the sample

Measurement Devices
chamber. This meter requires water
Measurement of NOX is
to be removed from the sample;
traditionally performed using a
hence, the results will be expressed
chemiluminescence meter. The
as dry.
meter measures the amount of light
emitted by photons released when Hydrocarbons are measured using
nitrogen oxide reacts with ozone. a flame ionization detector (FID).
The sample passes through a This device burns the sample in a
catalyst to convert any NO2 to NO hydrogen and air flame surrounded
and then is exposed to ozone. The by an electric field. The field
intensity of the ensuing reaction is responds to the number of ions
proportional to the amount of NO in produced. This meter does not give
the sample. This meter requires information about the hydrocarbon
water to be removed from the structure but provides an indication
sample; hence, the results will be of the total hydrocarbon content. For
expressed as dry. a specific analysis of hydrocarbon
constituents, a gas chromatograph is
Measurement of CO and CO2 is
typically used. The chromatograph
done in an infrared analyzer. CO and
separates complex mixtures through
CO2 strongly absorb light at 4.6 and
selectively adsorptive compounds.
4.2 µ respectively. An infrared light
The FID uses wet samples while the
source is passed through a reference
chromatograph needs dry samples.
chamber and a chamber with the
gas sample. The chambers absorb When converting to mass volumes,
energy from the light source and are a molecular weight of 15.84 is used
connected by a diaphragm that in accordance of ISO8178-1 1996.
deflects proportionally to the CO or
Emission Units & Conversions

When measuring and reporting
emissions information, many ppm @ (ppm(measured)) x (20.9 - X%O2)
different units are used. =
X% O2 (20.9 - %O2 measured)
Where:
Parts Per Million (PPM)
Exhaust constituents are X% = Desired oxygen level
commonly measured in volume units
of parts per million (ppm) of Example:
exhaust. Since the values use the An exhaust constituent value of
exhaust volume as a reference, it is 325 ppm with 8% O2 can be
important to note whether the converted to 5% O2.
exhaust volume is the full “wet”
exhaust flow that could be ppm @ 325 ppm measured x (20.9 - 5% O2)
=
measured, including water vapor, or 5% O2 (20.9 - 8%O2 measured)
if it is a comparison to a “dry”
ppm @
exhaust volume, without water = 402 ppm
5% O2
vapor. NOX, CO and O2 are typically
dry measurements since the
equipment used to analyze these Similarly, to correct from one ppm
constituents require a dry exhaust level to another:
sample. In contrast, HC is usually ppm @ (ppm(reported)) x (20.9 - X% O2)
=
measured wet. X% O2 (20.9 - %O2 reported)
Since combustion exhaust gases
include oxygen levels that vary
significantly with engine model and
configuration, an exhaust O2 level is
generally referenced with an
emission measurement expressed in
volume units. The reference
condition for the measured ppm is
the measured or “uncorrected” O2
level.
Regulating agencies often request
data reported at a specified
reference exhaust level such as 0%,
3%, 5%, or 15%. The following
equations can be used to convert or
“correct” from one exhaust O2%
level to another. They can be applied
whether the values are on a wet or
dry basis.
Example:
Milligrams Per Normal Meter The following example converts
Cubed (mg/Nm3) 325 ppm NOx from parts per million
Milligrams per normal meter cubed to milligrams per normal meter
(mg/Nm3) are another common cubed.
volume based unit of measure for
325 ppm NOx x 2.052 mg/Nm3 NOx/ppm =
exhaust emissions. Converting from
667 mg/Nm3 NOx
ppm to mg/Nm3 can be done as
follows:
mg/Nm3 units require a %O2
ppm x P x MW
mg/Nm3 = reference point; this is the same
RxT
requirement as ppm. The same
equations apply to convert from one
Where: O2 level to another.
P= Pressure in kPa, for normal Continuing with the same example:
conditions, this is 101.3 If the 325 ppm NOx is at 8%
kPa exhaust O2, the 667 mg/Nm3 is also
MW = Molecular weight of the at 8% exhaust O2. To convert to 5%
exhaust constituent exhaust O2:
R= Universal gas constant, 667 mg/Nm3 @8% x (20.9 - 5%O2)
mg/Nm3 @ 5%O2 =
(20.9 - 8%O2)
8.3144 kN m / kmole K
T= Temperature in degrees
Kelvin, this is 273.15°K mg/Nm3 @ 5%O2 = 822
(0°C) for normal
conditions.
Substituting these constants and
the molecular weight of the various
exhaust constituents into the
equation, the formula can be sorted
to the following.
mg/Nm3 = ppm x mg/Nm3 per ppm conversion
where the conversion factor is:
1 ppm NOX = 2.052 mg/Nm3
1 ppm CO2 = 1.963 mg/Nm3
1 ppm HCHO = 1.339 mg/Nm3
1 ppm CO = 1.249 mg/Nm3
1 ppm THC = 0.707 mg/Nm3
Mass Units
Mass flow rate units may also be
used to report emissions. The typical
units are:
• grams/horsepower-hour
(g/hp-hr)
• tons/year
• pound/hour (lb/hr)
• pound/day
To convert from ppm to mass
units, the following applies:
(ppm dry) x (exh mass rate) x (mol wt of constituent) x (DWC)

grams/hr =
1,000 x (mol wt of exh gas, wet)
Where:
DWC = Dry-to-wet conversion
The dry to wet conversion is used
when the emission ppm is on a dry
basis and exhaust flow is on a wet
basis. Exhaust mass flow can be
found in the Caterpillar TMI.
The dry to wet conversion is used

