EIE 812

Advanced Research and Development

Techniques
 Outline
• Introduction: Definition of research, characteristics of research, types of research, research process,
research as a way of thinking, application of research. IT Impacts: The ‘automate’ imperative and the
‘informate’ imperative in the emergence of a new research and development tool .
• The Research Proposal. The Introduction. The Problem. The Objective of the Study. The Hypothesis to
be Tested. The Study Design. The Setting. Measurement Procedures. Sampling. Analysis of Data.
Structure of the Report. Problems and Limitations. Work Schedule.
• Formulating a Research Problem: Reviewing the literature. Formulating a Research Problem.
Identifying Variables. Constructing Hypothesis. Conceptualizing a research Design: The Research
Design. Selecting a Study Design. Constructing an Instrument for data collection and Sampling:
Selecting a Method for Data Collection. Establishing the Validity and Reliability of a Research
Instrument.
• Sampling. Data collection, analysis, inference, and presentation. Data mining: Models, tools, and
applications.
• Writing a Research Report: Research Writing in General. Referencing. Writing a Bibliography.
Developing an Outline. Writing About a Variable.
• Turning research findings to useful products. Prototyping. Intellectual-Property Issues: Protecting the
intangible,
• Patents (What is eligible for a patent?, How is a patent obtained?, Employee/employer patent rights,
Using a patent, Infringement, Changes to watch for, Patent searches over the Internet ),
• Copyrights (What is eligible for a copyright?, How is a copyright obtained?, Using a copyright,
Infringement, Fair use of copyrighted material, Changes to watch for, Software piracy, Plagiarism),
• Trade secrets (What is eligible to be a trade secret?, Using a trade secret, Infringement), Reverse
engineering, The "look and feel" copyright controversy, Software patents. Patent issues: writing patent
application.
What is research?
 What is research?
• research.
• a. the systematic investigation into and
study of materials, sources, etc, in order to
establish facts and reach new conclusions.
• b. an endeavour to discover new or collate
old facts etc by the scientific study of a
subject or by a course of critical
investigation. [Oxford Concise Dictionary]

4
 What is research?
• Research is what we do when we have a question or
a problem we want to resolve
• We may already think we know the answer to our
question already
• We may think the answer is obvious, common sense
even
• But until we have subjected our problem to rigorous
scientific scrutiny, our 'knowledge' remains little
more than guesswork or at best, intuition.

5
 What is research?
• First priority is to formulate your question
• Then figure out how you are going to answer
it
– How have others answered it?
– How does your proposal fit in with what others
have done?
– How will you know when you have answered it?
• Then you can present your answer

6
 Definitions of Research
• The main goal of research is the gathering and interpreting of
information to answer questions (Hyllegard, Mood, and
Morrow, 1996).
• Research is a systematic attempt to provide answers to
questions (Tuckman, 1999).
• Research may be defined as the systematic and objective
analysis and recording of controlled observations that may
lead to the development of generalizations, principles, or
theories, resulting in prediction and possible control of events
(Best and Kahn, 1998).
• Research is a systematic way of asking questions, a systematic
method of inquiry (Drew, Hardman, and Hart, 1996).
 Development of Research Skills
• Learning how to conduct good research:
– New skills (that many people do not have)
– Better understanding and interpretation of the
literature
– Recognize new questions that need investigation
• Objectivity is the key element of research
 Search for Truth
• Five sources of evidence in the pursuit of
truth:
1. Custom and tradition
2. Authority
3. Personal experience
4. Deductive reasoning
5. Scientific inquiry
 Deductive Reasoning
• A.k.a., Logic.
– In deductive reasoning, thinking proceeds from general
assumption to specific application
– GENERAL  SPECIFIC
– Aristotle and other early philosophers
• Drawing conclusions through categorical syllogism.
• All philosophers are moral. Socrates is a philosopher. Therefore,
Socrates is moral.
• Resistance training makes one big and bulky by increasing body
mass. Sandi is resistance training. Therefore, Sandi will become
big and bulky.
– Not sufficient as a source of new truth
 Inductive Reasoning
• Conclusions about events (general) are based
on information generated through many
individual and direct observations (specific).
– SPECIFIC  GENERAL
– Researchers observe an individual or group of
individuals from a larger population  based on
these observations, generalizations are made back
to the larger population.
 Inductive Reasoning
• Two kinds of induction:
– Perfect
• Conclusions based on observations made from ALL
members of a group or population
– Imperfect
• Conclusions based on observations made from a
random sample of members of a population
 Deductive vs. Inductive Reasoning
• Deductive:
– Every mammal has lungs. All rabbits are
mammals. Therefore, every rabbit has lungs.
• Inductive:
– Every rabbit that has been observed has lungs.
Therefore, every rabbit has lungs.
 The Scientific Method
• Systematic; cyclic; series of logical steps.
– Identifying the problem
– Formulating a hypothesis
– Developing the research plan
– Collecting and analyzing the data
– Interpreting results and forming conclusions

