Liquid-Liquid Extraction (LLE)

LIQUID-LIQUID EXTRACTION
(LLE)
Expected Outcomes
Students should be able to:
1. Explain the basic theory and principle of liquid-liquid extraction.
2. Demonstrate the liquid-liquid extraction under batch and continuous mode.
3. Calculate the number of theoretical stages and height equivalent to a theoretical
stage using theory as well as graphical methods.
4. Discuss industrial liquid extraction equipment.
Easy
Difficulty
of
separation
Difficult
EXAMPLES OF LLE COLUMN IN PLANT
WHAT DO YOU SEE?? DOES IT LOOK EASY OR COMPLICATED??
Source from: http://www.liquid-extraction.com/industrial-applications.htm 3

Figure 8.1
TYPICAL LLE SYSTEM OF
ACETIC ACID IN WATER
o If mixture has purity < 50%,

then extraction is considered
oUsually will followed by 2

distillation columns to separate
Extract stream (D1) and
Raffinate stream (D2)
oAddition of solvent to solute

soluble species in Feed (to be
3 components in liquid phase)
4
Table 8.1
3 major components in LLE –
Carrier =A ; Solute = B ; Solvent = C
Justification of solvent selection is based on

solubility of the solute with the solvent (due to
chemical structure difference in the components)
Choice of distillation/extraction for separation

depends on cost
Examples of LLE in industrial chemical plants:

• Acetic acid in water using Ethyl acetate
• Penicillin in broth in pharmaceutical
• High MW of fatty acids separated from
vegetable oils with liquid propane
Lecture 7: Liquid-Liquid Ternary Single Stage 5

BASIC PRINCIPLE FOR LIQUID-LIQUID
EXTRACTION
Liquid-Liquid Ternary Single Equilibrium Stage
Ternary Liquid-Liquid Extraction (LLE)
In this case:
• We create two liquid phases by introducing a solvent (C) to a liquid mixture of a
carrier (A) and a solute (B)
• Solvent (C) and carrier (A) have very little solubility in each other while solvent
(C) and solute (B) is highly soluble or partly soluble in each other
Liquid-Liquid Extraction
Solvent Feed, S
Solvent Rich Liquid Out (Extract), E
C
A, B, C
Liquid Feed, F Carrier Rich Liquid out (Raffinate), R
A, B A, B, C
Define the raffinate as the exiting phase rich in carrier ;

the extract as the exiting phase rich in solvent.
7
Case 1 (carrier and solvent have some solubility in each other)

then the raffinate will have a small amount of solvent in the stream and the
extract will have a small concentration of carrier:
Solvent Feed Extract out
S : XC(S) [T, P]
E : XA (E), XB (E), XC (E) [T, P]
Liquid Feed
F : XA(F), XB(F), [T, P] Raffinate out
R : XA (R), XB (R), XC (R), [T, P]
A= carrier, B= solute, C= solvent All A, B, C components

The raffinate is the exiting phase rich in are in the Extract and
carrier. Raffinate
The extract is the exiting phase rich in
solvent.
8
Case 2 (carrier and solvent have no solubility in each other)

then the raffinate will have no solvent in then stream and the extract will
have no carrier in it:
All of solvent exits
in the extract
S : XC(S) [T, P]
E : XB (E), XC (E) [T, P]
Liquid Feed
F : XA(F), XB (F) [T, P] Raffinate out
R : XA (R), XB (R) [T, P]
A= carrier, B= solute, C= solvent All of carrier exits

The raffinate is the exiting phase rich in carrier. in the raffinate
The extract is the exiting phase rich in solvent.
9
Mass and Mole Ratios
Often the concentrations are as mass or mole ratios, rather than mass or mole fractions.
This is generally done to simplify the expressions used in the analysis.
Mass ratio XB: The ratio of mass of component B to another component of the stream.
Mole ratio XB: The ratio of moles of component B to another component of the stream.
Note that the basis (choice of component) for the mass or mole ratio must be chosen.
Mass Ratio Example: No solubility of solvent with carrier

