Lesson 4: Nature and

Functions of Research
Assoc. Prof. Raymond B. Esperida, MSPT, PTRP, FRIPOT, GDMT, CNMT, PhD©
School of Physical Therapy
Emilio Aguinaldo College, Cavite
Learning Objectives
At the end of the lesson, the learner will be able to:
• Identify and describe the nature and functions of research
(meaning, purpose, characteristics, kinds and classification of
research), Enumerate the research process and Identify the
important terms used in Research
• Differentiate research method and research design.
• Explain the various research methods and designs.
• Identify common features of quantitative and qualitative
research.
What is Research?
•Careful and systematic investigation
in some field of knowledge
undertaken to discover or establish
facts and principles (Fraenkel and
Wallen, 2006).
•In scientific research, the emphasis is
on obtaining evidence to support or
refute proposed facts or principles.
 What is Research?

Research is theoretical
It is concerned with
developing, exploring or
testing the theories or
ideas that social
researchers have about
how the world operates.
 What is Research?

Research is empirical

It is based on observations and

measurements of reality (on what we
perceive of the world around us).
Research 1 with Evidence Based Practice
Lesson 1: Introduction to Research

What is Research?

Research is both theoretical and

empirical

a comparison of our theories about how

the world operates with our
observations of its operation.
 What is Research?
Research is Nomothetic
rather than Idiographic
Nomothetic refers to laws or rules
that pertain to the general case
(nomos in Greek) and is
contrasted with the term
"idiographic" which refers to laws
or rules that relate to individuals
What is the Purpose of Research?
• Exploratory: the first research to be conducted
around a problem that has not yet been clearly
defined.
• Exploration research aims to gain a better
understanding of the exact nature of the problem
and not to provide a conclusive answer to the
problem itself.
• This enables us to conduct more in-depth research
later on.
What is the Purpose of Research?
• Descriptive: expands knowledge of a research
problem or phenomenon by describing it according
to its characteristics and population.
• focuses on the ‘how’ and ‘what’, but not on the
‘why’.
• Explanatory:  casual research
• conducted to determine how variables interact, i.e.
to identify cause-and-effect relationships.
• deals with the ‘why’ of research questions and is
therefore often based on experiments.
Characteristics of Research
• Empirical – based on proven scientific methods
derived from real-life observations and
experiments.
• Logical – follows sequential procedures based on
valid principles.
• Cyclic – research begins with a question and ends
with a question, i.e. research should lead to a new
line of questioning.
• Controlled – vigorous measures put into place to
keep all variables constant, except those under
investigation.
Characteristics of Research
• Hypothesis-based – the research design generates
data that sufficiently meets the research objectives
and can prove or disprove the hypothesis.
• It makes the research study repeatable and gives
credibility to the results.
• Analytical – data is generated, recorded and
analyzed using proven techniques to ensure high
accuracy and repeatability while minimizing
potential errors and anomalies.
Characteristics of Research
• Objective – sound judgement is used by the
researcher to ensure that the research findings are
valid.
• Statistical treatment – statistical treatment is used
to transform the available data into something
more meaningful from which knowledge can be
gained.
 Types of Research
Basic (fundamental or pure)
research is conducted to
investigate issues relevant to
the confirmation or
disconfirmation of theoretical
The main motivation is
or empirical positions.
to expand man's
knowledge , not to
create or invent
something.
Types of Research
Basic research
experiments are
performed to further
scientific knowledge
without an obvious or
immediate benefit.
Types of Research
•designed to solve practical problems
of the modern world, rather than to
acquire knowledge for knowledge's
sake.
•The goal is to improve the human
condition.
•Interventions are usually being
develop to help people cope or
address their concerns or problems.
Research Design
•A research design is a plan, structure and
strategy of investigation so conceived as to
obtain answers to research questions or
problems.
•The plan is the complete scheme or
programme of the research.
•It includes an outline of what the
investigator will do from writing the
hypotheses and their operational
implications to the final analysis of data.
(Kerlinger 1986: 279)
Research Design

