Social Science Research Methods

2. Basics of Empirical Research

2.1 Research Design
Key Topics
1. Validity

2. Popular Research Designs

3. Selecting Research Designs

1. Validity

• Internal validity, also called causality,

examines whether the observed change in a
dependent variable is caused by a
corresponding change in hypothesized
independent variable, and not by variables
extraneous to the research context
• Lab experiments have strong internal validity
• Field surveys have low internal validity
1. Validity

• Causality requires three conditions:

1. If cause happens, then effect also
happens; and if cause does not happen,
effect does not happen
2. temporal precedence: cause must precede
effect in time
3. no plausible alternative explanation
1. Validity

• External validity or generalizability refers to

whether the associations can be generalized
from the sample to the population, to other
people, contexts, or time
• Survey research, where data are sourced
from a wide variety of individuals or firms
tends to have broader generalizability than
laboratory experiments
2. Popular Research Designs

• Experimental studies are intended to test

cause-effect relationships (hypotheses) in a
tightly controlled setting
• The cause and effect are separated with the
cause administered to one group of subjects
(the “treatment group”) but not to another
group (“control group”)
2. Popular Research Designs

• Laboratory experiments can be conducted

in an artificial or laboratory setting
• Field experiments are conducted in field
settings where the phenomenon of interest is
actually occurring
• Lab experiments are high in internal validity
• Field experiments are high in external validity
2. Popular Research Designs

• Field surveys are non-experimental

designs that do not control for or manipulate
independent variables or treatments, but
measure these variables and test their
effects using statistical methods
2. Popular Research Designs

• Strengths of field surveys:

1. External validity
2. Ability to capture and control for a large
number of variables
3. Ability to study a problem from multiple
perspectives or using multiple theories
2. Popular Research Designs

• Secondary data analysis is an analysis of

data that has previously been collected and
tabulated by other sources
– Useful when primary data collection is too
costly or infeasible
– Secondary data must be at a level of analysis
suitable for answering the research question
2. Popular Research Designs

• Case research is an in-depth investigation

of a problem in one or more real-life settings
over an extended period of time
• Data may be collected using a combination
of interviews, personal observations, and
internal or external documents.
2. Popular Research Designs

• The strength of the case research method

is its ability to discover a wide variety of
social, cultural, and political factors that may
not be known in advance
• Analysis tends to be qualitative
• Weaknesses: subject to researcher bias
and interpretations, lack of generalizability,
and lack of control
2. Popular Research Designs

• Focus group research involves bringing in

a small group of subjects (typically 6 to 10
people) at one location, and having them
discuss a phenomenon of interest
• Discussion is moderated
• Low internal validity (lack of controls)
• Findings not generalizable
3. Selecting Research Designs

• The choice should depend on the nature of

the research phenomenon being studied
• However, researchers tend to select
designs that they are comfortable with
• The goal of the researcher should be to
collect as much and as diverse data as
possible that can generate the best insights
1. Validity