S : XC(S) [T, P]
E : XB (E), XC (E) [T, P]
Liquid Feed
Raffinate out
F : XA(F), XB (F) [T, P]
R : XA (R), XB (R) [T, P]
FB  XBF  FA Rate of B in the feed is the ratio of B to A, times feed rate of A.
EB  X BE EC  XBE S Rate of B in the extract is the ratio of B to C, times rate of C.
RB  XB R RA  XBR FA Rate of B in the raffinate is the ratio of B to A, times rate of A.
S B  X BS SC  0 Rate of B in the solvent is the ratio of B to C, times feed rate of C.
10
Material Balances
Solute (B) Material Balance:

S ; XC(S) E : XB (E), XC (E)
Liquid Feed
Raffinate out
F : XA(F), XB
R : XA (R), XB (R)
FB  XBF  FA Rate of B in the feed is the ratio of B to A, times feed rate of A.
EB  X BE EC  XBE S Rate of B in the extract is the ratio of B to C, times rate of C.
RB  XB R RA  XBR FA Rate of B in the raffinate is the ratio of B to A, times rate of A.
S B  X BS SC  0 Rate of B in the solvent is the ratio of B to C, times feed rate of C.
Solute, B, Material Balance: FB  SB  RB  EB
X BF FA  XBS SC  XBR RA  X BE EC
X BF FA  XBR FA  X BE S

11
Equilibrium Distribution
The way the solute (B) will distribute itself between the extract and raffinate at
equilibrium is given by the K-Value: Note that the K-value is
primed to signify that this
X BE   K'DB XBR  is a ratio of mass or mole
ratios, not a ratio of mole
fractions.
Solvent Feed
Extract out
S: XC(S) E: XB (E), XC (E)
B
Liquid Feed Raffinate out
F: XA(F), XB(F) R: XA (R), XB (R)
Note that concentrations

B will be of exiting streams from
transferred from an equilibrium stage are
pink to blue part in always
the LLE column related by equilibrium.
12
The Extraction Factor
The degree of separation of the solute (B) between the exiting streams (extract and raffinate) is
expressed as the extraction factor:
Extraction Factor, 
B : The ratio of solute flow in the
extract to solute flow in the raffinate.
EB  X BE EC  XBE S EB X B E S

B   R 
RB X B FA
RB  XB R RA  XBR FA
EC = S (all solvent in Extract), RA = FA (all carrier in Raffinate)
Combining this definition with the equilibrium relationship:
X BE   K'DB XBR 
results in another expression for the extraction factor:

The larger the equilibrium
K D' B S
B  driving force to separate B, K D' B , and
FA the larger the ratio of solvent to
feed (S/FA), the larger the extraction
factor B. 13
Extraction Efficiency
We can determine the amount not extracted (ratio of RB/FB) starting with the material balance
of the solute (B):
 F  E  R EB  X BE EC  XBE S
X B FA  XB S  X B FA
RB  XB R RA  XBR FA
We substitute in the K-value ratio:
X BF FA  K'DB XBR S  XBR FA
And simplify the above equation:

XBR  FA
This ratio gives the amount  F   K' S  F
of solute (B) left in the raffinate XB DB A
to the amount originally in
the feed stream,
XBR  1 1
 F   K' S  The larger the extraction factor, the
XB DB B  1 smaller fraction of solute (B) not
1 extracted
FA
14
Ternary Phase Diagrams
It is convenient to construct ternary phase diagrams on a

C
Gibbs Triangle (shown at right). Note that the variables
for these diagrams are only composition and that
pressure and temperature are held constant (means that
these diagrams are slices through a four dimensional
space with constant T and P).
At each point, xA + xB + xC = 1.0

C B
4 points located on the diagram:
Point 1: xA = ? ; xB = ? ; xC = ?
Point 2: xA = ? ; xB = ? ; xC = ?
3
Point 3: xA = ? ; xB = ? ; xC = ? 4
Point 4: xA = ? ; xB = ? ; xC = ?
2
1
A B
A
15
Lecture 7: Liquid-Liquid Ternary Single Stage
Ternary Phase Diagrams
Compositions are read as follows:
Draw three lines from the Composition
point parallel to the composition lines. C
[94% C, 3% B, 3% A]
Read the compositions off of the three
axes.
Note: Only two mole fractions are

needed. Meaning that the total percentage
is 100% at each point. So the third
fraction as a check only.
[33% C, 33% B, 33% A]
Compositions can be in mole fractions
or mass fractions.
[30% C, 70% B]
[100% A]
A B
[20% C, 20% B, 60% A]

