ARC 451

Research Methodology
(2 Units)

Prof. Oluwole A. Alagbe

Arc. Adenubi
Arc. Babamboni,
Arc. Asaju
 COURSE SYNOPSIS
• Provide a guide on how to select relevant and researchable topic
• Train students in developing research methods/strategies
applicable to the areas of study
• Students will be exposed to a variety of methods of inquiry drawn
from a number of disciplines.
• Through critical reading and content analysis, students will
consider the value of scholarly research, learn to develop research
questions, understand the nature of evidence, and the writing,
presentation and illustration of scholarship.
• Students will contribute to the discussions through independent
research and critical analyses of the assigned readings and
lectures
2
 OUTLINE
MODULE 1: GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
• Research defined.
• Objectives of research.
• Classifications of Research
• Difference between Research Methods and Research Methodology
• Types of Research
MODULE 2: WRITING THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL
• What is a research proposal?
• Goal of a Research Proposal
• Purpose of a research proposal
• Components of a Research Proposal
• Structure of a Research Proposal
MODULE 3: LITERATURE REVIEW

3
 MODULE 1:

INTRODUCTION

4
 MODULE 1: INTRODUCTION

• Research defined.
• Objectives of research.
• Classifications of Research
• Difference between Research Methods and Research
Methodology
• Types of Research

5
 WHAT IS RESEARCH?
• Logical and systematic search for new and useful information on a
particular topic.

• The nursery rhyme ’Twinkle Twinkle Little Star, How I Wonder What You
Are’ summarizes what research is by the use of the words how and what.

• Involves investigation of finding solutions to scientific and social

problems through objective and systematic analysis

• It is a search for knowledge, that is, a discovery of hidden truths.

• Research is an active, diligent and systematic process of inquiry in

order to discover, interpret or revise facts, events, behaviours and
theories. 6
 OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH
Primary objectives of research include:
1. discover new facts;
2. validate or invalidate important facts;
3. analyse an event or process or phenomenon to identify the cause and
effect relationship;
4. develop new scientific tools, concepts and theories to solve and
understand scientific and non-scientific problems;
5. find solutions to scientific, non-scientific and social problems and;
6. overcome or solve the problems occurring in our every day life.
7. Take informed decision 7
 WHAT MAKES PEOPLE DO RESEARCH?
Every research is done with a motivating factor that includes but not limited to:

• get a research degree e.g. (BSc., M.Sc.., Ph.D.) along with its benefits like
better employment, promotion, increment in salary, etc;
• solve the unsolved and challenging problems;

• get joy of doing some creative work;

• acquire respectability;
• get recognition;

• curiosity to find out the unknown facts of an event;

• curiosity to find new things;

• to serve the society by solving social problems.

8
CLASSIFICATION OF TYPES OF RESEARCH
• Research is broadly classified:
• Basic
• Applied
• Quantitative
• Qualitative
• Exploratory
• Descriptive
• Explanatory
• Experimental
9
 BASIC OR THEORETICAL RESEARCH
Basic Research
• Investigation on basic principles and reasons for occurrence of a
particular event or process or phenomenon i.e. it is knowledge-
specific.
• Sometimes, it may not lead to immediate use or application.
• It provides a systematic and deep insight into a problem and
facilitates extraction of scientific and logical explanation and
conclusion on it.
• It helps build new frontiers of knowledge.
• The outcomes of basic research form the basis for many applied
research.
• For example, Why are birds arranged in ‘V’ shape when flying in a
group? Why is sound produced when water is heated? 10
 Applied Research or Practical Science
Applied Research
• They apply scientific knowledge from basic sciences in a physical
environment.
• Creates practical solutions to specific problems employing well known
and accepted theories and principles i.e. it is solution driven.
• Most of the experimental research, case studies and inter-disciplinary
research are essentially applied research e.g. medicine is an applied
science that applies the laws of biology for solving human ailments.
• It is concerned with actual life research and have immediate potential
applications or develop new technology.
• Eg. How can bullying be prevented in elementary schools?
How can the achievement gap of students from different socio-economic backgrounds be
bridged in education?
What are ways to improve school readiness for children? 11
Differences between basic and applied researches
Basic research Applied research

Studies individual or specific cases without

Seeks generalization
the objective to generalize

Aims at any variable which makes the

Aims at basic processes
desired difference

Attempts to explain why things happen Tries to say how things can be changed

Tries to correct the facts which are

Tries to get all the facts
problematic

Reports in technical language of the topic Reports in common language 12

 Quantitative and Qualitative Methods
Research methods either basic or applied encompass quantitative or
qualitative designs or even both.
Quantitative Method
• Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or
amount.
• Some of the characteristics of qualitative research/method are:
- It is numerical, non-descriptive, applies statistics or mathematics and
uses numbers.
- It is an iterative process whereby evidence is evaluated.
- The results are often presented in tables and graphs.
- It is conclusive.
- It investigates the what, where and when of decision making. 13
 Exploratory Research
• Often conducted in new areas of inquiry, where the goals of the research are:
(1) to scope out the magnitude or extent of a particular phenomenon, problem,
or behavior,
(2) to generate some initial ideas (or “hunches”) about that phenomenon, or
(3) to test the feasibility of undertaking a more extensive study regarding that
phenomenon.
• For example, if the citizens of a country are generally dissatisfied with governmental policies
regarding during an economic recession, exploratory research may be directed at measuring the
extent of citizens’ dissatisfaction, understanding how such dissatisfaction is manifested, such as the
frequency of public protests, and the presumed causes of such dissatisfaction, such as ineffective
government policies in dealing with inflation, interest rates, unemployment, or higher taxes

• This research may not lead to a very accurate understanding of the target
problem, but may be worthwhile in scoping out the nature and extent of the
problem and serve as a useful precursor to more in-depth research.
14
 Quantitative and Qualitative Methods
Qualitative Method
• Concerned with qualitative phenomenon involving quality.

