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Ethnomedicinal Uses of Edible Wild Fruits (EWFs) in Swat Valley, Northern

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DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2015.07.029

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 Journal of Ethnopharmacology 173 (2015) 191–203

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Ethnopharmacology
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jep

Ethnomedicinal uses of Edible Wild Fruits (EWFs) in Swat Valley,

Northern Pakistan
Muhammad Pukhtoon Zada Khan a,n, Mushtaq Ahmad a, Muhammad Zafar a,
Shazia Sultana a, Muhammad Ishtiaq Ali b, Hang Sun c
a
Department of Plant Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad 45320, Pakistan
b
Department of Microbiology, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad 45320, Pakistan
c
Kunming Institute of Botany Chinese Academy of Sciences, Yunnan 650201, China

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Ethnopharmacological relevance: This study documents the ethno-pharmacological importance of Edible
Received 18 April 2015 Wild Fruits (EWFs) resource in the wild floral emporium of Swat, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Northern Paki-
Received in revised form stan. This is imitated in the great diversity of plants used for medicinal purposes as well as in their wide
8 July 2015
range of therapeutic applications.
Accepted 20 July 2015
Available online 21 July 2015
Methods: Ethnomedicinal data was collected through semi-structured and open ended interviews,
questionnaires, field surveys and local gatherings. Use value (UV), Relative importance (RI), Relative
Keywords: frequency of citation (RFC), Informant consensus factor (ICF) and Family importance value (FIV) was
Traditional knowledge calculated to elaborate the EWFs, their families, disease treated and significant fruit species based on use
Digestive disorders
reports by informants.
Phytotheraphy
Results: A total of 47 species of EWFs belonging to 32 genera and 23 families were reported to be used in
Phytochemical
Pharmaceutical traditional medicines. Family Rosaceae dominated with 26% species followed by Moraceae (12%) and
Rhamnaceae (10%), with mostly tree type of growth form (55%). The most consumed part of plants was
fruit (72%) followed by leaves (21%). Decoction (26%) and unprocessed fruit (24%) were the major modes
of crude drug preparation. The Informant consensus factor (ICF) of Joint/body aches was the highest
followed by digestive disorders. Use value index of Vitis vinifera (3.8), being the highest, followed by
Malus pumila (2) and Vitis parvifolia (2).
Conclusion: The tradition of using EWFs in treating ailments is a common practice among the tribal
communities, depending on the socio-economic conditions of the people. The multiple uses of these
EWFs suggest further investigation regarding phytochemical analysis and pharmaceutical applications.
& 2015 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction alpines parts of Pakistan having three mountain ranges of Hima-

Pakistan is gifted with rich natural resources, ethnic composi-
tion and ancient civilizations; with a multiplicity of climates, en-
vironmental zones and geographical regions that are endowed
with variety of medicinal plants (Yaseen et al., 2015). It has rich
floral diversity of flowering plants reported to occur in different
parts of the country. About 6000 species of flowering plants have
so far been identified and documented and among them there are
more than 600 medicinal plants (Ahmad et al., 2014; Nasir and Ali,
1971). More than 10% of the local flora of Pakistan (600–700 plant
species) are used for therapeutic tenacities (Akhtar et al., 2013).
Most of this inimitable biodiversity subsists in Alpines and Sub-
n
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: pukhtoonzada@gmail.com (M.P.Z. Khan).
layas, Karakorum and Hindukush (Kayani et al., 2015). In these
parts at least 70% of the therapeutic plants comprise of wild spe-
cies and 70–80% of the populace in the region depends on tradi-
tional medications for well-being (Pie and Manadhar, 1987). Dis-
tribution of this natural resource is mainly attributed to climatic
and edaphic factors which reflect biological diversity of flora in the
Northern regions. It contains an immense diversity of habitats and
possesses numerous biodiversity hotspots (Khan et al., 2013).
Consumption of wild, semi-wild and cultivated edible plants as
one of the oldest form of food have been imperative in human
civilization since times (Adnan et al., 2014). EWFs played a vital
role in the diet of the people from prehistoric times. The use of
EWFs has been significant for most human civilizations by making
an important contribution to the health of local communities in
many developing countries (Ali et al., 2008). Wild species

