Social Science Research Methods

1. Introduction to Research
1.2 Thinking Like a Researcher
Key Topics
1. Unit of Analysis

2. Concepts, Constructs, and Variables

3. Propositions and Hypotheses

4. Theories and Models

Thinking Like a Researcher
What do you see?
1. Unit of Analysis

• One of the first decisions in social science

research is unit of analysis
• The person, collective, or object that is the
target of the investigation
• Common: individuals, groups, firms,
organizations, countries, technologies,
objects
1. Unit of Analysis

• Understanding the unit of analysis is

important because it shapes what type of
data you should collect and who you
collect it from
2. Concepts, Constructs, and Variables

• Most research tends to be explanatory

– search for explanations of social phenomena
• Explanations require development of
concepts or generalizable properties or
characteristics associated with objects,
events, or people
2. Concepts, Constructs, and Variables

• Common concepts from conversation

• What do these concepts mean to you?
– Gravity or gravitation
– Distance
– Stress
– Technostress
2. Concepts, Constructs, and Variables

• A construct is an abstract concept that is

specifically chosen (or “created”) to explain
a given phenomenon
• A construct may be a simple concept, such
as a person’s weight or height
• Or a combination of related concepts such
as a person’s communication skill
– Several underlying concepts (spelling,
vocabulary, etc.)
2. Concepts, Constructs, and Variables

• Weight is a unidimensional construct

• Communication skill is a multi-dimensional
construct and consists of multiple
underlying concepts
• Constructs used for research must have
precise and clear definitions
• Example: income
2. Concepts, Constructs, and Variables

• Scientific research requires operational

definitions that define constructs in terms
of how they will be empirically measured.
• How would you define intelligence?
• Personality?
2. Concepts, Constructs, and Variables

• Can you observe intelligence directly?

• Can you observe a person’s satisfaction?
• Constructs are abstract and not directly
measurable. Rather, we use proxy
measures called variables
• A variable is a measurable representation
of an abstract construct
2. Concepts, Constructs, and Variables

Constructs at the
theoretical level

Variables at the
empirical level
2. Concepts, Constructs, and Variables

• Variables that explain other variables are

called independent variables
• Variables that are explained by other
variables are dependent variables
2. Concepts, Constructs, and Variables

• Mediating variables are explained by

independent variables while also explaining
dependent variables
• Moderating variables influence the
relationship between independent and
dependent variables
2. Concepts, Constructs, and Variables
Effort

Academic
Construct Intelligence
Achievement

Grade Point
Variable IQ score
Average

Independent Dependent
variable Time variable
Studying
Moderating
variable
2. Concepts, Constructs, and Variables
Effort Nomological network

Academic Earning
Construct Intelligence
Achievement Potential

Grade Point Average

Variable IQ score
Average Salary

Independent Mediating Dependent

variable Time variable variable
Studying
Moderating
variable
3. Propositions and Hypotheses

• A proposition is a speculative relationship

between constructs that is stated in a
declarative form
• Example: an increase in intelligence causes
an increase in academic achievement
• Does not have to be true, but must be
empirically testable using data
3. Propositions and Hypotheses

• Hypotheses: the empirical formulation of

propositions, stated as relationships
between variables
• Example: an increase in IQ score causes an
increase in grade point average
• Propositions are specified in the theoretical
plane, while hypotheses are specified in the
empirical plane
3. Propositions and Hypotheses

• Scientific hypotheses should clearly specify

independent and dependent variables
• Weak hypothesis: IQ scores are related to
academic achievement
• Better hypothesis: IQ scores have positive
effects on academic achievement
4. Theories and Models

Theory is not Speculation

4. Theories and Models

• A theory is a set of systematically

interrelated constructs and propositions
intended to explain and predict a
phenomenon or behavior of interest, within
certain conditions and assumptions
• A system of multiple constructs and
propositions
4. Theories and Models

• A model is a representation of all or part of

a system that is constructed to study that
system
• While a theory tries to explain a
phenomenon, a model tries to represent a
phenomenon.
• Models are often used by decision makers
to make important decisions