16
Partially Soluble Ternary Systems
If the two phases both have a partial solubility of the other component, then the
analysis is somewhat more complicated.
The difficulty is that now equilibrium data must be obtained for the ternary
which relates the partial solubilities. Equilibrium data can be obtained graphically, or
from tables. The ternary phase diagram is a typical way of representing the equilibrium
compositions of the two phases.
Ethylene Glycol
Solute
66% EthGly
7% Furfural
27 % Water
A composition where
only a single liquid
exists.
50 % EthGly 17% EthGly

50% Furfural 27% Furfural
56 % Water
A composition where
100% Furfural two liquid phases
coexist.
Furfural Water
Solvent Carrier 21
Specification of Liquid-Liquid Equilibrium
For two phase equilibrium (either complete insolubility, or partially solubility):
• the equilibrium is between two liquids phases ( = 2)
• three components (ternary) distribute between the two phases (C = 3)
For the static equilibrium case we can specify 3 variables:
If we specify T and P we are left with one additional variable:
Thus if we specify the concentration of one component in either of the phases

this completely defines the state of the system.
Equilibrium-Line:
Show the compositions
of the equilibrium phases.
Ethylene Glycol Water
Tie-Lines:
Show the compositions
of the equilibrium phases.
Furfural 22
Example: Consider a feed of 200 kg of 30% ethylene glycol in water. Add 300kg of pure
furfural solvent.
S, XC(S) E, XB (E), XC (E)
Liquid Feed
Raffinate out
F, XA(F), XB
R, XA (R), XB (R)
Furfural
23
Determination of Solvent Free Point
In order to know the highest percent of separation (Separation

efficiency) that we might get in certain feed (mixtures of solute and
carrier) solvent flows, these steps need to be done in a specific ternary
diagram:
Step 1: Locate the Solvent and Feed points
Step 2: Locate the mixing point M
Step 3: Use the tie-line to get the raffinate and extract compositions
Step 4: Determine the amount of extract and raffinate (can use lever
rule)
Step 5: Determine the solvent free extract: Mixtures of A and B.

Extend line from S through E to solvent free point at H.
24
Example: Consider a feed of 200 kg of 30% ethylene glycol in water. Add 300kg of solvent
which is pure furfural.
Step 1: Locate the Solvent and Feed points

F
60 kg EG
140 kg water
S Furfural
300 Kg
25
Step 2: Locate the mixing point M:
X BF FA  XBS S 0.3  200kg  0  300kg
  0.12
FS 500kg
From Solute (B)
F 60 kg EG
140 kg water
S
Furfural
300 Kg
26
Step 3: Use the tie-line to get the raffinate and extract compositions.
Get the most accurate ratio of both extract and
raffinate between the two tie lines that locate M
Extract (4% water, 14%EG, 82% furfural)

Raffinate (87% water, 8%EG, 5% furfural)
F 60 kg EG
140 kg water
M
E
R
S
Furfural
300 Kg
27
Step 4: Determine the amount of extract and raffinate (can use lever rule)
X C M   X C E  0.63  0.82 Extract (4% water, 14%EG, 82% furfural)

R f  R  E    0.257
XC  XC 0.08  0.82 Raffinate (87% water, 5%EG, 8% furfural)
Mixing (25%, 12%EG, 63% furfural)
R  0.257  500kg  128.4kg
E=M(distance of RM/RE)
E  1  0.257   500kg  371.6kg
F 60 kg EG
140 kg water
M
E
R
S
Furfural
300 Kg
28
Step 5: Determine the solvent free extract: Mixtures of A and B only. Extend line from S through
E to solvent free point at H.
Solvent free extract H (20% water, 80% EG) (Separation efficiency)
F 60 kg EG
140 kg water
M
E
R
S
Furfural
300 Kg
29
HUNTER NASH GRAPHICAL
EQUILIBRIUM-STAGE METHOD
FOR LIQUID-LIQUID EXTRACTION
To find: Number of equilibrium stages needed for