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2015.07.029
0378-8741/& 2015 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.
192 M.P.Z. Khan et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 173 (2015) 191–203
producing edible products are often poor in natural habitats due to
intense biotic pressure (Arora and Pandey, 1996). The situation is
worse for EWFs as they are collected in high numbers for sale in
the market (Philips and Gentry, 1993). There are limited number of
independent ethnobotanical studies concerning the use of EWF
species, though, many ethno-medicinal studies have thoroughly
mentioned edible wild plants along with other medicinal plants. In
many countries wild food plants are extensively eaten un-
processed form and also used in making commercial food pro-
ducts. In Lesser Himalayas Pakistan, 35 wild fruits species were
reported (Abbasi et al., 2013a) and wild edible vegetables of lesser
Himalayas Pakistan (Abbasi et al. 2013b), whereas in Swaziland
about 110 species of wild fruits are used in making commercial
products (Antonsson-Ogle, 1990). Fleshy fruits generally do not
need cooking that most grains and vegetables entail and are sweet
in taste. In general, EWFs are used more by young rural males than
older ones in times of peace, and more are exploited by all ages
and both sexes in periods of scarcity, wars and at the peak of dry
season each year. (Getahun, 1974; Guinand and Dechassa, 2000).
Nowadays, the utilization of fruit bearing species is reported to be
particularly more recurrent and widespread in food insecure areas
(Misra et al., 2008; Nahar et al., 1990). Utilization of indigenous
wild resources is widespread among rural communities (Murray
et al., 2001). Rural inhabitants may collect, process and market
these traditional fruits to generate means of earning, used as
supplementary food to reduce appetite especially during times of
food scarcity and acquire better nutrition.
Most of the EWFs are therapeutically important for prevention
and control of various diseases, due to the presence of essential
bioactive compounds (Hu, 2003; Sood et al., 2010). Wild Medlar
(Mespilus germanica L.) fruit liberate kidney and bladder stones
and act as diuretic (Baird and Thieret, 1989; Glew et al., 2003).
Consumption of adequate amounts of fruits as well as vegetables
in the diet plan is thought to lessen the risk of many diseases
(Leterme, 2002). In this sense fruits like olives, dates, grapes, figs,
pomegranates, could be considered as luxurious endowment to
mankind from God (Marwat et al., 2009).
All the indigenous treatments traditional or modern, have their
origin in folklore and is the key to the wealth of traditional
medicinal knowledge. Traditional herbal medicines (THM) have
been effective as remedies for wide range of ailments (Mukherjee
and Wahile, 2006). Approximately 70–80% people around the
world mainly depend on traditional herbal treatments (Farns-
worth and Soejarto, 1991; Azaizeh et al., 2003; Shengji, 2001).
Plants have been used in various traditional healing systems for
the treatment of human ailments. Traditional medical knowledge
of therapeutic plants and their use by indigenous communities are
not only useful for conservation of cultural traditions and biodi-
versity but also for community healthcare and drug development
in the present and future (Cox, 2000; Heinrich and Gibbons, 2001).
The tribal and rural people primarily depend on locally available
plants for the treatment of diseases prevailing in men, women and
children (Bano et al., 2014). In the context of the present day
scenario of methods of ailment cures, it is very important to find
some alternate medicine system for the treatment of ever chan-
ging nature of diseases, especially for those which do not need
prolong treatment and may be cured by use of herbal products
(Baquar, 1989).
Ethnomedicinal explorations have established emphasis on the
relationship between the use of plants and traditional commu-
nities (Verpoorte et al., 2005; Ford et al., 1994; Balick and Cox,
1996; Turner and Tjørve, 2005; Pieroni et al. 2002). Ethno-med-
icinal field studies are essential for classifying plants that can be
chosen for their therapeutic properties and chemical composition
(Andrade-Cetto and Heinrich, 2011). The ethnopharmacological
evaluation and records of indigenous knowledge of local people on
therapeutic plants may fill the gap in accompanying acquaintance
for forthcoming drug discovery (Heinrich et al., 2006; Kayani et al.,
2015). Although there is rich traditional customs in terms of in-
digenous medicinal practices of Swat Valley, Northern Pakistan;
only a few out-and-out ethnopharmacological studies have been
published so far. The current investigation aims to assess the sta-
tus of indigenous knowledge on EWFs and its ethnomedicinal
value in Swat valley. There are several communities in the region,
where past ethnobotanical studies show an insignificant number
of surveys on EWFs. This work intends to compile the available
ethnomedicinal information on EWFs in Swat valley, to accomplish
future study areas and ethnomedicinal information.
The analysis of indigenous knowledge of EWFs used by local
communities of Swat aims at providing ethnobotanical informa-
tion for wider circulation and in future sustainable management
and mass scale cultivation to improve the socio-economic condi-
tions of local communities. In addition, this study also assesses the
prospects of EWFs as a source of nutrition and important nutrients
for the low income class, especially during drought and food
scarcity.
2. Methodology
2.1. Ethno-geography of the study area
Swat district, situated at the Northwest corner of Pakistan, not
only contains beautiful valleys but also innumerable monuments
of ancient civilizations. It lies from 34° 34' to 35° 55' North lati-
tudes and 72° 08' to 72° 50' East longitudes. It is surrounded on
the North by Chitral and Ghizer valleys, towards the East by Ko-
histan and Shangla districts, on the South by Buner and Malakand
protected area and on the West by district Dir. Total area of the
district is 5337 km2. The district is part of Malakand division. The
twin cities of Mingora and Saidu Sharif are the district as well as
the divisional headquarters (Hamayun, 2007).
Swat can be divided into two regions i.e. Swat-Kohistan and
Swat Proper. Swat-Kohistan is the mountainous country on the
upper reaches of the River Swat up to Ain in the South. The whole
area south of Ain is Swat proper, which can be further divided into
Bar (Pashto means upper) Swat and Kooz (Pashto means lower)
Swat, having predominantly rural population. Yousafzai Pathans,
Mians, Kohistanis, Gujars and Pirachas inhabit the valley of Swat.
The Pashto speaking Yousafzai Pathans are the direct descendants
of Afghans of Ghazni. The Gujars and Kohistanis, who speak their
own dialects of Gujri, Garwi, Torwali and kohistanis inhabit the
mountainous areas up North. The Kohistanis are settled in and
around Kalam, Ushu, Utror and Gabral valleys (Hamayun, 2007)
(Fig. 1)
The foremost basis of income is farming (nearly 41%) and most
of the populace of the study area is directly or indirectly involved
in it. Most of the Swat valley is a hilly region and the cultivated
land is not sufficient for sustenance (Akhtar et al. 2013; Rashid,
1999). Supplementary source of earnings are daily wages and
salaries (20%), foreign and home transmittals (17%), forest yields
including therapeutic plants (12%) and other occupations (10%)
(Rabbi et al., 2010; Akhtar et al., 2013). Approximately 80% popu-
lace of Pakistan is rural households where medicinal plants are
effortlessly accessible (Kayani et al., 2014). Most of the Households
in the valley derive their earnings from the forests.
2.2. Ethnomedicinal documentation
Field data on ethnomedicinal uses of EWFs was collected from
six different sites of District Swat; field work consists of data
documentation, plant collection and field photography. The study
 M.P.Z. Khan et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 173 (2015) 191–203
Fig. 1. Map of District Swat.
was conducted from March 2013 to April 2014 following the pre-
vious protocols for the collection of ethno-botanical data (Pardo-
de-Santayana et al., 2007; Alexiades, 1996; Martin, 2004). Written
informant consent (WIC) was obtained. Information was collected
from local traditional health practitioners (Hakeem) and local in-
habitants of the study area. The survey was conducted through
semi-structured, open-ended interviews (Martin, 1995). The
questionnaire was designed to compile data on EWFs used in
ethnomedicinal practice, local name, source, part (s) used, mode of
utilization. Social bio-data of the participants such as age, class,
gender, experience and educational background was also recorded.
2.3. Edible Wild Fruit species collection
EWFs specimens were collected, dried, preserved and mounted
on standard herbarium sheets, voucher numbers assigned and
duly identified with the help of plant taxonomists at Quaid-i-Azam
University Islamabad, Pakistan and compared with Herbarium of
Pakistan (ISL) specimens. EWFs species were also verified from
IPNI, Flora of Pakistan (Nasir and Ali, 1970–2002), Catalogue of
vascular plants of West Pakistan and Kashmir (Stewart, 1972),
Flora of China, Web of Science and Google scholar. The plant
specimens were deposited in Herbarium for future references. In
addition to this, authors have surveyed published research articles,
193
review papers, reports, books and proceedings on EWFs from
Northern Pakistan, neighboring areas and countries to further
confirm the ethnomedicinal use of EWFs. Online material from
other regions was also searched to adopt useful strategies for fu-
ture ethnobotanical studies. Web database like (Google scholar,
Scopus, Web of Science, Science Direct, Pub-Med, and CABI etc.)
were browsed with the search items like (EWFs, fruits, ethnome-
dicinal, Swat valley, Northern Pakistan, Phytotheraphy, indigenous
knowledge, traditional healing system etc.). Data on EWFs like
botanical name, local name, growth form, part (s) used, disease
treated was documented and compiled.
2.4. Quantitative data analysis
2.4.1. RFC and FIV
Quantitative techniques like Relative Frequency Citation (RFC)
and Family Importance Value (FIV) were calculated to assess
consensus between informants on cited species and families; cite
frequency was estimated for species and families, taking the per-
centage of informants citing each species (or family)with respect
to the total number of informants;
RFC ¼FC/N (0 o RFC o1)
This index shows the local importance of each species and it is
given by the frequency of citation (FC, the number of informants
 194
Table 1
Ethno-medicinal information on Edible Wild Fruits of Swat Valley, Northern Pakistan

