Research Methodologies

Chapter One

Basic concepts of Research

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 Definitions of Research
• The main goal of research is the gathering and interpreting
of information to answer questions (Hyllegard, Mood, and
Morrow, 1996).
• Research is a systematic attempt to provide answers to
questions (Tuckman, 1999).
• the systematic process of collecting and analyzing
information (data) in order to increase our understanding of
the phenomenon about which we are concerned or interested
• Research may be defined as the systematic and objective
analysis and recording of controlled observations that may
lead to the development of generalizations, principles, or
theories, resulting in prediction and possible control of
events (Best and Kahn, 1998).
• Research is a systematic way of asking questions, a
systematic method of inquiry (Drew, Hardman, and Hart,
1996).
 Research is not
Accidental discovery :
– Accidental discovery may occur in structured research process
– Usually takes the form of a phenomenon not previously noticed
– May lead to a structured research process to verify or understand the observation
Data Collection
– an intermediate step to gain reliable knowledge
– collecting reliable data is part of the research process
Searching out published research results in libraries (or the internet)
– This is an important early step of research
– The research process always includes synthesis and analysis
Information gathering:
– Gathering information from resources such books or magazines isn’t research.
– No contribution to new knowledge.
The transportation of facts:
– Merely transporting facts from one resource to another doesn’t constitute research.
– No contribution to new knowledge although this might make existing knowledge
more accessible.

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 Research is…
1. Searching for explanation of events,
phenomena, relationships and causes
– What, how and why things occur
– Are there interactions?
2. A process
– Planned and managed – to make the information
generated credible
– The process is creative
– It is circular – always leads to more questions
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 Research Characteristics
 Originates with a question or problem.
 Requires clear articulation of a goal.
 Follows a specific plan or procedure.
 Often divides main problem into sub problems.
 Guided by specific problem, question, or hypothesis
(suggested solution based on evidence).
 Accepts certain critical assumptions.
 Requires collection and interpretation of data.
 Suggests possible solutions to the problem
 What is Science, the Scientific Method, and Research?

• Science…
– a body of established knowledge
– the observation, identification, investigation, and theoretical explanation of
natural phenomenon
• Scientific Method…
– involves the principles and processes regarded as characteristic of or necessary for
scientific investigation
– process or approach to generating valid and trustworthy knowledge
• Research…
– the application of the scientific method
– a systematic process of collecting and logically analyzing information (data)
• Research Methods (Methodology)…
– the ways one collects and analyzes data
– methods developed for acquiring trustworthy knowledge via reliable and valid
procedures
 Methods and Methodologies
• Research methods:
• All those methods/techniques that are used for conduction of
research.
• Refer to the methods the researchers use in performing research
operations.
• All methods which are used by the researcher during the course
of studying his research problem.
• Research methodology:
• Systematically solve the research problem.
• Includes the research methods and also consider the logic behind
the methods we use in the context of our research study and
explain why we are using a particular method or technique and
why we are not using others so that research results are capable
of being evaluated either by the researcher himself or by others.

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 Scientific Method
• Hypothesis
• Sequence of experiments
– Randomization
– Repetition
• Change one parameter/experiment
• Prove/Disprove Hypothesis
• Document for others to reproduce results
Scientific Method
 Structure of Research
The "hourglass" notion of research

begin with broad questions

narrow down, focus in
operationalize
OBSERVE
analyze data
reach conclusions
generalize back to questions
 The Scientific Research Method
• Systematic; cyclic; series of logical steps.
– Identifying the problem
– Formulating a hypothesis
– Developing the research plan
– Collecting and analyzing the data
– Interpreting results and forming conclusions
 Identifying the Problem
• First, and arguably the most important, step
– Several sources
• Theoretical basis
• Professional practice
• Personal experience
• Shear curiosity
– Starts as a broad question that must be narrowed
– Problem statement; experimental approach to the problem; etc.
• Three categories when selecting a research problem
– Those who know precisely what they want to do and have a well
conceived problem
– Those who have many interest areas and are having difficulty
deciding exactly what they want to study
– Those who do not have any idea about a worthwhile research
problem
 Formulating a Hypothesis
• Hypothesis:
– A belief or prediction of the eventual outcome of
the research
– A concrete, specific statement about the
relationships between phenomena
– Based on deductive reasoning
– 2 types of hypotheses:
• Null hypothesis (HO)
– All is equal; no differences exist
• Alternative (research) hypothesis (HA)
– Usually specific and opposite to the null
 Developing the Research Plan
• A strategy must be developed for gathering
and analyzing the information that is required
to test the hypotheses or answer the research
question
– Four parts:
• Selection of a relevant research methodology
• Identification of subjects or participants
• Description of the data-gathering procedures
• Specification of the data analysis techniques
– Pilot studies, all must be determined in advance!
 Collecting and Analyzing the Data