• Example…
 Identifying the Problem
• First, and arguably the most important, step
– Several sources
• Theoretical basis
• Professional practice
• Personal experience
• Shear curiosity
– Starts as a broad question that must be narrowed
– Problem statement; experimental approach to the
problem; etc.
 Identifying the Problem
• Three categories when selecting a research
problem
– Those who know precisely what they want to do
and have a well conceived problem
– Those who have many interest areas and are
having difficulty deciding exactly what they want
to study
– Those who do not have any idea about a
worthwhile research problem
Philosophy of Graduate Education
• MENTORSHIP!
– Work with a professor/researcher that has
established a research agenda
 Developing the Research Plan
• A strategy must be developed for gathering
and analyzing the information that is required
to test the hypotheses or answer the research
question
– Four parts:
• Selection of a relevant research methodology
• Identification of subjects or participants
• Description of the data-gathering procedures
• Specification of the data analysis techniques
– Pilot studies, IRB,…all must be determined in
advance!
 Collecting and Analyzing the Data
• Following all the pre-determined protocols
– Time in the lab collecting data
– Analyzing the composite data
– Controlling the environment
• Easiest part of the process…
– However, sometime the most time-consuming
part of the process…
Interpreting Results and Forming Conclusions

• DATA ANALYSIS IS NOT AN END IN ITSELF!

• Does the evidence support or refute the
original hypotheses?
– Accept or reject the hypotheses
– Conclusions should be drawn:
• Develop new hypotheses to explain the results
• Inferences are typically made beyond the specific study
New Questions Arise

Question Identified

Results Interpreted Hypotheses Formed

Data Collected Research Plan

Closed-loop conceptualization of the research process (Drew, Hardman, and

Hart, 1996)
 Types of Research Questions
• 3 Types
– Descriptive questions
– Difference questions
– Relationship questions
 Descriptive Questions
• Purpose:
– To describe phenomena or characteristics of a
particular group of subjects being studied
• Survey research
• Qualitative research
 Difference Questions
• Purpose:
– To make comparisons between or within groups.
– Is there a difference?
• Experimental research
– Treatment vs. control
– Pre- vs. post-test comparisons
• Nonexperimental research
– Compare one group to another based on existing
characteristics
 Relationship Questions
• Purpose
– To investigate the degree to which two or more
variables covary or are associated with each other
• Rather than analyzing the differences between groups,
researchers characterize the relationships among them.
• Extent to which variables are related
• Not to establish cause-and-effect
 Theory vs. Hypothesis
• Hypothesis
– A belief or prediction of the eventual outcome of the research
– A concrete, specific statement about the relationships
between phenomena
– Based on deductive reasoning (no experiment done at this
stage, just common-sense reasoning)
• Theory
– A belief or assumption about how things relate to each other
– A theory establishes a cause-and-effect relationship between
variables with a purpose of explaining and predicting
phenomena
– Based on inductive reasoning ( based on results from similar
scenarios)
 Hypotheses

In an ideal
world…
Theories

Laws
 Empiricism
• Acquiring information and facts through the
observation of our world
– Pragmatic observations
– Developing theory through experience and
observation
– Non-scientific
– Quick and practical solution to a problem
• With little interest in explaining when, how, or why
– Example: Anabolic steroid use (abuse)…
 Research Classifications
• System #1:
– Basic research
– Applied research
• System #2:
– Quantitative research
– Qualitative research
• System #3:
– Experimental research
– Nonexperimental research
 Basic vs. Applied Research
• Applied
Basic
–
– Central purpose to research
Pure, fundamental solve an immediate problem
–
– Improved
Discovery products or processes
of new knowledge; theoretical in nature
–
– Infers beyond the group or situation studied
Takes many years for the results of basic research
– Interpretation of results
to find some practical relies upon Basic research
utility
 Quantitative vs. Qualitative
• Quantitative
Qualitative
–
– Numerical, measurable data
Generally non-numerical data
–
– Traditional or positivist approach
Typically anthropological and sociological research methods
• Clearly stated questions
– Observations of a “natural” setting
• Rational hypotheses
– In-depth descriptions
• Developed of situations
research procedures
– Interpretive
• Extraneousand descriptive
variable controls
• Large samples
• Traditional, statistical analyses
Experimental vs. Nonexperimental
• Experimental
Non experimental
–
1. Cause-and-effect
Causal-comparative
–
2. Extraneous
Descriptive variable controls
3. Correlational
4. Historical
 Steps to Experimental Research
1. Identifying the research question or problem area
2. Initial review of literature
3. Distilling the question to a specific research
problem
4. Continued review of literature
5. Formulation of hypotheses
6. Determining the basic research approach
7. Identifying the population and sample
 Steps to Experimental Research
8. Designing data collection plan
9. Selecting or developing specific data collection
instruments or procedures
10. Choosing the method of data analysis
11. Implementing the research plan
12. Preparing the research report
 Classical scientific method
• Observation of some phenomenon
– Maybe systematic, occasional or accidental
• Some idea of an explanation (hypothesis)
– Induction, conjecture, intuition, guesswork
– Usually informed by related work
• Testing of the hypothesis
– Test and revision cycle

35
 Experiment
• If the experiment works, the hypothesis is
shown to be probably correct
– Can’t prove 100% truth
• If it fails, it could be because
– The hypothesis is wrong
– The experimental design is faulty

36
By the way, have you ever wondered why we
do experiments at school, the result of which is
known beforehand?

37
 Quantitative vs qualitative
• Quantitative research
– systematically observe changes in the phenomena
of interest while manipulating what are believed
to be causal influences
• Qualitative research
– may be more concerned with the individual’s
personal experiences of the problem under study