S. no. Voucher no. Scientific name/Local name Family Part used Preparation form Application Informant
reports

1. ISL 023 Aesculus indica (Wall. ex Jacquem.) Hook.f. Hippocastanaceae Fruit, leaves, Oil, powder Aches, colic, nervous tonic, chest diseases, anthelmintic and 10
Jawaz seeds/nuts jaundice.
2. ISL 013 BerberislyciumRoyle.Kwaray Berberidaceae Bark, leaves Infusion, decoction, paste Back ache, eye ache, rheumatism, tooth ache, ulcers, ear ache, 59
joints, internal wounds, jaundice.
3. ISL 065 Carissa opaca Stapf. Ex Haines. Granda Apocynaceae Root, leaves Powder, decoction Antiseptic, asthma, cardiac stimulant, jaundice, hepatitis, wound 10
healing
4. ISL 043 Celtis australis L. Tagha Ulmaceae Leaves Decoction Stomach disorder and cough 6
5. ISL 021 Cotoneaster nummularia Fish. et May. Rosaceae Fruit Unprocessed fruit, powder Digestive problems 3
Khararwa
6. ISL 025 Daphne mucronata Royle leghone Thymelaceae Fruit, bark Powder, decoction Anti-inflammatory, purgative, rheumatism 11
7. ISL 012 Diospyros lotus L. Tur Amlok Ebenaceae Fruit Unprocessed fruit, juice Purgative, laxative, blood diseases, gonorrhea, leprosy and Chronic 18
dysentery

M.P.Z. Khan et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 173 (2015) 191–203

8. ISL 047 Duchesnea indica (Andrews) Focke Zmakay Rosaceae Leaves Decoction Cough and throat ache 8
toot
9. ISL 02 Elaegnus umbellata Thunb. Ghanum Rngay Elaeagnaceae Fruit Fruit powder Digestive problems 2
10. ISL 045 Ficus carica L. Inzar Moraceae Fruit, leaves Dried fruit unprocessed Eye vision problem, piles, laxative, renal problem, antispasmodic, 21
form), latex anti-platelet, latex used in skin diseases, latex smoothens bee sting
11. ISL 032 Ficus glomerata Roxb. Inzar Moraceae Fruit Powdered fruit, unripe fruits Intestinal worms, piles and menstrual disorders 4
(unprocessed form)
12. ISL 09 Ficus palmata Forssk. Inar Moraceae Fruit Unprocessed dried Fruit, Eye vision problem, skin pimples 15
Latex
13. ISL 06 Fragaria nubicola Lindl. Tut Rosaceae Leaves, fruit, Decoction, leaf, root and fruit Diarrhea, diuretic, stomach ulcer, antiseptic, used for bleaching 16
flower and roots paste. skin
14. ISL 061 Grewia optiva J.R.Drumm. ex Burret phalsa Tiliaceae Leaves, bark Decoction, bark extract Joint pain, smooth delivery 10
15. ISL) 07 Hippophae rhamnoides L. Buru Elaeagnaceae Fruit and seed Decoction Whooping cough, skin eruptions 8
16. ISL 018 Juglans regia L. Ghuz Juglandaceae Fruit Fresh (unprocessed form), Hypertension, sexual stimulant, anthelmintic, carminative, sto- 43
dried nuts machic, tonic, to purify blood, laxative, jaundice, weak legs, ecze-
ma, tooth cleaner
17. ISL 071 Juniperus communis L. Chhilli Cupressaceae Fruit Powder Rheumatism and painful swellings 6
18. ISL) 064 Malus pumila Mill. Mnrra Rosaceae Fruit Unprocessed fruit Expectorant, heart disease, purgative, iron source 2
19. ISL 020 Morus alba L. Spin Toot Moraceae Fruit, leaves, Dried, Fresh fruit (Fresh Laxative, throat ache, purgative, vermifuge, jaundice, diaphoretic 24
form), leaves decoction
20. ISL 05 Morus laevigata Wall.exBrandisToot Moraceae Fruit Juice Inflammation, to cool the blood 3
21. ISL 57 Morus nigra L. Tur Toot Moraceae Fruit, leaves Decoction Throat ache, jaundice 14
22. ISL 058 Myrsine africana L. Maroorang Myrsinaceae Fruit, leaves Decoction, powder Intestinal worms, blood purifier, allergy, Scanty urination, Jaundice 23
23. ISL 01 Olea ferruginea Royle. Khuna Oleaceae Leaves, Fruit Decoction, powder Throat ache, Gum diseases, tooth ache 24
24. ISL 03 Opuntia dillenii Haw. Zuqam Cactaceae Fruit Unprocessed Form Diabetes, Gastric ulcer, Inflammation 5
25. ISL 04 Oxalis corniculata L. Tarookay Oxalidaceae Leaves Paste, extract, fresh leaves, Indigestion, liver, Bladder inflammation, wounds, refrigerant, sto- 39
juice mach trouble, dysentery, fever, antiscorbutic, scurvy, jaundice,
antiseptic, skin diseases
26. ISL 030 Pistacia chinensis subsp. integerrima (J. L. Anacardiaceae Leaf galls, bark, Galls ash Cough, asthma, diarrhea, whooping cough, jaundice, dysentery, 27
Stewart ex Brandis) Rech. f. Shnaye fruit antidote to snake venom and scorpion sting, intestinal colic,
chronic wounds
27. ISL 08 Prunus armeniaca L. Khobanaye Rosaceae Fruit, seeds Fresh (Unprocessed form), Laxative, purgative 14
dried, decoction,
28. ISL 010 Prunus domestica L. Alocha Rosaceae Fruit Fresh fruit unprocessed form, Stomach inflammation, constipation, jaundice 5
dried fruit,
29. ISL 015 Prunus persica L. Batsch. Shatalu Rosaceae Leaves Paste, fresh fruit (Un- Wounds, fungal infection, to remove maggots from wounds, de- 14
processed form), powder mulcent, lubricant
30. ISL 011 Punica granatum L. Annar Punicaceae Root, seed, Powder, decoction, seeds Piles, intestinal worms, liver and bladder inflammation, indiges- 42
flower (Fresh in unprocessed form) tion, dysentery, jaundice, bronchitis, diarrhea, astringent, diuretic,
tonic, cardiac, cooling, breast development
31. ISL 014 Pyrus communis L. Nashpati Rosaceae Fruit Fresh fruit (unprocessed Digestive problems 6
form),
 M.P.Z. Khan et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 173 (2015) 191–203 195

mentioning the use of the species) divided by the total number of

informants participating in the survey (N), without considering the
use-categories (Bibi et al. 2014; Vitalini et al., 2013).

2.4.2. Informant consensus factor (ICF)

3

9
13
14

4
17
4
1

25

14
13
15
8

11
1
Cold, cough, induce sedation, throat inflammation, boils, pimples, 13
The consensus in information relating to each use category was

asthma, jaundice, vomiting, stomach problems, laves used in piles,

Fruit is used as laxative, purgative, diuretic, aphrodisiac, in fever,
evaluated using the formula as ICF(0–1) ¼Nur Nt/Nur 1, (Ya-

Cholera, indigestion, gum and teeth problems, aromatic, carmi-

Hypertension, bleeding gums, pimples, intestinal worms, anti-

Hair loss, astringent, febrifuge, laxative, sedative, constipation

Laxative, diarrhea, cough, fever, used as diuretic, carminative

seen et al., 2015; Tabuti et al., 2003; Canales et al., 2005; Heinrich
Constipation, biliousness, eye and skin diseases, heart tonic

et al., 1998).

joint aches, flower is expectorant, liver tonic, bronchitis,

Where ICF is the Informant consensus factor, Nur ¼total num-
ber of reports of the use category in question, and Nt ¼ total
number of species used in this category.
Indigestion, cough, fever, asthma, diabetes
Diarrhea, eye diseases, jaundice, pimples

2.4.3. Use Value (UV)

Diabetes, blood purifier, cardiac disease

Antidandruff, Astringent, Cooling effect

In addition, the average number of uses for each species (value
native, stomachic, tonic, toothache

indicating total use of each species) was calculated with the index

diabetes, aphrodisiac, antiseptic

as UV¼∑Ui/N (Kayani et al., 2015; Tardio and Pardo-De-Santaya-
Constipation, antidandruff

na, 2008).
Constipation, kidney pain

Where Ui is the number of uses mentioned by each informant

Vaginal inflammation

dandruff, aches, fever

Constipation, laxative

for a given species and N is the total number of informants.

