Practical Research 2
HYPOTHESIS
• tentative prediction about the
relationship between two or more
variables in a population under
study.
• Used in an experimental-type
research, formed before an
experimental-quantitative
research.
Kinds of Hypothesis
Simple Hypothesis - predicting a
relationship between an
independent variable and dependent
variable.
Complex Hypothesis - the
relationship between two or more
independent variable to two or more
dependent variables.
Directional Hypothesis - the
expected direction of the relationship
between an independent and
dependent variable.
Non Directional Hypothesis - it
does not stipulate the direction of
the relationship between dependent
and independent variables.
Null Hypothesis - formulated for the
purpose of statistical analysis.
Research Hypothesis - states the
actual relationship between
variables. Also called substantive or
scientific hypothesis
Assumptions of the study
• Propositions taken to be true
based upon the presupposition
with preponderance of the facts.
Definition of Terms
• Defined Conceptually - defined
using books and dictionaries
• Defined Operationally -
definition is based on how it is
used in the study.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
• Addresses the question, “How
does the researcher answer the
question in chapter 1?”
Elements of Research
Methodology
1. Research Design - it describes
the research mode
2. Respondents of the study -
describes the target population.
3. Instrument of the study - the
specific type of research
instrument to be used.
4. Establishing and validating
reliability - instrument must
pass the validity and reliability
test before utilizing
5. Statistical Treatment - using
appropriate statistical formulas
and processes.
Threats to Internal Validity
1. Selection Bias - respondents of
the study are not randomly
selected.
2. Maturation - when the
experiment is beyond a longer
period and undergoes physical/
psychological changes.
3. History - during the conduct of
the study when an unusual event
affect the result of an
experiment.
4. Instrumentation Change - the
instrument to be used should not
be changed during the conduct
of the study.
5. Mortality - threat to validity
when one or more subjects die,
drop out, or transfer.
6. Testing - there is a threat to
validity when the respondent
knows about the baseline date of
the pretest.
Threats to External Validity
1. Experimenter effect - the
characteristics of the researcher
affects the behavior of the
respondents.
2. Hawthorne effect - respondent
react artificially because they
know they are being observed.
3. Measurement effect - subjects
have been exposed to the
treatment through taking the
pretest.
Types of Experimental Research
Designs
1. True experimental design
• Pretest-posttest controlled group
design
R 01 X 02 (experimental group)
R 01 02 ( controlled group)
• Posttest only controlled group
design
R X 02 (experimental group) R
02 (controlled group)
• Solomon Four-group design
R O1 X O2 R O1 O2 R X O2 R
O2
01 = pretest X = intervention 02
= post test
2. Quasi-experimental design
• Non-equivalent controlled group
O1 X O2 (experiment group) O1
O2 (controlled group)
• Time-series design
O1 O2 O3 X O4 O5 O6
O1, O2, O3 = pretest
O4, O5, O6 = posttest
• Pre-experimental design
• One Shot Case Study
 •XO
• One group pretest posttest
design
• O1 X O2
Types of Non-experimental
designs
1. Survey studies
• Whom the data is collected
from
• Sample - representative of the
total population
• Group - smaller than a mass
• Mass - larger than a group
• Methods used
• Telephone
• Text messages
• Snail mail
• e-mail/social media
• Face to face interaction
• Time orientation
• Retrospective - dependent
variable is identified in the
present and an attempt made to
determine the independent
variable that occurred in the past.
• Cross-sectional - data are
collected at a single point in time.
• Longitudinal - data is collected
from the same people at different
times.
• Purpose/Objectives
• Descriptive - utilized for the
purpose of portraying a
population because of some
specific characteristics.
• Comparative - compare and
contrast representative samples.
• Correlational - used to
investigate the direction and
magnitude of relationships
among variables.
• Evaluative - making a
judgement of worth or value.
Participants of the Study
Population - composed of persons
or objects that possess some
common characteristics that are of
interest to the teacher.
• Target Population - entire group
of people to which the study
generally apply.
• Accessible Population -
specific study population.
• Parameter - numeric
characteristic of a population.
• Statistic - numeric characteristic
of a sample
• Element - single member of the
sample.
Factors to consider in determining
the sample size
1. Homogeneity of the population
2. Degree of the precision
desired by the researcher
3. Types of sampling procedure
4. The use of formulas
Kinds of Sampling
1. Probability Sampling - all members
of the populations is given a chance of
being selected.
• Simple random sampling -
unbiased way of selection as
samples are drawn by chance.
• Stratified random sampling -
divided into different strata then
the sampling follows.
• Cluster sampling - large-scale
studies in which the population is
geographically spread out.
• Systematic sampling - method
of selecting every nth element of
the population.
2. Non-probability sampling
• Convenience sampling -
accidental or incidental sampling
• Quota sampling - similar to
stratified sampling in which is the