a countercurrent cascades LLE
and
Minimum@maximum solvent-to-feed
(S/F)min@max
30
Ternary Liquid-Liquid Extraction: Single-Stage
Solute, B
Ternary Phase Diagram
Solvent: tetrachloroethane (TCE)
Solute: Acetone
Carrier: Water
Plait Point
P
Extract
F
Feed
E
Mixing point
R Raffinate
Tie-lines
Solvent C Carrier, A
31
Liquid-Liquid Extraction: Cascades
What if we have a countercurrent cascade of Liquid-Liquid Contacting
Stages?
Solvent C
E1 E2 E3 En En+1EN-1 EN
Extract S
1 2 n N–1 N Raffinate
F R1 R2 Rn-1 Rn RN-2 RN-1 RN
Carrier A (FA)
Solute B (FB)
Can we use a similar analysis to the one we used for countercurrent absorption
or stripping?
Yes, but also different since equilibrium here is given by a liquid-liquid

ternary diagram rather than a vapor-liquid equilibrium.
Considerations:
countercurrent flow; N-equilibrium-stage contactor for LLE under
isothermal, continuous, steady state conditions at a pressure sufficient to
prevent vaporization
32
Liquid-Liquid Extraction: Specifications
Solvent C
Extract S
Carrier A (FA)
Solute B (FB)
Specifications: F, (xi)F, (yi)S, T and one of:

1) S and (xi)RN
2) S and (yi)E1
3) (xi)RN and (yi)E1
4) N and (xi)RN
5) N and (yi)E1
6) S and N
33
Liquid-Liquid Extraction: Hunter Nash Method
Solvent C
Extract S
Carrier A (FA)
Solute B (FB)
Product Points: Solute

Step 1) Find the mixing point M=F+S
Step 2) Determine mixing point
compositions from component
material balances or inverse lever
rule
Step 3) Since we know RN lies on the
equilibrium curve and we know Plait Point
(xA)RN we can determine (xB)RN and P
(xC)RN Extract
Feed
Step 4) Since we know RN, M and E1 lie E1
on a mixing line we can locate E1 Raffinate
by extending a line from RN M R1
through M to the equilibrium curve
where it intersects E1. Tie-lines
RN
34
Lecture 7: Liquid-Liquid Ternary Single Stage Solvent C Carrier
Hunter Nash Method: Operating Lines
E1 E2 E3 En En+1 EN-1 EN S Solvent C

Extract
1 2 n N–1 N
F RN-1 RN Raffinate
R1 R2 Rn-1 Rn RN-2
Carrier A (FA)
Solute B (FB)
Operating Points and Lines

Mass Balance around entire cascade: F  S  RN  E1
We define the operating point P as the F  E1  RN  S  P
difference between passing streams:

Extract
1 2 n N–1 N
F RN-1 RN Raffinate
R1 R2 Rn-1 Rn RN-2
Carrier A (FA)
Solute B (FB)
Mass Balance around the first n stages: F  En1  Rn  E1

We rearrange this equation to find that all passing streams are
related by the same operating point P. F  E1  Rn  En1  P
35
Hunter Nash Method: Operating Point
Extract
1 2 n N–1 N
F Rn RN-1 RN Raffinate
R1 R2 Rn-1 RN-2

Mass Balance around an internal stage (n):
Rn  En  Rn1  En1
We can rearrange the above expression to find that Rn is
just a mixing point between P and En+1.
Rn  Rn1  En  En1  P  En1
The following figure illustrates this concept: En En+1 En+1

The stream Rn is the mixing point between Replace Rn-1 P
P and En+1 because P is the net flow into n and En by P n
stage n from passing streams Rn-1, and En. Rn-1 Rn Rn
The N mass balances around the N individual F  E1  Rn1  En  RN  S  P