Antidandruff

2.4.4. Relative importance (RI)

constipation

Relative importance (RI) was obtained using the following

formula RI¼(Rel PHþRel BS)  100/2 (Yaseen et al. 2015; Bennett
and Prance, 2000), where PH is the number of reported pharma-
cological properties for the given plant, Rel PH is the relative
processed form), flower juice

Unprocessed form, powder,

number of pharmacological properties (PH of a given plant/max-

Boiled, powdered, extract,

Fruit unprocessed, leaves

Leaf juice, ripe fruit (un-

Boiled (water is used as

imum PH of all reported species), BS is the number of body sys-

Powder, boiled leaves

tems treated (BS of a given plant/maximum BS of all reported

Powder, Decoction
Unprocessed fruit

species). Quantitative ethnomedicinal calculations are found to be

useful to obtain novelty value by comparing with other studies.
Decoction

Decoction

The documented data was organized on Excel sheets and statis-

decoction
douche)
Extracts

Extracts
Extracts
Powder
extract

tically analyzed to identify the number and percentage of families

Fresh
Juice

juice

reported, genera, species, growth form, part (s) used and crude
drug preparation of EWFs.
Fruit, Root, Bark

Leaves, seeds,
Whole plant

Fruit, leaves,
Fruit, leaves

Fruit, leaves

Fruit, leaves

Fruit, leaves
Fruit, stem

3. Results and discussion

Flower

Leaves
Leaves
flower
stem,

fruits
Stem
Fruit
Fruit

Fruit

3.1. Demographic Information

During the fieldwork, total of 95 informants were interviewed

Rhamnaceae
Rhamnaceae

Rhamnaceae
Rhamnaceae
Rhamnaceae
Solanaceae

Solanaceae

from the local communities of District Swat, Northern Pakistan,

Rubiaceae
Rosaceae
Rosaceae

Rosaceae
Rosaceae

Rutaceae
Vitaceae
Vitaceae

Vitaceae

out of which 68% male, 32% female; 19% of the informants were
Hakims (local healers) and 81% were local people. According to age
(22%) were between 35–50 years of age, (34%) 51–65 years and
Ziziphus nummularia(Burm. F.) Wight & Arn.

44% were between the ages of 66–80 years of age. Most of the
Pyrus pashia Buch.Ham. ex D. Don Batang

Rubia cordifolia Hochst. ex A.Rich. Kargha

Solanum surattense Burm. F. Markondaye

Vitis jacquemontii R. Parker. Gidhar Kwar

informants were illiterate (47%), 23 % of informants upto 5 years of

education, 19% were having 6–10 years of education, whereas 11 %
Zanthoxylum armatum DC. Dambara
Rubus ellipticus Smith in Rees Guraj

Ziziphus sativa Gaertn. Makhranaye

Ziziphus spina-christi (L.) Willd. Ber

of the informants were above 10 years of education.

Ziziphus oxyphylla Edgew. Elanaie
Vitis vinifera L. Kabalay Kwar

Ziziphus mauritiana Lam. Ber

Solanum nigrum L. Kamacho
Rosa brunonii Lindl. Kwrach

3.2. Families, genera, species percentages and growth form classes

Rubus fruticosus L. Karwra

Vitis parvifolia Roxb. Kwar

This study compiled ethnomedicinal information on the use of

EWFs and reported 47 EWFs belonging to 23 Families and 32
genera. (Table 1) EWFs are used by the local inhabitants in many
different ways and are prepared by using diverse recipes based on
Makokha

local conditions.
Ber

EWFs belonging to 23 families were recorded Rosaceae having

the highest number of fruit species (26%), followed by Moraceae
(12%), Rhamnaceae (10%) and Vitaceae (6%). Abbasi et al. (2013a) in
ISL 044

ISL 048
ISL 024
ISL 042

ISL 026

ISL 036
ISL 038

ISL 063
ISL 037
ISL 016
ISL 019
ISL 017

ISL050
ISL 46

ISL 53

ISL 49

a study on Edible wild plants of lesser Himalayas is in agreement

to our study regarding the highest percentage of Families with
respect to its number of Species.
All the growth forms are represented with high percentage of
44.
32.

34.

36.

38.
39.
40.

42.

43.

45.
46.
33.

35.

37.

47.
41.

tree (55%) shrubs or sub shrubs (30%) and herbs (15%) (Fig. 2). This
196 M.P.Z. Khan et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 173 (2015) 191–203
Fig. 2. Growth form percentages of EWFs.
Fig. 3. Part used percentages of EWFs.
Fig. 4. Modes of Preparations of EWFs.
Fig. 5. Family Importance Value of EWFs.
would seem to be related in some way to relative abundance of
different growth forms in the region. (Abbasi et al., 2013a; Jin et al.,
1999; Redzic, 2007) has also mentioned that tree type of EWFs are
in majority. But in general ethnomedicinal studies herbs are
mostly represented in high percentages (Kamatenesi et al., 2011;
Maroyi, 2011).
3.3. Wild Edible Fruit species parts used and mode of consumption
The local communities utilized almost all parts of the EWFs
with high percentage of fruits (72%) used in folk recipes, leaves
(21%), barks, roots, seeds/nuts (8.5%), flowers (6%) leaf galls and
whole plant (2%) (Fig. 3) same as the study of (Lulekal et al., 2011).
Most of the ethnomedicinal studies on wild medicinal plants show
leaves as the highly utilized part (Kamatenesi et al., 2011; Maroyi,
2011). leaves are the foremost photosynthetic structures in the
plants and well recognized for synthesis of numerous active in-
gredients and more vigorous pharmacologically than any other
part (Verpoorte et al., 2002; Yesilada and Kupeli, 2007) but in our
study on WEFs fruit is the highly utilized part; this may be because
of the nutritional aspect and taste preference of fruits and con-
firms the findings of Abbasi et al. (2013a, b) and Jin et al (1999).
Both these plant parts have less or no negative effects on plant as
they are easily renewable and the main plant body remains intact,
therefore, its use is more preferable for survival of EWFs.
EWFs are consumed by the indigenous people in different
forms of preparations. It is generally presumed that fruits (un-
processed) may have the high ethno-medicinal consumption ratio
but in contrast decoction (26%) is most frequently used, same as
other ethnomedicinal studies, followed by unprocessed [dry or
fresh] (24%) and powder form (19%) (Fig. 4). Most of the studies
have reported the maximum use of fresh and dry unprocessed
form of plant materials (Tabuti et al., 2010; Bussmann et al., 2011;
Namukobe et al., 2011).
3.4. Quantitative analysis of ethnomedicinal information
The quantitative analysis on Family Importance Value ‘FIV’
suggests that Family Berberidaceae has the maximum FIV (62%),
followed by Juglandaceae (45%), Punicaceae (44%), Oxalidaceae
(41%), Anacardiaceae (28%), Rutaceae (26%), Oleaceae (25%), Myr-
sinaceae (24%) and the least value of FIV for Vitaceae and Rubia-
ceae (3%) (Fig. 5).
This could be attributed to the highest percentage of informant
reports for the species of the family that are in common use,
 M.P.Z. Khan et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 173 (2015) 191–203 197

treating many ailments. Members of the family are of common consistent.

