Research Methodology

Dr. I. Manjubala

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Lecture 1 and 2
Introduction and Foundation of Research
• Meaning, Objectives, Motivation, Utility for research. Concept
of theory, empiricism, deductive and inductive theory.
Characteristics of scientific method –Understanding the
language of research.

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Research - Defined and
Described
“Research is the systematic approach to obtaining and
confirming new and reliable knowledge”
– Systematic and orderly (following a series of steps)
– Purpose is new knowledge, which must be reliable

This is a general definition which applies to all disciplines

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Definitions
• Research comprises defining and redefining
problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested
solutions; collecting, organising and evaluating data;
making deductions and reaching conclusions; and at
last carefully testing the conclusions to determine
whether they fit the formulating hypothesis. (Clifford
Woody)
• Research is, thus, an original contribution to the
existing stock of knowledge making for its
advancement.
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• It is the persuit of truth with the help of study,
observation, comparison and experiment.
• It is the search for knowledge through objective and
systematic method of finding solution to a problem
is research. The systematic approach concerning
generalisation and the formulation of a theory is
also research.
• This concept of truth is outside of the productive
realm of thinking by researchers
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Research is not
Accidental discovery :
1. Accidental discovery may occur in structured
research process
2. Usually takes the form of a phenomenon not
previously noticed
3. May lead to a structured research process to
verify or understand the observation

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Research is not … cont.
Data Collection
• an intermediate step to gain reliable knowledge
• collecting reliable data is part of the research
process

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Research is not …
Searching out published research results in libraries (or
the internet)
• This is an important early step of research
• The research process always includes synthesis and
analysis
• But, just reviewing of literature is not research

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 Research is…
1. Searching for explanation of events, phenomena, relationships and
causes
• What, how and why things occur
• Are there interactions?
2. A process
• Planned and managed –to make information generated credible
• The process is creative
• It is circular – always leads to more questions
3. All well designed and conducted research has potential
application.
• Failure to see applications can be due to:
• Users not trained or experienced in the specialized methods of
economic research and reasoning
• Researchers often do not provide adequate interpretations and
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guidance on applications of the research
Public good
• Public research is a public good
• May be more rigorous and objective because it is
subject to more scrutiny
• Private research may also be rigorous
• But research on a company’s product may be
questioned as biased.

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 Objectives of Research
The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden
and which has not been discovered as yet.
Research objectives can be of following broad groupings:
1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new
insights into it (exploratory or formulative research studies);
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular
individual, situation or a group (as descriptive research
studies);
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs
or with which it is associated with something else (diagnostic
research studies);
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between 11

variables (hypothesis-testing research studies).

 Motivation for Research
What makes people to undertake research? This is a question
of fundamental importance.
1. Desire to get a research degree along with its
consequential benefits;
2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved
problems, i.e., concern over practical problems initiates
research;
3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;
4. Desire to be of service to society;
5. Desire to get respectability.
Others: Directives of government, employment conditions,
curiosity about new things, social thinking and awakening, 12
Classification of Research

• Before classification, we must first define types of

research
• Different criteria are used to classify research types

(All of these are somewhat arbitrary and artificial)

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 Deductive vs Inductive
• Deductive Reasoning
Thinking proceeds from general assumption to
specific application
GENERAL → SPECIFIC
• Example: – Every mammal has lungs. All rabbits are
mammals. Therefore, every rabbit has lungs.
• Inductive Reasoning
Conclusions about events (general) are based on
information generated through many individual and
direct observations (specific).
SPECIFIC → GENERAL
• Example: – Every rabbit that has been observed has lungs. 14
Therefore, every rabbit has lungs.
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 Theory vs. Hypothesis
Hypothesis
– A belief or prediction of the final outcome of the
research
– A concrete, specific statement about the relationships
between phenomena
– Based on deductive reasoning
Theory
– A belief or assumption about how things relate to each
other
– A theory establishes a cause-and-effect relationship
between variables with a purpose of explaining and
predicting phenomena
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– Based on inductive reasoning
Empiricism
• Acquiring information and facts through the
observation of our world

Pragmatic observations
– Developing theory through experience and
observation

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Research approaches

• Quantitative approach
- Inferential
- Experimental
- Simulation

• Qualitative approach

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Inferential approach
• To form a data base from which to infer characteristics or
relationships of population
• Usually means survey research where a sample of
population is studied to determine its characteristics
Experimental research
• Some variables are manipulated to observe their effect on
other variables
• Much greater control over the research environment
Simulation approach
• Involves construction of an artificial environment within
which relevant information and data can be generated 19
Qualitative approach
• Subjective assessment of,
- Attitudes
- Opinions
- Behaviour
• Not subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis

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 Basic vs Applied Research
• Basic – to determine or establish fundamental facts and
relationships within a discipline or field of study.
Ex: Develop theories …
• Applied – undertaken specifically for the purpose of
obtaining information to help resolve a particular
problem
• Finding a solution for an immediate problem / for
pressing practical problem