Molecular Weight
to convert a dry ppm measurement
Molecular weights are as follows:
to an equivalent wet measurement.
NOX (as NO2) = 46.0 g/mole
This decrease in the parts per million
CO2 = 44.0 g/mole
HCHO = 30.0 g/mole of either CO or NOX puts the
CO = 28.0 g/mole measured emission data on the same
THC = 15.84 g/mole terms as the wet exhaust mass
flow, which includes the water of
Approximations for exhaust combustion. DWC values increase as
molecular weight and DWC for the lambda increases, since the amount
above calculation are provided in of water from combustion stays
Table 6. For permitting processes, essentially the same while excess air
the exact values should be increases.
calculated for a given lambda and
fuel chemistry. The following values
Fuel Rate
Fuel rate is another class of units
will be within a few percent for
used as a basis for comparison, such
natural gas fuels.
as New Jersey's pounds/million Btu
Molecular
Model DWC of fuel consumed or, in Holland,
Weight
28.36 grams/Gigajoule of energy
G3600 0.90 consumed. In general, it is not a
g/mole
G3500/G3400 28.16 preferred unit because the engine is
0.87
Lean-Burn g/mole penalized for being more energy
27.86 efficient by consuming less fuel.
Stoichiometric 0.83
g/mole
However, Holland's law also
Table 6 encourages fuel efficiency by
correcting permitted NOX based on
30% mechanical efficiency.
For Landfill gases use the values To express a mass based HC
from Table 7. emission in terms of a molecular
Molecular weight based on carbon: Multiply
Model DWC
Weight the published value by the ratio of
30.00
G3600 0.89 the molecular weight of carbon
g/mole
30.00 divided by the molecular weight of
G3500 0.86 THC in the exhaust.
g/mole
Table 7
THC THC (mole wt 15.84) X 12
=
(mole wt 12) 15.84
Definitions
BACT Best Available Control Technology
Bar = 14.5 psi
BMEP Brake Mean Effective Pressure
bhp-hr = Brake Horsepower Hour
British Thermal Units per Standard Cubic Foot
Btu/SCF =
(14.696 psia 60°F)
HCHO = Formaldehyde
CH4 = Methane
CO = Carbon Monoxide
CO2 = Carbon Dioxide
DWC = Dry To Wet Conversion
EPA = Environmental Protection Agency (USA)
H2O = Water
H2S = Hydrogen Sulfide
HAPs = Hazardous Air Pollutants
Air/Fuel Equivalence Ratio
Lambda =
Lambda=A/F (actual) ÷ A/F (stoich)
LHV = Lower Heating Level
m3 = Meters Cubed = 35.3147 ft3 at equal temperatures
mg = Milligrams
Milligrams per Normal Meter Cubed
mg/Nm3 =
(1013 mbar at 0°C)
Mega Joules per Normal Meter Cubed
MJ/Nm3 =
(1013 mbar at 0°C)
Molecular Weight (sum of atomic weights of all atoms in the
MW =
molecule)
N2 = Nitrogen
Nm3 = Normal Meter Cubed = 1 m3 at 0°C and 1013 milliBar
NMHC = Non Methane Hydrocarbons
NMNEHC = Non Methane, Non Ethane Hydrocarbons
NO = Nitrogen oxide or Nitric oxide
NO2 = Nitrogen dioxide
NOX = Oxides of Nitrogen
O2 = Oxygen
O3 = Ozone
ppm = Parts Per Million
ppmv = Parts Per Million By Volume
ppmvd = Parts Per Million By Volume Dry
PSD = Prevention of Significant Deterioration
Standard Cubic Foot = 1 ft3 at 60°F and 760 mm Hg (14.696
SCF =
psia)
SCR = Selective Catalytic Reduction
SO2 = Sulfur Dioxide
SOX = Sulfur Oxide
Theoretical Combustion - The objective of stoichiometric
Stoichiometric = combustion is to achieve complete fuel burn, with no air or fuel left
over, after combustion.
THC = Total Hydrocarbon
LEBW4984-00 ©2005 Caterpillar Printed in U.S.A.
All rights reserved.

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APPLICATION AND INSTALLATION GUIDE

GAS ENGINE EMISSIONS

Natural Gas Engine Combustion.......................................... 2

Information contained in this publication may be considered confidential.

CAT, CATERPILLAR, their respective logos and “Caterpillar Yellow”, as well

Gas Engine Emissions

Natural Gas Engine Combustion

Typical Rich-Burn Emission Levels (g/bhp-hr)

A rich-burn engine is typically set monitors combustion and adjusts the

This technology provides good specific heats which in turn causes

Air/Fuel Ratio vs. Brake Mean Effective Pressure

Exhaust Gas Components

Table 2 displays typical proportions

Nitrogen (N2) (unburned hydrocarbons), NO2 can

dramatically, as can be seen in

physiologically and some being very • Absorption and desorption of

Note: Aldehydes resulting from Particulates

Influence of Fuel Type on Emissions

methane because the only combustion chamber. Consequently,

Exhaust Gas After-Treatment

Three-Way Catalyst Figure 3 shows the window of

Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals

SCR may require a closed-loop

or local air regulating agency to

North American Regulations*

Location NOX CO NMHC

California 2003 0.15 g/bhp hr 0.5 g/bhp hr 0.6 g/bhp hr

on these and other overseas

Common Worldwide Regulations*

Australia 500 mg/Nm3 @ 5%O2 650 mg/Nm3 @ 5% O2 –

Guidelines for On-Site Permitting or Certification

CO2 concentration in the sample

Emission Units & Conversions

(ppm dry) x (exh mass rate) x (mol wt of constituent) x (DWC)

The dry to wet conversion is used

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