occurrence in the region. These WEFs are exploited equally by all This study suggests that joint/body aches category of ailments
the communities on regular basis and the cultural knowledge is is the most frequently encountered ailment (ICF ¼0.7) treated by
EWFs, followed by digestive disorders (0.5), Respiratory disorders
Table 2
Disease categories and their ICF (0.4) and liver disorders (0.31), unlike other studies where diges-
tive disorders is the most frequently encountered ailment, highest
S. no. Disease category No. of % age of dis- No. of %age of ICF frequency for gastro-intestinal category has been registered in
diseases ease report taxa taxa numerous studies carried out in different human groups
1. Allergies 6 3.1 5 3.8 0.2
throughout the world (Milliken and Albert, 1997; Begossi et al.,
2. Cardiac diseases 8 4.1 7 5.3 0.14 2002). The least encountered ailments are diabetes, eye diseases,
3. Diabetes 4 2.03 4 3.03 0 fever, hair related problems, hypertension, piles, sexual diseases
4. Digestive 62 31.5 29 21.9 0.54 and tonics having (ICF ¼0). (Table 2; Fig. 6). The highest value of
disorders
ICF for joint/body aches could be attributed to the common oc-
5. Eye diseases 5 2.5 5 3.8 0
6. Fever 4 2.03 4 3.03 0 currence of ailments, the kind of food, general hygiene, geo-
7. Hair related 5 2.5 5 3.8 0 graphical conditions and the fact that the ailment is of relatively
problems less importance for which local/folk treatment is preferred over
8. Hypertension 2 1.01 2 1.5 0 modern health care systems in Northern Pakistan. Likewise, higher
9. Joint/body Aches 15 7.6 5 3.8 0.7
10. Kidney problems 8 4.1 7 5.3 0.14
ICF for digestive disorders have also been described in preceding
11. Liver disorders 14 7.1 10 7.6 0.31 studies in Pakistan and other parts of the world (Yaseen et al.,
12. Piles 4 2.03 4 3.03 0 2015; Teklehaymanot, 2009; Logan, 1986; Ragupathy et al., 2008).
13. Respiratory 21 10.7 13 9.8 0.4 The people are generally undernourished and without balance
disorders
diet. The most common EWFs for joint/body aches category are
14. Sexual diseases 7 3.6 7 5.3 0
16. Skin problems 12 6.1 9 6.8 0.27 Aesculus indica, Berberis lycium, Grewia optiva, Juglans regia, Juni-
17. Teeth/gum 8 4.1 6 4.5 0.28 perus communis and Vitis vinifera.
problem The data on EWFs was analyzed quantitatively for RFC, RI and
18. Tonic 3 1.5 3 2.3 0 UV indices. RFC for Berberis lycium is the highest (0.62) followed by
19. Wounds 8 4.1 6 4.5 0.28
197 100 132 100 0.18n
Juglans regia (0.45), Punica granatum (0.45), Oxalis corniculata
(0.41), Pistacia chinensis (0.28), Zanthoxylum armatum (0.26),
n
Mean of ICF Morus alba, Olea feruginea (0.25), Myrsine Africana (0.24), Ficus
carica (0.22) and the least value of RFC by Vitis parvifolia and Zi-
ziphus spina-christi (0.1) (Fig. 7). Highest values of RFC reports the
fact that these EWFs are common to the study area, available to all
the groups equally, used recurrently for a number of complaints
throughout the region, confirms the findings of (Abbasi et al.,
2012, 2013a). These therapeutic plant species are well known
amongst the maximum number of informers. These EWFs having
high RFC should be further assessed phytochemcially and phar-
maceutically to categorize their active ingredients for new drug
discovery (Vitalini et al., 2013).
Fig. 6. Informant consensus factor for ailments Treated by EWFs. Relative Importance Index (RI) of EWFs was calculated based on

Relative Frequency Citation

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

RFC

0.2

0.1

0
Daphne mucronata
Cotoneaster nummularia

Hippophae rhamnoides

Juniperus communis

Zanthoxylum armatum
Solanum surattense
Fragaria nubicola

Myrsine africana
Olea ferruginea

Ziziphus mauritiana

Ziziphus spina-christi
Ziziphus nummularia
Berberis lycium

Opuntia dillenii

Prunus armeniaca
Prunus domestica
Carissa opaca

Prunus persica

Rubus fruticosus
Duchesnea indica
Elaegnus umbellata

Ficus glomerata

Oxalis corniculata
Pistacia chinensis

Punica granatum

Vitis jacquemontii
Pyrus communis

Vitis parvifolia

Ziziphus oxyphylla
Ziziphus sativa
Rubus ellipticus

Solanum nigrum
Aesculus indica

Celtis australis

Diospyros lotus

Ficus carica

Ficus palmata

Grewia optiva

Juglans regia

Morus nigra
Malus pumila
Morus alba

Pyrus pashia
Rosa brunonii
Rubia cordifolia

Vitis vinifera
Morus laevigata

-0.1

Fig. 7. RFC of Edible Wild Fruit species.

 198

0
10
20
30
40
50
60

0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
Aesculus indica Aesculus indica
Berberis lycium Berberis lycium
Carissa opaca Carissa opaca
Celtis australis Celtis australis
Cotoneaster nummularia Cotoneaster nummularia
Daphne mucronata Daphne mucronata
Diospyros lotus
Diospyros lotus
Duchesnea indica
Duchesnea indica
Elaegnus umbellata
Elaegnus umbellata
Ficus carica
Ficus carica Ficus glomerata
Ficus glomerata Ficus palmata
Ficus palmata Fragaria nubicola
Fragaria nubicola Grewia optiva
Grewia optiva Hippophae rhamnoides
Hippophae rhamnoides Juglans regia
Juglans regia Juniperus communis
Juniperus communis Malus pumila
Malus pumila Morus alba
Morus alba Morus laevigata
Morus laevigata Morus nigra
Morus nigra Myrsine africana

of EWFs were associated with the available ethno-medicinal

nica granatum (45.4), Oxalis corniculata (45.3), Juglans regia (45.2),

bia cordifoila, Ziziphus spina-christi (5.6) (Fig. 8). Therapeutic uses

phus nummularia (33.9), Pistacia chinensis (28.4), Aesculus indica
The RI of Vitis vinifera (51) being the highest and followed by Pu-

Cotoneaster nummularia, Elaegnus umbellate, Pyrus communis, Ru-

Berberis lycium (39.5), Ficus carica, Ziziphus oxyphylla (39.4), Zizi-
relative pharmacological effects and relative body systems treated.
Olea

(28.2), Myrsine africana, Solanum surattense (28.1) and the least by

l ferruginea
f i
Myrsine africana
Opuntia dillenii
Olea ferruginea
Oxalis corniculata

UV
Opuntia dillenii
Pistacia chinensis

Use Value
Oxalis corniculata Prunus armeniaca
Pistacia chinensis Prunus domestica
Relattive Importance

Prunus armeniaca Prunus persica

Prunus domestica Punica granatum
Prunus persica Pyrus communis
Punica granatum Pyrus pashia
Pyrus communis Rosa brunonii
Pyrus pashia Rubia cordifolia
Rosa brunonii Rubus ellipitus

Fig. 9. Use Values of Edible Wild Fruit species.