•A traditional research design is a blueprint

or detailed plan for how a research study is
to be completed—operationalizing variables
so they can be measured, selecting a
sample of interest to study, collecting data
to be used as a basis for testing hypotheses,
and analyzing the results. (Thyer 1993: 94)
Research Design
•FUNCTIONS:
•conceptualize an operational plan to
undertake the various procedures and tasks
required to complete your study;
•ensure that these procedures are adequate
to obtain valid, objective and accurate
answers to the research questions. Kerlinger
calls this function the control of variance.
 Research Design
•Name the study design per se – that is,
‘cross-sectional’, ‘before-and-after’,
•FUNCTIONS: ‘comparative’, ‘control experiment’ or
•conceptualize an ‘random control’.
operational plan to •Provide detailed information about the
undertake the various following aspects of the study:
procedures and tasks
required to complete 1. Who will constitute the study
your study; population?
2. How will the study population be
identified?
3. Will a sample or the whole population
be selected?
 Research Design
•Provide detailed information about the
following aspects of the study:
•FUNCTIONS:
4. If a sample is selected, how will it be
•conceptualize an contacted?
operational plan to
undertake the various 5. How will consent be sought?
procedures and tasks 6. What method of data collection will be
required to complete used and why?
your study; 7. In the case of a questionnaire, where will
the responses be returned?
8. How should respondents contact you if
they have queries?
 Research Design
•FUNCTIONS:
•conceptualize an •Provide detailed information about the
operational plan to following aspects of the study:
undertake the various 9. In the case of interviews, where will they
procedures and tasks be conducted?
required to complete
10. How will ethical issues be taken care of?
your study;
 Research Design

FUNCTIONS:
ensure that these
procedures are adequate to
obtain valid, objective and
accurate answers to the
research questions.
Kerlinger calls this function
the control of variance.
•To ensure this, it is important that you
select a study design that helps you to
isolate, eliminate or quantify the effects of
different sets of variable influencing the
independent variable.
Research Design
Research Design
•It is a collection methods used to inquire
into a problem, issue, question, theory, etc.
of interest to a researcher.
• A question or theory, composed of
variables, is measured in a systematic way
and data are analyzed with statistical
procedures.
Research Design
Research Design
•It is the only type of research that directly
attempts to influence a particular variable.
•It is the best type for testing hypothesis
about cause-and-effect relationships.
•The independent variable is referred to as
the experimental or treatment variable.
•The dependent variable is also known as
the criterion or outcome variable.
Research Design

•Experimental research is any research

conducted with a scientific approach, where:
• a set of variables are kept constant
while the
• other set of variables are being
measured as the subject of experiment.
Research Design

•Two Broad Categories of Experimental

Design:
• True Experimental Research
• Quasi Experimental Research
Research Design

•Two Broad Categories of Experimental

Design:
• True Experimental Research
• Quasi Experimental Research
Research Design
•TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

•It is the most accurate form of experimental

research design as it relies on statistical
analysis to prove or disprove a hypothesis.

•It is the only type of Experimental Design

that can establish a cause-effect relationship
within a group/s.
Research Design
•CHARACTERISTICS OF A TRUE
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
•Comparison of groups
● Usually involves an experimental or
treatment group and a control or
comparison group.
•Manipulation of the independent variable
● The researcher deliberately and
directly determines what forms the
independent variable will take and which
group will get which form and how will they
get it.
Research Design
•CHARACTERISTICS OF A TRUE
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
•Manipulation of independent variable may
be established by:
● One form of variable versus another
● Presence versus absence of a
particular form
● Varying degrees of the same form
Research Design
•CHARACTERISTICS OF A TRUE
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
● Randomization
● Random assignment of subject to
groups is an important aspect of
experimental research.
● Random assignment means that every
individual who is participating in an
experiment has an equal chance of being
assigned to any of the experimental or
control conditions being compared .
Research Design
•CHARACTERISTICS OF A TRUE
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
● Randomization
● Random Selection means that every
member of a population has an equal
chance of being selected to be a member of
the sample.
Research Design
•Things to remember about random
assignment:
•It takes place before the experiment
begins. •It is a process of assigning or
distributing individuals to groups.
•It allows the researcher to form groups
that, right at the beginning of the study, are
equivalent
o Random assignment is no guarantee of
equivalent groups unless both groups are
sufficiently large.
Research Design
•Things to remember about random
assignment:
•It allows the researcher to form groups
that, right at the beginning of the study, are
equivalent
o There are no rules for determining the
size of the groups.
o Researchers are uncomfortable relying
on random assignment with fewer than 40
subjects in each group. (Frankael and
Wallen, 2006)
Research Design
•Definition of Terms
•Treatment / intervention
◦ in an experiment, the treatment or
intervention is the main independent
variable that is being manipulated.
•Treatment or experimental group
◦ A group of study participants who have
been exposed to a specific treatment of
intervention.
Research Design
•Definition of Terms
•Control group
◦ A group of study participants who have not
been exposed to a particular treatment.
◦ The term is typically used in experimental
designs with random assignment.
●Comparison group
◦ A group of study participants who have
similar attributes and characteristics as a
treatment or experimental group.
◦ typically used in quasi-experimental
designs where random assignment has not
been used.
Research Design
•Definition of Terms
•Pretest
◦ A test administered prior to a specific
treatment or intervention.
◦ This provides a baseline measure that can
be compared to subsequent tests taken after an
intervention or treatment.
●Posttest
◦ A test administered after a specific
treatment or intervention.
◦ A posttest can help determine how study
participants have responded to a treatment or
intervention.
Research Design