population is divided into
homogenous strata and the
sample elements are selected
from each stratum
• Purposive Sampling - involves
the handpicking of subjects.
INSTRUMENTS OF THE STUDY
Most Frequently used data
collection
• Documentary Analysis - used to
analyze primary and secondary
sources that are available in
churches, public/private offices, or
in community municipal and city
halls.
• Interview - the skill of the
interviewer determines if the
interviewee is able to express his/
her thoughts clearly.
Three types of interview
• Unstructured - can be in form of
normal conversation or a
freewheeling exchange of ideas.
• Structured - The conduct of
questioning follows a particular
sequence and has a well-defined
content.
• Semi-structured - there is a
specific set of questions, but there
are also additional probes that
may be open-ended or close-
ended
• Observation - This process or
technique enables the researcher
to participate actively in the
conduct of research.
- Instruments used in an
observation is called the
observation guide and
observation checklist.
Three types of Observation
• Structured - uses a checklist as a
data collection tool
• Unstructured - researcher
observes things as they happen.
• Psychological Measures - this
technique applied for
psychological measures involves
the collection of physical data from
the subjects.
• Psychological Tests - include
personality inventories and
projective techniques.
• Questionnaire - It is the most
commonly used instrument in
research .
Types of Questions
• Yes or no
• Ex: Do caregivers have the right to
refuse calls ( ) Yes ( ) No
• Recognition Type - alternate
responses are already provided. •
Ex: __ Elementary
__ High School
__ College
• Completion type - respondents
are asked to fill in the blanks with
necessary information.
• Ex: In order to pass my subjects, I
will _______
• Coding type - numbers are
assigned to names, choices, and
other personal data.
• Subjective type - respondents
are free to give their opinions
about an issue of concern.
• Combination type - questionnaire
is a combination of two or more
types of questions.
Scales commonly used in an
instrument
• Likert scale - common scaling
technique which consists of
several declaration statement that
express a viewpoint on a topic.
• Semantic differential scale -
respondents are asked to rate
concepts in a series of bipolar
adjectives.
VALIDITY
The ability of an instrument to
measure what it intends to measure.
Types of Validity
• Face Validity - also known as
logical validity. It involves the
analysis of whether the instrument
is using a valid scale.
• Content Validity - this type of
validity is not measured by a
numerical index, but relies instead
on logical judgement as to whether
the test measures what it is
supposed to measure.
• Construct Validity - refers to
whether the test correspond to a
theoretical construct.
• Criterion-related validity or
equivalence test - expression of
how scores from the test are
correlated with an external
criterion.
• Concurrent - measures that can
be administered and validated.
• Predictive - refers to how well the
test predicts some future behavior
of the examinees.
RELIABILITY
Refers to the consistency of results.
Methods in establishing reliability
• Test-retest or stability test -
same test are given to a group of
respondents twice
• Internal consistency - a
respondent who gets one item
right is likely to correctly answer
another item that is similar.
• Split half - method of establishing
internal consistency wherein a
test is given only once to the
respondents.
• Kuder-Richardson Test - also
called item-total correlation. Items
in one form of a test share
commonalities with one another
as do the items of an equivalence
test form.
Other criteria for assessing
quantitative measures
• Sensitivity
• Specificity
• Comprehensibility
• Precision
• Speed
• Range
• Linearity
• Reactivity
STATISTICAL TREATMENT
Culmination of the long process of
formulating a hypothesis
constructing the instrument, and
collecting data.
Two branches of statistics
• Descriptive statistics - data are
summarized to reveal overall data
patterns.
• Inferential Statistics - involves
making generalizations about the
population.
Levels of measurement of
variables
• Nominal Data - attributes that only
name variables
• Ordinal Data - used for ranking
purposes. It is mostly used in
Likert scaling.
• Interval Data - distance from one
number to the other has a
meaning.
• Ratio Data - variables that has a
natural zero
Common Statistical Tools
Descriptive Statistics
• Frequency Distribution -
numbers of individuals or cases
located in each category
• Proportion - divided by the
number of cases
• Percentage - proportions
expressed in percentage
• Measure of central tendencies
- measures where the center of
distribution tends to be.
• Simple linear regression
analysis
• Multiple regression analysis
2. Non-parametric Tests
• Chi-square test
• Test of goodness of fit
• Test of homogeneity
• Test of independence
• Spearman’s rank order
correlation coefficient

• Mode - most frequent score in

distribution
• Median - middlemost value
• Mean - exact mathematical
center.

• Variability or dispersion -
extent in which the scores differ
from each other.

• Range - difference between the

hight value
• Variance - square of standard
deviation
• Standard Deviation - square
root of quotient.

Inferential statistics

1. Parametric Tests

• T-test
• Z-test
• F-test
• Pearson product-moment
coefficient or correlation