Rubia cordifolia Rubus ellipticus
Rubus ellipitus Solanum nigrum
Rubus fruticosus Solanum surattense
Solanum nigrum Vitis jacquemontii
Fig. 8. Relative Importance values of Edible Wild Fruit species.

Vitis parvifolia
Solanum surattense
M.P.Z. Khan et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 173 (2015) 191–203

Vitis vinifera
Vitis jacquemontii
Zanthoxylum armatum
Vitis parvifolia
Ziziphus mauritiana
Vitis vinifera Ziziphus oxyphylla
Zanthoxylum armatum Ziziphus sativa
Ziziphus mauritiana Ziziphus spina-christi
Ziziphus oxyphylla Ziziphus nummularia
Ziziphus sativa
Ziziphus spina-christi
Ziziphus nummularia
RI

tullah and Hussain, 2009; Hussain et al., 2009; Noor and Kalsoom,
and Zanthoxylum armatum was found similar to those of (Abbasi
lycium, Juglans regia, Morus alba, Morus nigra, Myrsine africana,
literature. However, it was noted that current usage of these EWFs

Olea ferruginea, Punica granatum,Prunusarmeniaca, Rosa brunonii

other parts of the world. In case of EWFs, present uses of Berberis
may or may not be same as stated for neighbouring regions and in

et al., 2013a, 2012, 2010; Chettri et al., 2005; Khan et al., 2003;
Hussain et al., 2008; Jan et al., 2011; Ali and Qaiser, 2009; Barka-
 M.P.Z. Khan et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 173 (2015) 191–203 199

Table 3 2011; Sher and Hussain, 2009). RI values of these EWFs correspond
Relative Importance, Relative Frequency Citation and Use Value estimates of Edible to the highest number of body systems treated and the pharma-
Wild Fruits
cological effects for which EWFS are utilized. Besides, availability
S. no Scientific name RPH RBS RI RFC UV and common use of these EWFs contribute to the high values of RI.
The least value of RI for some EWFs correspond to the least in-
1. Aesculus indica (Wall. Ex Camb.) 0.4 0.6 28.2 10.5 0.6 formant reports.
2. Berberis lycium Royle. 0.6 0.8 39.5 62.1 0.2 EWFs were analyzed for Use Value Index (UV) based on the
3. Carissa opaca Stapf. ExHaines. 0.4 0.4 22.6 10.5 0.6
4.. Celtis australis L. 0.1 0.2 11.2 6.3 0.3
number of diseases treated by single taxa. Vitis vinifera has the
5. Cotoneaster nummularia Fish. et May. 0.1 0.1 5.6 3.2 0.3 highest UV (3.8), Malus pumila (2) and Vitis parvifolia (2). The
6. Daphne mucronata Royle 0.2 0.3 16.9 11.6 0.3 highest UV of the EWFs is due to the large number of diseases
7. Diospyros lotus L. 0.4 0.4 22.6 18.9 0.3 treated by these fruit species. UV for Ficus palmata, Morus nigra,
8. Duchesnea indica (Andrews) Focke 0.1 0.1 5.7 8.4 0.3
Olea ferruginea, Prunus armeniaca and Ziziphus spina-christi is the
9. Elaegnus umbellata Thunb. 0.1 0.1 5.6 2.1 0.5
10. Ficus carica L. 0.5 0.8 39.4 22.1 0.4 least (0.1) (Fig.9). In some cases, UV was lowest because study
11. Ficus glomerata Roxb. 0.2 0.3 16.9 4.2 0.8 participants had less information about the plant species, which
12. Ficus palmata Forssk. 0.1 0.2 11.2 15.8 0.1 might be of exotic origin or rare obtainability in the study area.
13. Fragaria nubicola Lind. ex Lacaita 0.3 0.4 22.6 16.8 0.3 This data reflects the importance of common consumption of
14. Grewia optiva J.R.Drumm. ex Burret 0.1 0.2 11.2 10.5 0.2
15. Hippophae rhamnoides L. 0.1 0.2 11.2 8.4 0.2
EWFs, intensely studying its pharmacological effects, which ulti-
16. Juglans regia L. 0.8 0.9 45.2 45.3 0.3 mately increases the frequency of its multiple utilization. In ad-
17. Juniperus communis L. 0.1 0.1 5.7 6.3 0.3 dition, the multiple uses of plant species (in contrast to having a
18. Malus pumila Mill. 0.3 0.4 22.5 2.1 2 ‘specific’ use) in this traditional medical system could reflect a
19. Morus alba L. 0.4 0.4 22.6 25.3 0.2
certain capacity for resilience in these local communities, since
20. Morus laevigata Wall. ex Brandis 0.1 0.2 11.2 3.2 0.7
21. Morus nigra L. 0.1 0.2 11.2 14.7 0.1 they adapt their knowledge and use of certain species to different
22. Myrsine africana L. 0.3 0.6 28.1 24.2 0.2 situations and contexts of illness (Ladio and Lozada, 2009).
23. Olea ferruginea Royle. 0.2 0.2 11.3 25.3 0.1 In case of EWFs, important uses of Berberis lycium are back
24. Opuntia dillenii Haw. 0.2 0.3 16.9 5.3 0.6 ache, eye ache, rheumatism, tooth ache, ulcers, ear ache, joints,
25. Oxalis corniculata L. 0.9 0.9 45.3 41.1 0.3
26. Pistacia chinensis subsp. integerrima (J. L. 0.6 0.6 28.4 28.4 0.3
internal wounds, jaundice, Juglans regia is used for hypertension,
Stewart ex Brandis) Rech. f. as sexual stimulant, anthelmintic, carminative, stomachic, tonic, to
27. Prunus armeniaca L. 0.1 0.1 5.7 14.7 0.1 purify blood, laxative, jaundice, weak legs, eczema and tooth
28. Prunus domestica L. 0.2 0.2 11.3 5.3 0.6 cleaner, Morus alba as laxative, throat ache, purgative, vermifuge,
29. Prunus persica (L.) Batsch. 0.3 0.4 22.6 14.7 0.4
jaundice, diaphoretic, Morus nigra for throat ache, jaundice, Myr-
30. Punica granatum L. 1 0.9 45.4 44.2 0.3
31. Pyrus communis L. 0.1 0.1 5.6 6.3 0.2 sine africana for removal of intestinal worms, blood purifier, al-
32. Pyrus pashia Buch.Ham. ex D. Don 0.4 0.3 17.1 15.8 0.4 lergy, scanty urination, Jaundice, Olea ferruginea for throat ache,
33. Rosa brunonii Lindl. 0.3 0.4 22.6 8.4 0.6 gum diseases, tooth ache, Pistacia chinensis subsp. integerrima for
34. Rubia cordifolia Hochst. ex A.Rich. 0.1 0.1 5.6 3.2 0.3
relief of cough, asthma, diarrhea, whooping cough, jaundice, dys-
35. Rubus ellipticus Smith in Rees 0.2 0.3 16.9 9.5 0.3
36. Rubus fruticosus L. 0.4 0.4 22.6 13.7 0.5
entery, antidote to snake venom and scorpion sting, intestinal
37. Solanum nigrum L. 0.3 0.4 22.5 14.7 0.3 colic, chronic wounds Punica granatum piles, intestinal worms, li-
38. Solanum surattense Burm. F. 0.3 0.6 28.1 17.9 0.3 ver and bladder inflammation, indigestion, dysentery, jaundice,
39. Vitis jacquemontii R. Parker. 0.1 0.1 5.7 4.2 0.5 bronchitis, diarrhea, astringent, diuretic, tonic, cardiac, cooling,
40. Vitis parvifolia Roxb. 0.1 0.2 11.2 1.1 2
breast development, Prunusarmeniaca as laxative, purgative, Rosa
41. Vitis vinifera L. 1 1 51 4.2 3.8
42. Zanthoxylum armatum DC. 0.6 0.4 22.8 26.3 0.4 brunonii against constipation, biliousness, eyes, skin diseases,
43. Ziziphus mauritiana Lam. 0.1 0.2 11.2 14.7 0.1 heart tonic and Zanthoxylum armatum for the treatment of cholera,
44. Ziziphus oxyphylla Edgew. 0.5 0.8 39.4 13.7 0.5 indigestion, gum and teeth problems, aromatic, carminative, sto-
45. Ziziphus sativa Gaertn. 0.2 0.3 16.9 11.6 0.3
machic, tonic and toothache.
46. Ziziphus spina-christi (L.) Willd. 0.1 0.1 5.6 1.1 1
47. Ziziphus nummularia (Burm. F.) Wight & 0.6 0.7 33.9 13.7 0.7
Comparison between RI and UV of EWFs show a negative cor-
Arn. respondence which is evident from the fact that RI of EWFs in-
creases with an increase in the values of RFC but there is no such