38
 Planning
• Statement of the problem
• Literature review
• Choice of research method
• Design of study
• Data collection
• Analysis of data
• Write-up

39
 THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL

• A written statement of the research design (strategy,

blueprint) that often also includes
– a statement explaining the purpose of the study (in the
form of research objectives or deliverables)
– a definition of the problem (often in the form of a decision
statement)
– the particular research methodology that will be employed
– details of procedures that will be used during each stage of
the research process, and
– a schedule of costs and deadlines
 Contents of the Research Proposal
1. Purpose of the research
– The general purpose (includes the marketing problem and the research
problem)
– Specific research objectives to be achieved with the study (including clear
specification of variables involved)
2. Research Design
– Specific research method (or methods) to be used
– Justification for choice of methods
3. Measurement
– How variables will be measured
– Sample questions
4. Sample Design
– What the target population will be
– How the sample will be selected
– What size of sample will be used
Contents of the Research Proposal - Continued
5. Data gathering
– How the data will be collected and by who.
6. Data Processing/Analysis
– How the data will be processed
– What analysis techniques will be used for specific research objectives
7. Presentation of Results
– How results will be presented
• Written report
• Oral presentation
8. Time Schedule
– Time schedule for completion of the study (if possible in the form of a
Gantt Chart)
9. Budget
– Overall cost of the study (including breakdown of different cost
components)
 Time Schedule
   
TIME FROM START OF STUDY (WEEKS)
 
RESEARCH ACTIVITY 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

                   
DISTRIBUTOR STUDY
1. Observation and store audits                  

                   

2. Depth interviews                  

                   

CONSUMER STUDY                  

3. Focus Group Interviews                  

4. Observation of consumer shopping                  

5. Consumer Survey                  

6. Data analysis and report writing                  

7. Oral presentation                  
 Functions of a Research Proposal

For Management (the client):

1. Evaluation
– It helps the client to evaluate the ability of the
research to accomplish its objectives
2. Choosing research suppliers
– Client judges quality of different research
suppliers from their proposals
3. Judgment standard
– It is a standard for determining if the research
was conducted as planned
 Functions of a Research Proposal
For the Researcher:
1. Thinking ahead
– It forces the researcher to think through the different
stages of the research process
2. Bidding document
– It serves as the researcher’s bid to offer a specific service
For Both Parties:
3. Communication
– It serves as a means of communication between the
researcher and the client (decision maker)
4. Written Contract
– It serves as a written contract that can always be
referred to
Planning and writing your Research Proposal:
 Standard requirements:
• Title • Title
• Outline • Research question
• Literature Review • Aim and objectives
• Methodology • Rationale and context
• Methods of data collection
• Methodology
and analysis
•
• Methods
Ethical Issues
• Timeline • Plan of work
• Resources • Resources / Support
• Outcomes • Outcomes
• Reference list • Reference list
Getting started:
• Title
– Clear
– Concise
– Understandable

• Introduction / Project
outline:
– What?
– Why is this research
needed?
 Aims and Objectives

The purpose of this research Why do a number of major

is to… IT projects fail to produce
the outcomes expected?
• Clarity
What is the educational
• Useful and do-able tasks achievement of children
of Korean immigrants
• Scope and specificity who came to Auckland
between 1990 and 2005?
• Sub-questions
Background to the field / Literature review

• Scene setting – what’s known about the topic?

• Generate interest
• Show what has been done
• Relevant theory and current issues
• Descriptive and Critical
• Identify gaps / justify your study
• Don’t assume your reader knows your field
 Methodology / Method
• Methodology
• Methods (appropriate to methodology)
– Collection + analysis of data
• Validity / Reliability
• Rigour / Bias / Sampling
• Reflexivity
• ETHICS
– Confidentiality / Anonymity / Fairness / Honesty
– Storage of data
Planning your project:
 HOW TO WRITE A
RESEARCH PROPASAL
 What is a research proposal?
• A research proposal is your plan
– It describes in detail your study
– Decisions about your study are based on the
quality of the proposal
• Research funding
• Approvals to proceed by the Institutional Review Board
 Avoid Plagiarism
• Plagiarism is presenting someone else’s ideas
or words as though they were your own.

DANGEROUS!!!!
 Research Proposal Elements
• Background/ significance
• Research Question/Aim/Purpose
• Methods
– Design
– Sample/Sample Size
– Setting
– Protocol
– Analysis plan
• Timeline
 Background/ Significance

• Why is your study important?