The distinction between them is in the application

• Basic has little application to real world policy and 22
management but could be done to guide applied
research
Objective based
•Descriptive Research – the attempt to determine,
describe, or identify something
•The intent is often synthesis, which pulls knowledge
or information together
• Description of state of affairs as it exists at present
• Has no control over variables
• Can only report what has happened or what is
happening
Analytical research
– the attempt to establish why something occurs or
how it came to be
•All disciplines generally engage in both
• Has to use facts / information already available 23
• Analyse these to make critical evaluation of material
 Objective based
Conceptual research
• Related to abstract ideas / theory
• To develop new concepts / reinterpret existing ones
• That is verified by empirical research
Empirical research
• Data-based research
• Relies on experience / observation alone
• Verified by observation / experiment
• Works to get enough facts to prove / disprove hypothesis
• Evidence gathered by this is most powerful support
possible for a given hypothesis 24
Quantitative research
• Based on measurement of quantity or amount
• Expressed in terms of quantity
Qualitative research
• Concerned with qualitative phenomenon
• Motivation research – an important type
• Example: how people feel or what they think about a
particular subject or institution
• To discover underlying motives
• Seek guidance
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 Other types of research
• Cross-sectional research/1 time - Research is confined
to a single time-period
• Longitudinal research - Carried over several-time
periods
• Field-setting/laboratory/simulation - Depends upon
the environment
• Clinical research - case-study method
• Diagnostic research - In depth approaches to reach
basic casual relations
• Historical research - Utilizes historical sources like
documents, remains, etc 26
Research Methods and Methodology
Research methods
• All those methods/techniques that are used for
conduction of research
• Refer to the methods the researchers use in performing
research operations
• Method used by the researcher
Research methodology
• A systematic way to solve the research problem
• Science of understanding how research is done
• Study varies steps adopted by a researcher
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• Researchers should know the relevant method
Methodology Defined & Described
Methodology and Method are often (incorrectly) used
interchangeable

• Methodology – the study of the general approach to

inquiry in a given field
• Method – the specific techniques, tools or procedures
applied to achieve a given objective
– Research methods in economics include regression
analysis, mathematical analysis, operations research,
surveys, data gathering, etc.
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Criteria of good research
• Purpose should be clearly defined
• Common concepts to be used
• Explain procedure clearly - for continuity
• Results should be as objective as possible
• Report with frankness
- Acknowledge, procedural flaws
- Limitations of the study
Appropriate statistical test of significance
• Reliable outcome measures
• Justify conclusions with data
• Limitation of data
• Experienced researcher
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• Systematic
• Logical
What is the Scientific Method?

The Scientific Method is a process used to find answers

to questions about the world around us.

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Is there only one Scientific
Method?
• No! There are several versions of this scientific process
ranging in the number of steps.

• However, all versions begin with a question to be

answered based on observations of the world around us
and provide an organized method for conducting and
analyzing an experiment.

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Which version will we use?
A 7-step version with the following steps:

1. Formulate a question.
2. Research the question.
3. Form a hypothesis.
4. Conduct an experiment to test your hypothesis.
5. Analyze data.
6. Draw Conclusions.
7. Communicate results.

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Do real scientists use this process?
• It’s important to note that even though many scientists
do use the idea of the Scientific Method for their daily
work, they do not necessarily use each of the
individual steps.

• Also, a similar version of the Scientific Method has

been adopted by businesses all over the country. It
teaches employees and management to diagnose a
problem, think about ways of solving that problem,
then testing those ideas to try and solve the problem.
It’s the same process but with a twist!
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The Research Process

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Step 1: Formulate a question

• What do you want to know or explain?

• Use observations you have made to write a

question that addresses the problem or topic you
want to investigate.

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Step 2: Research the
question
• This is an important step, especially when you do an
independent investigation such as a science project.

• Researching your question lets you know if others have done

this same experiment before and if so, what their data
suggests. If they had a widely accepted conclusion, you may
want to try a different angle with your experiment or test a
different variable.

• You should also research the scientific concepts associated

with the experiment. For example, if you are testing to see
which paper towel brand is the most absorbent, you should
research absorbency, paper material, and quality control
testing. This will help answer the “WHY?” 36
Step 3: Form a hypothesis

• What do you think will happen?

• A hypothesis is your prediction for the outcome

of the experiment.

• It is based on your observations and should be

testable!

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Step 4: Conduct an experiment
to test your hypothesis
• Design a procedure that tests your hypothesis to
see if your prediction is correct.

• Record all of your data and observations and put

them into a table that is neat and organized.

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Step 5: Analyze data

• Is your data reliable? Does it make sense?

• Put your data into a chart or graph and look for

any trends.

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Step 6: Draw conclusions

• Do your data and observations support your

hypothesis?

• If you cannot make a definite conclusion, you

may need to try the experiment again.

• This means you may either need to rewrite your

procedure if it was not specific enough; you may
need to change your hypothesis. 40
Step 7: Communicate results
• Report the results of your experiment to let others
know what you have learned.

• This will be represented as either a lab report, oral

presentation, or Science Fair display board.

• Scientists may want to repeat your procedure to see

if they get the same results as you. They may also
tweak your experiment a little and have a slightly
different focus.

• Also, your report may lead to a new question which

may lead to another investigation. This of course
brings us right back to the first step again! 41
Steps in the Scientific Research
Process
• Selecting a topic or population to study
• Reviewing the literature
• Focusing the question
• Matching topic to population
• Designing the study
• Collecting evidence/data
• Analyzing findings
• Interpreting findings
• Informing others of your findings 42