•when participants improve just because

they believe that they are receiving a
treatment.
Research Design
•EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGNS
•WEAK EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
•One-Shot Case Study
•A single group is exposed to treatment and
a dependent variable is observed
(measured) in order to assess the effect if
the treatment. ● The symbol X represents
exposure of group to the treatment while O
refers to the observation (measurement) of
the dependent variable .
Research Design
Research Design
•EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGNS
•WEAK EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
•One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design
•A single group is measured or observed not
only after being exposed to a treatment (X) but
also before
●Absence of a comparison or control group
●Presence of threats to internal validity such as
●history, maturation, instrument decay, data
collector characteristics and bias, testing,
statistical regression, attitude of the subjects
and implementation.
Research Design
Research Design
•EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGNS
•WEAK EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
•Static-Group Comparison Design
•Two already existing or intact groups are
used.
•Sometimes referred to as static groups or
non-equivalent control group design.
•The dashed line (-----) indicates that the
two groups being compared are already
formed (not randomly assigned).
Research Design
Research Design
•EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGNS
•WEAK EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
•Static-Group Pretest-Posttest Design
•A pretest is given to both groups.
•Individuals pretest scores are subtracted
from their posttest scores to determine
“gain or change”.
 Research Design

O1 x O2

O1 O2
Research Design

•TRUE EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGNS

•The essential ingredient of a true
experimental design is that subjects are
randomly assigned to treatment groups.
Research Design
•TRUE EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGNS
•The Randomized Posttest-Only Control
Group Design
•Involves two groups, both of which are
formed by random assignment .
•On group receives the experimental
treatment while the other does not.
•Both groups are posttested on the
dependent variable.
•Use of R control subjects characteristics,
maturation, and statistical regression.
Research Design
•TRUE EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGNS
•The Randomized Posttest-Only Control
Group Design
•Testing is not a possible treat due to
absence of pretest.
•Best design in experimental study provided
there are at least 40 subjects in each group
(Frankael and Wallen, 2006)
•Possible threat includes mortality,
implementation, data collector bias,
location, and history.
Research Design
Research Design
•TRUE EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGNS
•The Randomized Pretest-Posttest Control Group
Design
•Differs from the previous design solely in the use of
a pretest
•The use of pretest raises possibility of pretest
treatment interaction
◦ It may alert the experimental group to do
better
●Best way to check whether the researcher
succeeded using random assignment in making the
groups equivalent
●According to Frankael and Wallen, this design is
particularly desirable if the number in each group is
small (< 30)
Research Design
Research Design
•TRUE EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGNS
•The Randomized Solomon Four-Group
Design
•This design is an attempt to eliminate the
possible effect of a pretest
•It involves random assignment of subjects to
four groups
•Provides the best control to threats to
internal validity
•Weakness is the requirement of a larger
sample ◦ Doing this requires considerable
amount of time from the researcher.
Research Design
Research Design
•TRUE EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGNS
•Random Assignment with Matching
•Establishing equivalence of groups through
matching pairs of individual based on
certain variables.
•The choice of variables in which match is
based on previous research, theory, and/or
the experience of the researcher.
•Members of each pair are then assigned to
the experimental and control groups at
random.
Assignment

1. Identify the appropriate design for

your approved research problem?
References:
•Berger, A. A. (2011). Media and communication research methods: An
introduction to quantitative and qualitative approaches. London. SAGE
•Bernard, H. (2013). Social research method, qualitative and quantitative
approaches. London. SAGE
•Borden, K. S & B. B. Abbott (2011). Research designs and methods.: a
process approach. McGraw Hill International
•Creswell, J. W. (2014). Research design qualitative and quantitative
approaches. 2nd Ed. Thousand Oaks. SAGE
•Fraenkel, J. R. (2015). How to design and evaluate research in education.
McGraw Hill International.