• Describe the significance of the research
question or problem
• Answer the “so what?” question
 Literature review
• What is the state of the science/art on this
problem? Are there gaps in the literature?
How will your study fill those gaps?
– Synthesize recent literature (within the past 5
years)
 Purpose
• Identify simply what you plan to do in your study
• The purpose can be framed as a research question or an
aim
• Examples:
– What is the impact of meditative music on agitation in
hospitalized elders?
– The purpose of this study is to show the impact of meditative
music on agitated elders.
 Methods
• This section of your proposal has multiple
parts
– Design
– Sample/Sample size
– Setting
– Protocol
– Analysis Plan
• Detailed enough so that the reviewers could
conduct the study
 Data Analysis
• Describe your analysis plan
– What statistical tests will you use?
– Be sure your statistics are appropriate for your
study design
 Timeline
• Describe how long it will take to do your study
• Provide timeline benchmarks
• Example:
– Months 1 – 3 Prepare study tools
– Months 4-10 Collect data
– Months 11-12 Analyze data
 Common pitfalls to avoid
• Missing aims or purpose
• Not enough detail about protocol
– Write your proposal so anyone reading it can understand your plan
• Is your study significant?
– Does it answer the larger “So what” question? Why should researchers care
about this work?
• Underpowered sample size
– Describe why you are using the sample size and justify it
• Invalid or unreliable instrumentation
– Has your instrument been tested with the population you are studying? If
not, will you test it within your study?
• Improper statistics
– Are you using the appropriate statistical analysis?
 Grants are important
• Research grants are the dominant way for
academic researchers to get resources to focus
on research
• INVARIANT: there is never enough money
 The state of play
• Even a strong proposal is in a lottery, but a
weak one is certainly dead
• Many research proposals are weak
• Most weak proposals could be improved quite
easily
 The vague proposal
1. I want to work on better type systems for
functional programming languages
2. Give me the money

You absolutely must

identify the problem you
are going to tackle
 2. Blowing your own trumpet
• Grants fund people
• Most researchers are far too modest. “It has
been shown that …[4]”, when [4] is you own
work!
• Use the first person: “I did this”, “We did
that”.
• Do not rely only on the boring “track record”
section
 2. Blowing your own trumpet
Express value judgements using strong, but
defensible, statements: pretend that you are a
well-informed but unbiased expert
• “We were the first to …”
• “Out 1998 POPL paper has proved very
influential…”
• “We are recognised as world leaders in
functional programming”
 2. Blowing your own trumpet
Choose your area...
• “We are recognised as world leaders in
– functional programming
– Haskell
– Haskell’s type system
– functional dependencies in Haskell’s type system
– sub-variant X of variant Y of functional dependencies in Haskell’s type system”
 Improving Your Odds
Read guidelines for grants if available
Monitor institutions research priorities
Contact grant officers in
target institution(s)
Discuss your ideas vs. their needs
 Improving Your Odds
ALWAYS submit cover letter
(paper & electronic)
Suggest specific study group for review
Suggest one or more target institutions
Refer to grant officer with whom
you have been working
Identify yourself as a new investigator, if
so.
 Improving Your Odds
New investigators are NOT penalized
New investigators allowed higher
payline priority score
More emphasis on research potential
than on track record
More emphasis on research plan than
on preliminary results
 The arrogant proposal
1.I am an Important and Famous Researcher. I have lots of PhD
students. I have lots of papers.

2.Give me the money

• Proposals like this do sometimes get funded.

But they shouldn’t.
• Your proposal should, all by itself, justify your
grant
 Improving Your Odds
Seek “feed forward” before writing
Identify 2-4 specific aims
Discuss hypothesis & approach with
grant-funded colleagues &
biostatistician
Contact fiscal/grants administrator
 Improving Your Odds
Use short, concise sentences
Make points clearly
Use diagrams to illustrate models
Use tables to summarize data
NEVER assume reviewers
“know what you mean”
Never create additional work for
the reviewer
 Improving Your Odds
Organize application for logical flow of
ideas & actions
– Everything fits together
– Nothing is superfluous
– Nothing is omitted
– Time table is detailed & realistic
 Improving Your Odds
Why you would not want funding:
– Must think of innovative ideas
– Must do the work
– Must publish papers
– Must submit grant progress reports
– Must write yet more grants for
continued funding
 Improving Your Odds
How to Avoid Funding
– Recycle old ideas
– Skip literature review
– Avoid all contact with grant providers
– Do not let anyone else read grant
– Wait until due date to contact research administration
– Save time – don’t read instructions
– Include jargon & sweeping generalities
Key Personnel Page
– Key personnel are paid to participate in the
grant-funded work
– Other significant contributors include unpaid
consultants & mentors with no committed
percent effort (include biosketch but no other
support)
Personnel Pages
– Summarizes education, training, & professional career
highlights
– Lists publications (except those in prep or submitted)
& presentations
– Lists recent research support
– Establishes qualifications to do proposed work &
appropriateness for role on proposed study
– Only 2 pages for career info & publications – this
restriction goes away with electronic submission
Resources Page
– Summary of physical space, equipment,
personnel, & other resources essential to
study completion
– Letters of support required for shared
resources critical to proposed work
– Justify reliance on external resources
Budget Pages

– Department fiscal/grant administrator can

help with estimating costs & calculating
salaries
 THE FUTURE (is now)
Office of Research (sponsored programs) must
submit applications – NOT PI
Authorized institutional official AND PI must
verify applications accepted
Do NOT verify garbled images – if looks garbled
when you view it, will look garbled to reviewer
Basic concepts of research proposal and
Steps of research proposal development
Translate your written notes into
a written paper.
How to translate your written notes into a paper.

• Write an introduction
– This section is like a mini literature review.
– Written in present tense
• Write a method section
– This section deals with how you will collect data or
information.
– Written in future tense
 How to translate your written notes into a
paper.
• Write a results section.
– This section deals with how you will analyze your
result
– Written in future tense.
• Write a discussion section
– This section tells you why think your research is
important.
– This section is written in present tense.
Tips for successful proposal writing

• Creating writing routine.