60 Corrrelation
n of UV and RI
50

40

30

20

10

0
Aesculus indica
Berberis lycium
Carissa opaca
Celtis australis
Cotoneaster nummularia
Daphne mucronata
Diospyros lotus

UV
Duchesnea indica
Elaegnus umbellata
Ficus carica
Ficus glomerata
Ficus palmata
Fragaria nubicola
Grewia optiva

RI
Hippophae rhamnoides
Juglans regia
Juniperus communis
Malus pumila
Morus alba
Morus laevigata
Morus nigra
Myrsine africana
Olea ferruginea
i dillenii
ii
Oxalis corniculata
Pistacia chinensis
Prunus armeniaca
Prunus domestica
Prunus persica
Punica granatum
Pyrus communis
Pyrus pashia
Rosa brunonii
Opuntia

Rubia cordifolia
Rubus ellipticus
Rubus fruticosus
Solanum nigrum
Solanum surattense
ii
Vitis parvifolia
Vi i jacquemont

Vitis vinifera
Zanthoxylum armatum

UV
Ziziphus mauritiana
Ziziphus oxyphylla
Ziziphus sativa
Ziziphus spina-christi
Ziziphus nummularia
Vitis j

Fig. 10. Correlation of UV and RI.

 200
Table 4
Clinical studies on essential EWF species used by the local communities of Swat Valley-Northern Pakistan

S. no Plant name Extract/dose Phytochemicals Study type, microbes and experi- Activity Reference
mental model

1. Aesculus indicus Methanolic, aqueous extracts Triterpenoids, arachidonic acid, myrstic acid, In-vivo/In-vitro Active against p-388 lymphocytes, leukemia Anonymous (2000), Sati
phenols, ollinolenic acid, and human epidermoid carcinoma and car- and Rana (1987), Anon-
diac glycosides, antifungal and antibacterial ymous (1985), and Singh
activity et al. (2004)
2. Berberis lycium Aqueous, Methanolic of roots, Feed of Berberine, berbamine, palmative, oxy- In-vitro and In-vivo (wounds in Show hypoglycemic activity, increased epi- Gulfraz et al. (2008), Asif
Berberis lycium was given to Chicks canthine, manoflorine, columbamine. rats, broiler chicks) thelialization, contraction of wound, skin et al. (2007), Chand et al.
breaking, tissue, granulation (2007), and Kupeli et al.
(2002)
3. Juglans regia Methanol, ethyl acetate, diluted acetone Juglone, betulinic acid, sitosterol, regiolone, In-vitro (Candida strains, Gram Antiproliferative and antioxidant activity, Carvalho et al. (2010),
extracts alkaloids, saponins, flavonoids, proteins, positive (Bacillus cereus) and antifungal activity, leaf inhibited gram po- Noumi et al. (2010), and
amino acids, reducing sugars, phenols, tan- Gram negative (Pseudomonas aer- sitive, gram negative growth Pereira et al. (2007).
nins, cardiac glycosides, steroids, terpenoids, uginosa) fungi (Candida albicans),

M.P.Z. Khan et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 173 (2015) 191–203