stages result in:
Extract
E2 E3 En En+1 EN-1 EN S
E1 Solvent C
1 2 n N–1 N
F Raffinate
R1 R2 Rn-1 Rn RN-2 RN-1
RN 36
Hunter Nash Method: Operating Point
Extract
1 2 n N–1 N
F RN-1 RN Raffinate
R1 R2 Rn-1 Rn RN-2
Carrier A (FA)
Solute B (FB)
Solute
Step 1) Locate the Operating Point by finding the
intersection of operating lines for the leftmost and
rightmost stages
a) Draw a line through E1 and F
b) Draw a line through S and RN
c) Locate the intersection P. This point
Plait Point is the operating point P.
E1
Feed
Operating Point
M P
RN
S
37
Lecture 7: Liquid-Liquid Ternary Single Stage Carrier
Hunter Nash Method: Stepping off Equilibrium Stages
Operating Lines:
The raffinate points are mixing points between P and corresponding extract points. This is shown graphically in
the following diagram. Notice that to get the point P we need just F, S, E 1 and RN.
Solute
E1
E2
F
E3 Operating Point
E4 R1
P
E5
E6 RN
S
38
Hunter Nash Method: Stepping off Stages
Extract
1 2 n N–1 N
F RN-1 RN Raffinate
R1 R2 Rn-1 Rn RN-2
Carrier A (FA)
Solute B (FB)
Solute
Operating Lines and Tie Lines: Stepping
Off Stages:
Step 1) Locate point R1 from the tie line
intersecting E1
Step 2) Draw a line from the operating point
P through R1 to the extract side of the
equilibrium curve. The intersection locates
Plait Point
E2.
Step 3) Locate point R2 from a tie line.
E1
Step 4) Repeat Steps 2 and 3 until RN is
E2
obtained.
Feed
E3 Operating Point
E4 R1
M P
E5
E6 RN
InCarrier
Step 3, Get the most accurate ratio of
Solvent C
both En and Rn-1 between the two tie lines 39
Hunter Nash Method: Stepping off Stages
Extract
1 2 n N–1 N
F RN-1 RN Raffinate
R1 R2 Rn-1 Rn RN-2
Carrier A (FA)
Solute B (FB)
Product Points:
Step 1) M=F+S
Step 2) Determine mixing point compositions from component material balances or inverse lever rule
Step 3) Since we know RN lies on a tie line and we know (xA)RN we can determine (xB)RN and (xC)RN
Step 4) Since we know RN, M and E1 lie on a mixing line we can locate E1 by extending a line from RN through
M to the equilibrium curve where it intersects E1.

Step 1) Locate the Operating Point by finding the intersection of operating lines for the leftmost
and rightmost stage
1a) Draw a line through E1 and F
1b) Draw a line through S and RN
1c) Locate the intersection P. This point is the operating point P.
Operating Lines and Tie Lines: Stepping Off Stages:

Step 1) Locate point R1 from the tie line intersecting E1
Step 2) Draw a line from the operating point P through R1 to the extract side of the equilibrium curve.
The intersection locates E2.
Step 3) Locate point R2 from a tie line.
Step 4) Repeat Steps 2 and 3 until RN is obtained.
40
Hunter Nash Method: Minimum Solvent-to-Feed (S/F)min
Step 1) Locate the raffinate Operating Line by extending
a line from S through RN
Step 2) Extend the tie lines to intersect the operating line
Step 3) The tie line that intersects furthest from RN
gives the minimum operating point, Pmin.
Solute Step 4) Extend a line from Pmin through F to the extract side
of the equilibrium curve to find E1.
Step 5) Extend a line from E1 to RN. The intersection with the line
SF gives the minimum mixing point, M.
Note: If the tie lines slope down towards

the solvent side of the diagram, then
the minimum operating point will lie on
Plait Point the operating line at an intersection with
a tie line nearest S.
E1
Mmin
S RN Pmin
Mmax
41
Hunter Nash Method: Minimum Solvent-to-Feed (S/F)min
Stepping off Stages for the minimum solvent case
After locating the points Pmin, E1, and Mmin
the stages can be stepped off. If the minimum
solvent is used then the separation will be pinched
off and will require an infinite number of stages [means
Solute if we use (S/F)min, then N will be infinite]
Plait Point
E1
Mmin
S Pmin
RN
42
Hunter Nash Method: Maximum Solvent-to-Feed (S/F)max
Stepping off Stages for the maximum solvent case
After locating the points Pmin, E1, and Mmin
the stages can be stepped off. If the maximum
solvent is used then the separation will require
a minimum number of stages.
Solute
A solvent ratio (S/F) must be selected such that
(S/F)min < (S/F) < (S/F)max
Plait Point
S Pmax
RN
Mmax
43
44
45
46
Use of Right-Triangle Diagram
• Ternary, countercurrent extraction calculations also

can be made on a right-triangle diagram.
• Disadvantage: mass-percent compositions of only

two of the components are plotted; the third being
determined.
• Advantage: ordinary rectangular-coordinates graph

paper can be used and either one of the coordinates
can be expanded (to increase the accuracy of the
constructions).
47
How to plot right- triangle diagram Solute