– Writing at the same time and place improves the
writing skills and efficiency.
• Write with a dictionary, thesaurus, style
manual on hand.
– Word has these resources automatically
programmed.
 Why I need a research proposal

• It is prerequisite for degree

• Needs approval from the committee to
start the work
• It conceives the project
• It impresses the senior as a potential
researcher
• It serves as a contract between the
researcher and funder.
• Personal interest.
 What is a research proposal?
• A document with two major objectives:
– To analyze and synthesize the existing research
about particular topic.
– Describe the researcher’s idea for a new study.
• An art which the researcher wants to sell in
the market.
– Buyer needs to take it from the gallery.
– Suits to buyer’s pocket.
 Be prepared for
• To make mistakes and to learn.
• To write and rewrite many times.
• To spend many hours looking for information.
• To have your writing criticized.
• To feel confuse and hopeless some times.
 When should the research proposal be
written?
• Preparation with the flying mind question “Why”?
• In the first few months of first year.
• A substantial amount of work has to be done before
a proposal can be written
• Some departments assume that a research proposal
will be written in first six months.
• Seek advice on your draft from supervisors and
peers.
 Important information for writing
• Always structure your work in advance.
• Know that you want to say before writing.
• Every sentence must contain one idea only.
• Each sentence must follow logically from
the before: chain of ideas.
• Write in a way that is easy to read.
• Use simple language.
• Check spelling and grammar.
• Do not cut and paste from articles.
 The Format

• Front page: Title, name of the researcher,

department.
• Second page: content
• Third page: Abstract: Not more than 200
words.
• Fourth – sixth page: with bold headings:
Literature review; hypothesis, methods and
materials; data analysis
• Seventh page: Discussion
• Last page: References: Not more than 10.
 Avoid Plagiarism
• Plagiarism is presenting someone else’s ideas
or words as though they were your own.
– Loss of year
– Loosing referee for future.
 Tips for successful proposal writing
• Make it simple
– Avoid pretentious language, unnecessary
jargon, and double speak by cutting down
every unnecessary word.
• Read your work loud
– A sentence that is difficult to say will be
difficult to read.
• Revise , revise, revise.
• Put an end to it
– The faster you finish the proposal and submit it
the less time you have wasted thinking about
writing it.
PROBLEM FORMULATION

INSPIRING CREATIVE AND INNOVATIVE MINDS

• Objective
CONTENT
• What is Research & Research Process
– Comparison between Masters and PhD

• Research Problem
– Criteria for Selecting a Problem
– Formulating Research Problem
– Writing a Research Problem

• Research Hypothesis

INSPIRING CREATIVE AND INNOVATIVE MINDS

Objective of Lecture:
To impart the skills on how to
(i) formulate and
(ii) Structure a research problem
PROBLEMICATION
 THESIS

TITLE
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
LITERATURE REVIEW
METHODOLOGY
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
REFERENCES
APPENDICES
 CHAPTER 1
• INTRODUCTION
• RESEARCH BACKGROUND
• PROBLEM STATEMENT
• HYPOTHESIS
• OBJECTIVE
• SCOPE
• THESIS OUTLINE
This study is dedicated to design and develop a new crystalliser, the
OBJECTIVES
main component of a PFC process, to enable layer crystallisation of
ice for the purpose of wastewater treatment. The objectives of the
research are as listed below:

• To design/develop a new crystalliser for PFC of wastewater;

• To study the effect of circulation flowrate on the performance of
the crystalliser;
• To investigate the effect of coolant temperature on the partition
constant (K), solution volume reduction and ice purity;
• To determine the optimum process conditions (parameters) using
Response Surface Methodology (RSM);
• To profile the temperature distribution in order to calculate the
overall heat transfer coefficient, Uo, for the PFC process.
 RESEARCH
SCOPES objectives, a series of
With the intention of achieving the above-mentioned
scopes was implemented. The scopes determine the extent of investigations in
achieving all objectives mentioned in the previous section. Below is the listing of
the scopes involved:

• The designing of the new crystalliser took into account new material of
construction, shape to increase surface area and equipped with all relevant
features for a successful PFC process;

• The range of circulation flowrate studied was 400 to 1000ml/min, to

investigate its effect on K, ice purity and solution volume reduction;

• The coolant temperature range applied was -4 to -10˚C, investigated on the K

value, solution volume reduction and ice purity;
 3

Formulating a research problem

 Formulating a research problem
• refers to identifying what it is that you want to
find out about.
 Steps in the formulation of a research
problem
1. Identify a broad field or subject area of
interest to you.
2. Dissect the broad area into subareas.
3. Select what is of most interest to you.
4. Raise research questions.
5. Formulate objectives
6. Assess your objectives
7. Double-check
 Step 1: Identify a broad field or subject
area of interest to you.

• Ex: If you are studying marketing you might be

interested in researching consumer behavior
(customer satisfaction).
Step 2: Dissect the broad area into subareas.