glycosides and carbohydrates.
4. Morus alba Alcoholic extract of root and bark, high Flavanol, phenols, quercetine, rutin, kaemp- In-vivo (streptozotocin induced Antioxidant activity, hypoglycemic activity Singab et al. (2005) and
doses (600 mg Kg  1 day  1), leaf 60% ferol, moracin. diabetic rat) Katsube et al. (2006)
ethanol extract
5. Morus nigra Fruit juice, hydro-alcoholic, polyphenolic. Anthocyanin extract had cyaniding-3-gluco- In-vivo (Rats and Human LDL Antioxidant, glycosylation and peroxidative Naderi et al. 2004 and
Cynadine-3-Glucoside and cyanadin-3- side, cyaniding-3-rutinoside were studied) effect Hassimotto et al. (2008)
rutinoside extracts
6. Myrsine africana Leaf and root extract Saponins, tannins, flavonoids, amino acids, Sheep infected with Nematode Anthelmintic and antioxidant activity Githiori et al. (2002)
steroids and reducing sugars. and parasitic Haemonchus
contortus.
7. Oxalis Aqueous, benzene, acetone, leaf methanol, Flavonoids, tannins, phytosterols, phenol, Escherichia Coli, Klebsiella pneu- Anti-inflammatory, anxiolytic, antic- Maji et al. (2010) and
corniculata ethanol, chloroform extract glycosides, fatty acids, galacto- glycerolipid, moniae, Staphylococcus aureus, onvulsant, antifungal, antiulcer, anti- Rahman et al. (2010)
volatile oil, flavonoids, iso vitexine and vi- Bacillus cereus, Vibrio chierae, nociceptive, anticancer, antidiabetic, hepa-
texine-2′′-O-beta-D-glucopyrunoside. Candida albicans toprotective, hypolipidemic, abortifacient,
antioxidant, diuretic, antimicrobial and
wound healing properties
8. Pistacia Methanolic extracts Gallic acid, M-Digallic acid, quercetin, 6-0- In-vitro (Rat) Cardiovascular protective effect, antioxidant Shi and Zuo (1992)
chinensis Galloyl Arbutin- Quercitrin And Quercetin-3- activity
0 (6′′-Galloyl)-Beta-D
9. Punica granatum Fermented juice, aqueous pericarp extract, Carbohydrates, Vitamin C, proteins, fats and In-vivo, In-vitro (Yeast), Zuker Chemo-protective and adjurant therapeutic Kim et al. (2002), Li et al.
cold-pressed or supercritical Co2 extracted minerals like (Ca, Fe, Mg, Na, K), anthocya- diabetic fatty rat potential, hyperglycemic activity, anitimi- (2005) and Lansky and
seed oil, flower Methanolic extract, Juice, nins, gallotannins, ellagitannins, gallagyl es- crobila and antioxidant activity Newman (2007)
peel and oil ters, hydroxybenzoic acids, hydroxycinnamic
acids, dihydroflavonol anthocyanins, ellagic
acid, phytoestrogenic flavonoids, tannins,
and organic acids.
10. Pyrus communis Methanolic extracts Arbutin, isoquercitrin, sorbitol, ursolic acid, In-vivo and In-vitro Antioxidant, antihyperglycaemic and anti- Nadkarni (1976)
astragalin and tannin, friedelin, epi- hyperlipidemic agent
friedelanol and beta-sitostero, phloridzin,
sterols and triterpene
11. Vitis vinefera Polyphenols Oligomeric proanthocyanadins, polyphenols, In-vivo and In-vitro Antioxidant and preventive agent against Torres et al. 2002 and
terpenoids, flavonoids, tannins, alkaloids, skin cancer, cardiovascular disorders and Torres and Bobet (2001)
cardiac glycosides, carbohydrates and anti-bacterial activity.
phytosterolss
12. Zanthoxylum Leaf oil Monoterpenes, linalool, limonene, lignin, In-vivo Acute toxicity, antinociceptive, hepatopro- Ibrar et al. (2012)
armatum anthocyanins, ellagic acid, phytoestrogenic tective, anticonvulsant and antinflammatory
flavonoids, tannins, and organic acids. activity
13. Ziziphus Methanolic extract Alkaloids, anthraquinone, flavonoids, glyco- In-vivo (Brewer’s yeast), Adult Showed analgesic, antipyretic, anti- Nisar et al., 2007 and
oxyphylla sides, phenols, resins, saponins, tanins, Oxy- Wistar and Swiss Albino Mice of nociceptive activity Kaleem et al. (2013)
phylline-β 1, oxyphilline C2, oxyphilline-D3, either sex, NMRI Mice
Nummularin-C4, Nummularin-R5.
 M.P.Z. Khan et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 173 (2015) 191–203
change on the values of UV (Table 3; Fig. 10). This association
shows that ethnomedicinal importance of EWFs does not depend
on the frequent use of EWFs. The number of informant who use it
only show the RI of that species, whereas the UV describes the
actual ethnomedicinal significance reliant on the number of
pharmacological disorders treated with that EWF.
3.5. Phytochemicals and clinical authentication of essential EWFS
Drug discovery from plants implicates a multidisciplinary ap-
proach combining botanical, ethnobotanical, phytochemical and
biological methods. Several natural product drugs of plant origin
are in clinical use and some are undergoing Phases II and III
clinical trials (Bellik et al., 2013). Berberis lycium is reported for its
uses against liver, abdominal disorders, cough, skin diseases and as
an analgesic, fruit has hypoglycemic, anti-inflammatory, anti-car-
cinogenic, antipyretic and anti-coagualnt properties. It also have
low proteins, fats, carbohydrates, carotenes, vitamin C, phytic acid
phytate phosphorous, tannins, ascorbic acid, anthcyanins (Sood
et al., 2010). The presence of minerals like, K, Ca, mg and Sulphur
in some Prunus Species are reported by Shad et al., (2013). Pistacia
chinensis subsp. Integerrima contains gallic acid, M-digallic acid,
quercetin, 6-0-n galloyl arbutin-quercitin and quercitin-3-0 (6*-
galloyl)-Beta–D-glycosides (Shi and Zuo, 1992). Pyrus communis
has arbutin, isoquercetin, sorbitol, tannins, friedelin, epi-
friedelanol, beta-sitosterol, triterpenes (Butt et al., 2015). Rubia
cordifolia contains cardiac glycosides, tannins, flavonoids and
phenols (Kannan et al., 2009). Aesculus indicus seed coat contains
triterpenoids (Sati and Rana, 1987), seed extract is active against
p-388 lymphocytes, leukemia and human epidermoid carcinoma
and cardiac glycosides (Anonymous, 2000), stem bark is antifungal
agent and roots are used to cure leucorrhoea (Anonymous, 1985).
Seed also contains arachidonic acid, myrstic acid, phenols, ollino-
lenic acid, oil show antibacterial activity against human pathogens
(Anonymous, 2000; Singh et al., 2004; showed anti-viral activity
and also have β aesicin. Carissa opaca is reported to have phenols,
flavonoids and thus show antioxidant activity (Sahreen et al.,
2010). Elaegnus umbellata was reported by (Khattak, 2012) to have
phenols, carotenoids, tannins, alkaloids, saponins, minerals and a
potent antioxidant agent. Khan et al., 2011 reported the presence
of minerals like (Fe, K, Na, Ca) in Ficus carica. Myrtus communis
contains proteins, tartaric acid, malic acid, citric acid, and essential
minerals (Hacıseferogulları et al., 2012). Chiteva and Wairagu
(2013) reported the presence of essential minerals like (mg, Ca, K)
in Opuntia ficus-indicus and have antioxidant properties with
mostly non-toxic substances. Dangoggo et al. (2012), reported
carbohydrates, Vitamin C, proteins, fats and minerals like (Ca, Fe,
Mg, Na, K) in Punica granatum. Important phytochemical and nu-
tritional substances like carbohydrates, glycosides, alkaloids, fla-
vonoids, saponins, tannins, unsaturated triterpenoids, sterols, re-
sins were reported in Pyrus pashia and show antioxidant activity
(Saklani and Chandra, 2012).
Clinical studies on essential EWFs have been reported by var-
ious workers (Table 4). These EWFs are traditionally used for dif-
ferent diseases and authenticated by clinical trial on various ani-
mal models In-Vivo or In-vitro.
4. Conclusion
The current study is the first of its kind in the valley assessing
the ethnomedicinal information related to the use of EWFs as a
source of medications for different ailments. In addition to food
and ethnomedicinal value of EWFs, the identified species are
marketable and can supplement their income, diversifying the
sources of income forms. The tradition of using plant-based herbal
201
remedies for different ailments is a common practice among the
tribal communities. This is mainly due to the limited access to
modern facilities of health care. This research study gives an
overview of the use of EWFs in the valley. A total of 47 EWFs were
identified, commonly used to treat (18) major groups of ailments,
Joint/body aches and digestive disorders being the two highly
treated disease, which explain its common occurrence. Quantita-
tive values of UV, RFC, ICF and RI reveal that a rich multiplicity of
medicinal plants is still used among the local people as remedies
of many ailments in the area. Further investigation is suggested
into antioxidant potential, phytochemical analysis, essential and
toxic components in conventional food resources and its phar-
macological applications, especially the EWFs with high use value
and high Relative frequency of citation. This appraisal indicates a
useful and long-lasting compilation, which can subsidize to con-
serve knowledge on the use of EFWs in the region, reassuring the
interest of future generations on traditional healing practices and a
need for thorough investigation of ethnomedicinal knowledge is
needed before such valued knowledge disappears.
Competing interests
The authors hereby declare that they have no competing
interests.
Acknowledgement
The support provided by the Higher Education Commission,
Pakistan (HEC) Islamabad, under the Project no. 20-1944/R&D/11,
to carry out this project is thankfully acknowledged. We are also
grateful to the tribal communities and local healers for their co-
operation and providing necessary information.
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