• Following all the pre-determined protocols

– Time in the lab collecting data
– Analyzing the composite data
– Controlling the environment
 Interpreting Results and Forming
Conclusions
• DATA ANALYSIS IS NOT AN END IN ITSELF!
• Does the evidence support or disprove the
original hypotheses?
– Accept or reject the hypotheses
– Conclusions should be drawn:
• Develop new hypotheses to explain the results
• Inferences are typically made beyond the specific study
New Questions Arise

Question Identified

Results Interpreted Hypotheses Formed

Data Collected Research Plan

Closed-loop conceptualization of the research process (Drew, Hardman,

and Hart, 1996)
 Research Classifications
• System #1:
– Basic research
– Applied research
• System #2:
– Quantitative research
– Qualitative research
• System #3:
– Experimental research
– Nonexperimental research
• System #4
– Exploratory research
– Constructive research
– Empirical research
 Basic vs. Applied Research
Applied Research

Applying the result of research finding to solve specific problem

happening in an organization. The aim is to solve current problem

Basic Research
Enhancing the understanding of certain problem that commonly occur in
organization setting and seek method of solving them. The aim is to
generate knowledge, understand phenomena/problem that occur in
various organization setting

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 Basic vs. Applied Research
• Basic • Applied
– Central purpose to
– Pure, fundamental solve an immediate
research problem
– Discovery of new – Improved products or
knowledge; processes
theoretical in nature – Infers beyond the group
or situation studied
– Takes many years for
– Interpretation of results
the results of basic relies upon Basic
research to find some research
practical utility
 Quantitative vs. Qualitative
• Quantitative • Qualitative
– Numerical, measurable data
– Traditional or positivist
approach
• Clearly stated questions
• Rational hypotheses
• Developed research
procedures
• Extraneous variable
controls
• Large samples
• Traditional, statistical
analyses
– Generally non-numerical
data
– Typically anthropological
and sociological research
methods
– Observations of a “natural”
setting
– In-depth descriptions of
situations
– Interpretive and descriptive
 Experimental vs. Nonexperimental
• Experimental • Nonexperimental
– Independent 1. Causal-comparative
Variables (Ivs) and 2. Descriptive
Dependant 3. Correlational
Variables (DVs)
– Cause-and-effect 4. Historical
– Extraneous variable
controls
Exploratory, Constructive and Empirical research

• The goal of the research process is to produce

new knowledge.
• This process takes three main forms
1. Exploratory research which structures and identifies
new problems
2. Constructive research which develops solutions to a
problem
3. Empirical research which tests the feasibility of a
solution using empirical evidence.

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 The Process of Research
• The process is initiated with a question or
problem (step 1)
• Next, goals and objectives are formulated to deal
with the question or problem (step 2)
• Then the research design is developed to achieve
the objectives (step 3)
• Results are generated by conducting the research
(step 4)
• Interpretation and analysis of results follow (step
5)
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Creativity in the Research Process
• Research is a creative process
• “…research includes far more than mere logic …
It includes insight, genius, groping, pondering –
‘sense’ … The logic we can teach; the art we
cannot”
• Research requires (or at least works best) with
imagination, initiative, intuition, and curiosity.

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 Research Motivation
• What makes people to undertake research?
• This is a question of fundamental importance. One or more of
the following:
1. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential
benefits.
2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved
problems, i.e., concern over practical problems initiates
3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work.
4. Desire to be of service to society.
Many more factors: directives of government, employment
conditions, curiosity about new things, desire to understand causal
relationships, social thinking and awakening, as well motivate .
 Fostering Creativity
– Gather and use previously developed knowledge
– Exchange ideas
– Apply deductive logic
– Look at things alternate ways
– Question or challenge assumptions
– Search for patterns or relationships
– Take risks