1- Profile of satisfied customers

2- Antecedents of customers satisfaction
3- The effect of customer satisfaction on
consumer related outcomes
4- Measurement of customer satisfaction
 Step 3: Select what is of most interest to
you.
• It is neither advisable nor feasible to study all
subareas.
• Go through your list and delete all those
subareas in which you are not very interested.
•  select: Antecedents of customers
satisfaction
 Step 4: Raise research questions

1- What is the effect of customer expectation

on customer satisfaction?
2- What is the effect of service quality on
customer satisfaction?
3- What is the effect of word of mouth
communication on customer satisfaction?
Examples of research ideas (topic) and their derived focus research questions
 Step 5: Formulate objectives

• Your objectives grow out of your research

questions.
• The main difference between objectives and
research questions is the way in which they are
written.
• Research questions are obviously that—
questions.
 Step 5: Formulate objectives

• Objectives transform these questions into

behavioral aims by using action-oriented words
such as 'to find out', 'to determine', 'to
ascertain' and 'to examine‘, ‘to measure’, ‘to
explore’.
 Some examples…
• To describe the types of incentives provides by five star hotels in
Colombo to their employees.

• To find out the opinion of the employees about the medical

facilities provided by five star hotels in Colombo.

• To ascertain the impact of training on employee retention.

• To compare the effectiveness of different loyalty programmes on

repeat clientele.

• To ascertain if an increase in working hours will increase the

incidence of drug abuse.

• To demonstrate that the provision of company accommodation to

employees in hotels will reduce staff turnover.
 Step 5: Formulate objectives

Example:
1- To determine the effect of customer expectation
on customer satisfaction
2- To find out the effect of service quality on
customer satisfaction
3- To identify how word of mouth communication
impact on customer satisfaction
 Paraphrasing research questions as research
objectives
Research Question Research Objective

Why have organizations To identify organization’s

introduced early retirement ?objectives for introducing retirement
schemes.

What are the consequences To describe the consequences of

of early retirement schemes ? Early recruitment for employees.
To explore the effects of early retirement for the organization.
 Step 6: Assess your objectives

• Examine your objectives to ascertain the

feasibility of achieving them in the light of the
time, resources (financial and human) and
technical expertise at your disposal.
 Step 7: Double-check

• 1 that you are really interested in the study

• 2 that you agree with the objectives
• 3 that you have adequate resources
• 4 that you have the technical expertise to
undertake the study
 Considerations in selecting a research
problem
• interest,
• magnitude,
• measurement of concepts,
• level of expertise,
• relevance,
• availability of data,
• ethical issues.
 Sampling

Teaching Research Methods: Resources for

HE Social Sciences Practitioners
 Sampling
• Sample frame = the target population you wish to research

• Census = all the respondents in the sample frame

participating in the research

• Sample = a smaller group selected from the sample frame

to participate in the research

• Sample method = the technique used to select the sample

Teaching Research Methods: Resources for

HE Social Sciences Practitioners
 Representativeness
• The aim of any sample is to represent the
characteristics of the sample frame.
• There are a number of different methods
used to generate a sample.
• As a researcher you will have to select the
most appropriate method meet the
requirements of your research.

Teaching Research Methods: Resources for

HE Social Sciences Practitioners
 Sampling

• Sampling methods can be split into two

distinct groups:

1. Probability samples
2. Non-probability samples

Teaching Research Methods: Resources for

HE Social Sciences Practitioners
 Sampling
Probability Samples
Probability samples offer each respondent an equal
probability or chance at being included in the
sample.
They are considered to be:
• Objective
• Empirical
• Scientific
• Quantitative
• Representative
Teaching Research Methods: Resources for
HE Social Sciences Practitioners
 Sampling
Non Probability Samples
A non probability sample relies on the
researcher selecting the respondents.
They are considered to be:
• Interpretivist
• Subjective
• Not scientific
• Qualitative
• Unrepresentative

Teaching Research Methods: Resources for

HE Social Sciences Practitioners
 Types of sampling

• Non-probability samples

• Probability samples
 Non probability samples

 Convenience samples (ease of access)

sample is selected from elements of a population that
are easily accessible
 Snowball sampling (friend of friend….etc.)
 Purposive sampling (judgemental)
• You chose who you think should be in the
study
Quota sample
 Non probability samples

Probability of being chosen is unknown

Cheaper- but unable to generalise
potential for bias
 Probability samples

• Random sampling
– Each subject has a known probability of being
selected
• Allows application of statistical sampling
theory to results to:
– Generalise
– Test hypotheses
 Conclusions

• Probability samples are the best

• Ensure
– Representativeness
– Precision
Methods used in probability samples

 Simple random sampling

 Systematic sampling
 Stratified sampling
 Multi-stage sampling
 Cluster sampling
Simple random sampling
 Table of random numbers

684257954125632140
582032154785962024
362333254789120325
985263017424503686
 Systematic sampling

Sampling fraction
Ratio between sample size and population size
Systematic sampling
 Cluster sampling
Cluster: a group of sampling units close to each
other i.e. crowding together in the same area or
neighborhood
 Cluster sampling
Section 1 Section 2

Section 3

Section 5

Section 4
• Stratified sampling
• Multi-stage sampling
 SAMPLING

• A sample is “a smaller (but hopefully

representative) collection of units from a
population used to determine truths about that
population” (Field, 2005)
• Why sample?
– Resources (time, money) and workload
– Gives results with known accuracy that can be
calculated mathematically
• The sampling frame is the list from which the
potential respondents are drawn
– Registrar’s office
– Class rosters
– Must assess sampling frame errors
155
 SAMPLING……
• What is your population of interest?
• To whom do you want to generalize your
results?
– All doctors
– School children
– Indians
– Women aged 15-45 years
– Other
• Can you sample the entire population?