1. Draw right-triangle with scale 1.0
2. Label x-axis and y-axis with solute, solvent or
carrier
0.8
3. Construct equilibrium line by using equilibrium
data
Wt fraction solute 
4. Draw tie-lines
5. Determine the location for Feed (F) point, Solvent 0.6
(S) point, Extract (E) point and/or Raffinate (R)
point and/or Mixing Point (M) point.
F
Construction of Operating Line 0.4
- The same method used as in ternary phase
diagram
0.2
Determination of composition in extract,
R
raffinate and no. of equilibrium stages
- The same method used as in ternary phase S
diagram (mass balance) 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Solvent Carrier
Wt fraction carrier  48
• Examples of right-triangle diagrams
49
Use of Kremser equation
• Ternary phase diagram & right-triangle diagram are used for partially miscible ternary system.
• While McCabe-Thiele or Kremser equation are used for completely immiscible ternary system.
𝑚𝐸 𝑦𝑁+1 −𝑦∗1 𝑚𝐸
ln 1− +
𝑅 𝑦1 −𝑦∗1 𝑅
N= 𝑅
ln
𝑚𝐸
𝑚𝐸 𝑦𝐸
where =
𝑅 (𝑅𝑥)
50
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Liquid-Liquid Extraction (LLE)

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LIQUID-LIQUID EXTRACTION

Source from: http://www.liquid-extraction.com/industrial-applications.htm 3

o If mixture has purity < 50%,

oUsually will followed by 2

oAddition of solvent to solute

Justification of solvent selection is based on

Choice of distillation/extraction for separation

Examples of LLE in industrial chemical plants:

Lecture 7: Liquid-Liquid Ternary Single Stage 5

Define the raffinate as the exiting phase rich in carrier ;

Case 1 (carrier and solvent have some solubility in each other)

A= carrier, B= solute, C= solvent All A, B, C components

Case 2 (carrier and solvent have no solubility in each other)

A= carrier, B= solute, C= solvent All of carrier exits

Mass Ratio Example: No solubility of solvent with carrier

FB  XBF  FA Rate of B in the feed is the ratio of B to A, times feed rate of A.

Solute (B) Material Balance:

FB  XBF  FA Rate of B in the feed is the ratio of B to A, times feed rate of A.

Solute, B, Material Balance: FB  SB  RB  EB

X BF FA  XBS SC  XBR RA  X BE EC

X BF FA  XBR FA  X BE S

Note that concentrations

EB  X BE EC  XBE S EB X B E S

Combining this definition with the equilibrium relationship:

X BE   K'DB XBR 

results in another expression for the extraction factor:

X BF FA  K'DB XBR S  XBR FA

And simplify the above equation:

It is convenient to construct ternary phase diagrams on a

At each point, xA + xB + xC = 1.0

Note: Only two mole fractions are

[20% C, 20% B, 60% A]

50 % EthGly 17% EthGly

For the static equilibrium case we can specify 3 variables:

If we specify T and P we are left with one additional variable:

Thus if we specify the concentration of one component in either of the phases

Ethylene Glycol Water

In order to know the highest percent of separation (Separation

Step 1: Locate the Solvent and Feed points

Step 2: Locate the mixing point M

Step 5: Determine the solvent free extract: Mixtures of A and B.

Step 1: Locate the Solvent and Feed points

Ethylene Glycol Water

Ethylene Glycol Water

Extract (4% water, 14%EG, 82% furfural)

Ethylene Glycol Water

X C M   X C E  0.63  0.82 Extract (4% water, 14%EG, 82% furfural)

Ethylene Glycol Water

Solvent free extract H (20% water, 80% EG) (Separation efficiency)

Ethylene Glycol Water

To find: Number of equilibrium stages needed for

Yes, but also different since equilibrium here is given by a liquid-liquid

Specifications: F, (xi)F, (yi)S, T and one of:

Product Points: Solute

E1 E2 E3 En En+1 EN-1 EN S Solvent C

Operating Points and Lines

E1 E2 E3 En En+1 EN-1 EN S Solvent C

Mass Balance around the first n stages: F  En1  Rn  E1

Operating Points and Lines

The following figure illustrates this concept: En En+1 En+1

The N mass balances around the N individual F  E1  Rn1  En  RN  S  P

Operating Points and Lines