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 Scientific Research
 Provides scientific information and theories
 Follows a certain structural process though the step order
may vary depending on the subject matter and researcher
 The following steps are usually part of the most formal
research both basic and applied
 Observations and Formation of the topic
 Hypothesis
 Conceptual definitions
 Operational definition
 Gathering of data
 Analysis of data
 Test, reviving of hypothesis
 Conclusion
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 Steps to Scientific Research
1. Identifying the research question or problem area
2. Initial review of literature
3. Distilling the question to a specific research problem
4. Continued review of literature
5. Formulation of hypotheses
6. Determining the basic research approach
7. Identifying the population and sample
8. Designing data collection plan
9. Selecting or developing specific data collection instruments or
procedures
10. Choosing the method of data analysis
11. Implementing the research plan
12. Preparing the research report
 Research Process (Methodology)
• Initial Idea
• Background Investigation
• Refinement of Idea
• Core Work
– Investigation and Development
– Documentation
– Prototype (if appropriate)
• Evaluation
• Identification of Future Work
• Presentation
 Research Process – Initial Idea
• Stems from critical thinking
• Be on the lookout for and open to seeing problems
– Gaps in framework
– Repetitive behavior that’s slightly different (and can be
generalized)
– Manual solutions (that can be automated)
– Inelegant solutions
• Ask questions
– “Is something missing here?”
– “Can this be done in a better way?”
– “Is there a need for a new approach?”
• Should be an area you’re interested in, as:
– You’ll be spending a lot of time with it
– It won’t always be easy/fun to continue…
 Research Process – Background Investigation

• Given an idea, need to determine:

– Has this work been done previously?
– What similar work has been done leading up to this point?
– How is any previous work distinguished from what I’m
planning to do?
– What group of people will be positively impacted by the
research?
• Tools
– Literature Review using library resources (e.g. online
databases such as ACM and IEEE, popular magazines)
– Google search (Google scholar)
– Other profession based journals
 Research Process – Core Work,
Investigation and Development
• Provide yourself with infrastructure
– equipment / software
– additional knowledge (“get up to speed”)
• Do the work
– Experimentation (scientific process)
– Develop opinions
– Look for better ways of solving problem
• Can you generalize?
• Can you develop a framework?
– Discuss, brainstorm
– Reevaluate as you proceed
• Look for improvements, changes to your original ideas

• Process
– Work regularly
• Easier to keep going if have a commitment to a regular work time
• Helps you keep your past work in mind
– Allocate large block of time for research
• Takes time to get going/back to speed
• Make sure can do something significant each work session
 Research Process – Core Work, Documentation

• Need to document as you go

– Don’t want to lose any information
• Maintain a journal for day-to-day thoughts
– Can be paper, electronic, ...
– Keep it with you at all times
• Never know when good ideas will hit
• Keep an updated task list
– Focus on accomplishing something each work session
• Write up your work
– Periodically, write a few pages on a subset of your work
• Summarize work, accomplishments, problems
– At end, write up a summary document
• Can be based on steps discussed here
 Research Process – Core Work, Prototype

• Need to demonstrate the merit of your ideas

• If work is non-theoretical, do this through a
developed system
– No need to build the entire system
– Just need to demonstrate the value of the core
ideas
 Research Process - Evaluation
• Perhaps the most difficult part….
– Best if can show others are already using your work
• Quantitative
– Test your prototype
– What improvements exist over currently available
alternative?
– How much of an improvement do you see?
• Qualitative
– What can you do now that couldn’t be done before?
– What are the benefits of your solution?
 Research Process – Identification of Future Work

• Helps you organize any future efforts

• Helps others build on your work
• Sources:
– What you excluded in your idea refinement
– New problems that have surfaced during your
work
 Research Process - Presentation

• It’s not a contribution to the field if no one

knows about it or can use it
• Presentation/Dissemination
– Conferences, Journals, Web
• e.g. National and International Research conference
– Papers, Talks, Poster Sessions
 Assignment 1
• Find a full-text research article published recently on a topic of
your interest that is related to your area of specialization. Provide
a written summary 2-4 pages which could answer the following
questions:
1. What type of research is it?
2. Do the researcher follow the scientific research process?
3. Do the research fulfils some of the characteristics of a
research?
4. What is the research problem?
5. What were some potential limitations of this study?
6. What were the initial hypotheses for this study?
7. Where the hypotheses rejected or accepted?
8. What was the overall conclusion of this paper?
9. If you were to replicate this study, describe how you would
do it
Submission date:- in two weeks time
Note:- don’t forget to attach the research article that you evaluated