156
 SAMPLING…….

• 3 factors that influence sample representative-

ness
• Sampling procedure
• Sample size
• Participation (response)

• When might you sample the entire population?

• When your population is very small
• When you have extensive resources
• When you don’t expect a very high response

157
 158
SAMPLING BREAKDOWN
SAMPLING…….

STUDY POPULATION

SAMPLE

TARGET POPULATION

159
 Why use a sample?
• Cost
• Speed
• Accuracy
• Destruction of test units
 Table 11.1
Sample vs. Census
Conditions Favoring the Use of
Type of Study Sample Census

1. Budget Small Large

2. Time available Short Long

3. Population size Large Small

4. Variance in the characteristic Small Large

5. Cost of sampling errors Low High

6. Cost of nonsampling errors High Low

7. Nature of measurement Destructive Nondestructive

8. Attention to individual cases Yes No

 Classification of Sampling
Methods
Sampling
Methods

Probability Non-
Samples probability

Systematic Stratified Convenience Snowball

Simple
Cluster Judgment Quota
Random
 Choosing Nonprobability vs.
Table 11.4 cont. Probability Sampling
Conditions Favoring the Use of
Factors Nonprobability Probability
sampling sampling

Nature of research Exploratory Conclusive

Relative magnitude of sampling Nonsampling Sampling

and nonsampling errors errors are errors are
larger larger

Variability in the population Homogeneous Heterogeneous

(low) (high)

Statistical considerations Unfavorable Favorable

Operational considerations Favorable Unfavorable

 Types of Samples

• Probability (Random) Samples

• Simple random sample
– Systematic random sample
– Stratified random sample
– Multistage sample
– Multiphase sample
– Cluster sample
• Non-Probability Samples
– Convenience sample
– Purposive sample
– Quota 164
 Process
• The sampling process comprises several stages:
– Defining the population of concern
– Specifying a sampling frame, a set of items or
events possible to measure
– Specifying a sampling method for selecting
items or events from the frame
– Determining the sample size
– Implementing the sampling plan
– Sampling and data collecting
– Reviewing the sampling process

165
 Population definition
• A population can be defined as including all
people or items with the characteristic one
wishes to understand.
• Because there is very rarely enough time or
money to gather information from everyone
or everything in a population, the goal
becomes finding a representative sample (or
subset) of that population.

166
 Population definition…….
• Note also that the population from which the
sample is drawn may not be the same as the
population about which we actually want
information. Often there is large but not
complete overlap between these two groups due
to frame issues etc .
• Sometimes they may be entirely separate - for
instance, we might study rats in order to get a
better understanding of human health, or we
might study records from people born in 2008 in
order to make predictions about people born in
2009. 167
 SAMPLING FRAME
• In the most straightforward case, such as the
sentencing of a batch of material from production
(acceptance sampling by lots), it is possible to
identify and measure every single item in the
population and to include any one of them in our
sample. However, in the more general case this is not
possible. There is no way to identify all rats in the
set of all rats. Where voting is not compulsory,
there is no way to identify which people will actually
vote at a forthcoming election (in advance of the
election)
• As a remedy, we seek a sampling frame which has
the property that we can identify every single
element and include any in our sample .
• The sampling frame must be representative of the
population
168
Probability Sampling Methods
• Random Sampling
• Systematic Random Sampling
• Stratified Random Sampling
• Cluster Random Sampling
• Quota Random Sampling
• Multi-Stage Sampling

Teaching Research Methods: Resources for

HE Social Sciences Practitioners
 Random Sampling

• This involves selecting anybody from the sample

frame entirely at random.
• Random means that each person within the
sample frame has an equal chance of being
selected.
• In order to be random, a full list of everyone
within a sample frame is required.
• Random number tables or a computer is then
used to select respondents at random from the
list. Teaching Research Methods: Resources for
HE Social Sciences Practitioners
 Systematic Random Sampling
• This selection is like random sampling but
rather than use random tables or a computer
to select your respondents you select them in
a systematic way.

• E.g. every tenth person on the college list is

selected.

Teaching Research Methods: Resources for

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 Stratified Random Sampling

• An appropriate group is decided upon i.e.

female, male, 16 –18 year olds and the
participants are picked randomly from within
the strata

Teaching Research Methods: Resources for

HE Social Sciences Practitioners
 Cluster Random Sampling
• Similar to stratified sampling
but the groups are selected
for their geographical location
• i.e. school children within a
particular school.
• The school is the cluster with
the children being selected
randomly from within the
cluster
Teaching Research Methods: Resources for
HE Social Sciences Practitioners
 Quota Random Sampling

• Having decided on the characteristics of the

sample frame, a sample is selected to meet
these characteristics.
• E.g. if the sample frame is car drivers and the
car driving population is 55% male and 45%
female then the quota would require the
same proportions.
• Participants would be selected to fill this
quota using the random method
Teaching Research Methods: Resources for
HE Social Sciences Practitioners
 Non-probability Sampling
• Convenience Sampling
• Snowball Sampling

• These non-probability methods can be used

in conjuncture with the cluster, quota or
stratified methods, however they will remain
non-probability samples

Teaching Research Methods: Resources for

HE Social Sciences Practitioners
 Convenience Sampling

• This involves selecting the nearest and

most convenient people to participate in
the research.
• This method of selection is not
representative and is considered a very
unsatisfactory way to conduct research.

Teaching Research Methods: Resources for

HE Social Sciences Practitioners
 Snowball Sampling
• This type of sampling is used when the research is
focused on participants with very specific
characteristics such as being members of a gang.
• Having identified and contacted one gang member
the researcher asks to be put in touch with any
friends or associates who are also gang members.
• This type of sampling is not representative
however is useful, especially where the groups in
the research are not socially organised i.e. they do
not have clubs or membership lists.

Teaching Research Methods: Resources for

HE Social Sciences Practitioners
 Quantitative Research - Sample Size

• When conducting probability sampling it is important to use a

sample size that is appropriate to the aims and objectives of
the research.
• There are tables recommending sample size (see de Vaus,
1996 pp 71-72) but as a general rule the smaller the total
sample frame the larger the sample ratio needs to be.
• A common error is to assume that the sample should be a
certain percentage of the population, for example 10%. In
reality there is no such relationship and it only the size of the
sample that is important.
• A probability sample size of 100+ is considered a large enough
sample to conduct statistical analysis
Teaching Research Methods: Resources for
HE Social Sciences Practitioners
 Statistics and Samples

• When presenting your research you need to be able

to demonstrate, how representative of the whole
population the sample data you have collected is.
• There are two statistical test used to do this:
• Standard Error
• Confidence Levels

Teaching Research Methods: Resources for

HE Social Sciences Practitioners
 Standard Error
• Using the standard deviation of the population and
the sample size a statistical calculation can measure
the degree of error likely to occur between the
results of a sample and the results of a census, this is
call the standard error.
• The larger the sample the lower the standard error.
• When a probability sample of 100+ is undertaken
the distribution can usually be assumed to be
normal
• When the sample has normal distribution, we can
use the z score approach to obtain confidence limits
for the sample mean.
Teaching Research Methods: Resources for
HE Social Sciences Practitioners
 Confidence Levels
• Confidence levels are calculated using the
Central Limit Theorem
• Using this and the sampling error we can then
use the area below the normal distribution
curve to make predictions about our sample.
• As well as making predictions we can use the
properties of the normal distribution curve to
provide us with confidence levels
• There are three confidence levels 68%, 95%
and 99%
Teaching Research Methods: Resources for
HE Social Sciences Practitioners
 Confidence Levels
• The concept does not mean that we are 95% sure that
a single sample mean lies within these limits.
• The 95% confidence limits mean that if we drew many
samples, and find the mean for each, then we can
expect 95% of the sample means to lie within the
stated limits.
• 95% confidence is considered acceptable in social
research, medical research often requires 99%
confidence

Teaching Research Methods: Resources for

HE Social Sciences Practitioners
Confidence Levels – Bell Curve

Teaching Research Methods: Resources for

HE Social Sciences Practitioners
 Errors in sample

Systematic error (or bias)

Inaccurate response (information bias)
Selection bias

Sampling error (random error)

 Type 1 error
• The probability of finding a difference with our
sample compared to population, and there
really isn’t one….

• Known as the α (or “type 1 error”)

• Usually set at 5% (or 0.05)

 Type 2 error

• The probability of not finding a difference

that actually exists between our sample
compared to the population…

• Known as the β (or “type 2 error”)

• Power is (1- β) and is usually 80%

 Sample size

Quantitative Qualitative

Z 2σ 2 Z2 π(1  π)
n n
D2 D2

(σ12  σ 22 )xF 2 P (1 - P) F
n n
D 2
D2
 Problem 1
A study is to be performed to determine a
certain parameter in a community. From a
previous study a sd of 46 was obtained.
If a sample error of up to 4 is to be accepted.
How many subjects should be included in this
study at 99% level of confidence?
 Answer
2
Z σ 2
n
D 2

2.582 x 462
n  880.3 ~ 881
4 2
 Problem 2
• A study is to be done to determine effect of 2
drugs (A and B) on blood glucose level. From
previous studies using those drugs, Sd of BGL
of 8 and 12 g/dl were obtained respectively.
• A significant level of 95% and a power of 90%
is required to detect a mean difference
between the two groups of 3 g/dl. How many
subjects should be include in each group?
 Answer
(σ  σ )xF
2 2
n 2
1 2
D

(8  12 )x10.5
2 2

n 2
 242.6 ~ 243
3
in each group
 Problem 3
It was desired to estimate proportion of anaemic
children in a certain preparatory school. In a
similar study at another school a proportion of
30 % was detected.
Compute the minimal sample size required at a
confidence limit of 95% and accepting a
difference of up to 4% of the true population.
 Answer
Z π(1  π)
2
n 2
D

1.96 x 0.3(1  0.3)

2
n 2
 504 .21 ~ 505
(0.04)
 Problem 4
In previous studies, percentage of hypertensives
among Diabetics was 70% and among non
diabetics was 40% in a certain community.
A researcher wants to perform a comparative
study for hypertension among diabetics and
non-diabetics at a confidence limit 95% and
power 80%, What is the minimal sample to be
taken from each group with 4% accepted
difference of true value?
 Answer
2 P (1 - P) F
n
D2

2 x 0.55 (1 - 0.55) x7.8

n 2
 2413 .2
0.04
Precision
Cost