• Some of the characteristics of qualitative research/method are:

- It is non-numerical, descriptive, applies reasoning and uses words.

- Its aim is to get the meaning, feeling and describe the situation.

- Qualitative data cannot be graphed.

- It is exploratory.

- It investigates the why and how of decision making.

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 Descriptive Research
• Examines the what, where, and when of a phenomenon
directed at making careful observations and detailed
documentation of the phenomenon of interest.
• These observations must be based on the scientific method
(i.e., must be replicable, precise, etc.).
• They are more reliable than casual observations by untrained
people.
• For example, tabulation of demographic statistics by the
National Bureau of Statistics to estimate employment by sector
or population growth by ethnicity over multiple employment
surveys or censuses. 16
 Explanatory Research
• It seeks explanations of observed phenomena, problems, or
behaviours by providing answers to why and how types of
questions.
• It attempts to “connect the dots” in research, by identifying causal
factors and outcomes of the target phenomenon.

• For example, understanding the reasons behind adolescent crime

or gang violence, with the goal of prescribing strategies to
overcome such societal ailments.
• Seeking explanations for observed events requires strong
theoretical and interpretation skills, along with intuition, insights,
and personal experience.
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 RESEARCH METHODS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY - 1
Differences between research methods and research methodology?
• Research methods are all of the techniques, procedures and tools used to collect
and analyse information in the research process while research methodology is
concerned with the explanation of the following:
(1) Why is a particular research study undertaken?
(2) How did one formulate a research problem?
(3) What types of data were collected?
(4) What particular method has been used?
(5) Why was a particular technique of analysis of data used?
• Research methods gives training to apply them to solve a research problem while
research methodology provides the necessary training in choosing methods,
materials, scientific tools and training in techniques relevant for the problem
chosen.
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 Scientific Method
• Scientific method refers to a standardized set of techniques for building scientific
knowledge, such as how to make valid observations, how to interpret results, and how
to generalize those results.
• The scientific method must satisfy four key characteristics:
- Logical: Scientific inferences must be based on logical principles of reasoning.
- Confirmable: Inferences derived must match with observed evidence.
- Repeatable: Other scientists should be able to independently replicate or repeat
a scientific study and obtain similar, if not identical, results.
- Scrutinizable: The procedures used and the inferences derived must
withstand critical scrutiny (peer review) by other scientists. 19
 MODULE 2:

WRITING THE RESEARCH

PROPOSAL

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 MODULE 2:
WRITING THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL
• What is a research proposal?

• Goal of a Research Proposal

• Purpose of a research proposal

• Components of a Research Proposal

• Structure of a Research Proposal

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 WHAT IS A RESEARCH PROPOSAL?
• A document showing what you intend to research on

• A documentation of the main idea or fact about a

planned, proposed or suggested research project

• A plan outlining why, how, and where you intent to

carry out a research and to whom the research will
benefit

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 THE GOAL OF A RESEARCH PROPOSAL
i. Formulate and define a specific research question
ii. Show the relevance and value of the proposed
research in the light of existing academic
thinking
iii. Outline a clear and feasible methods to use
addressing the research problem
iv. Explain how the proposed research will add to,
develop or challenge the existing body of
knowledge in the field
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 PURPOSE OF A RESEARCH PROPOSAL
A research proposals helps to assess
i. the quality and originality of students’ ideas, and
skills in critical thinking;
ii. feasibility of the proposed research;
iii. student’s expertise in the area he/she wants to
conduct the research;
iv. student’s knowledge of the existing literature and
how the proposed research will enhance it; and
v. availability of appropriate supervisors and facilities
for the proposed research
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COMPONENTS OF A RESEARCH PROPOSAL
i. What you intend to research on ( i.e. the
research problem)
ii. Current state of knowledge on the subject
iii. Existing gap in knowledge on the subject
iv. Research methodology for the proposed study
v. Expected contributions of the proposed research
vi. List of previous works consulted in developing
the research proposal
vii. Timetable showing how you plan to complete
the thesis by the due date. 25
 STRUCTURE OF A RESEARCH PROPOSAL
• The structure of a generic research proposal may include:
Title page
• Declaration
• Certification
• Dedication page
• Acknowledgements
• Table of contents
• List of tables (if used)
• List of plates (if used)
• List of figures (if used)
• List of charts (if used)
• List of appendices (if used)
• List of abbreviations and acronyms (if used)
• Abstract 26
 STRUCTURE OF A RESEARCH PROPOSAL
• The structure of a generic research proposal may include:
Chapter One: Introduction
i. Background to the study
ii. Problem Statement
iii. Research Questions
iv. Aim and Objectives of the study
v. Scope of the study
vi. Justification for the study
vii. Limitation of Study
viii. Expected Contribution to Knowledge
ix. Definition of Key Terms
27
STRUCTURE OF A RESEARCH PROPOSAL (Contd.)
• Chapter Two: Review of Literature
• Definitions and descriptions in the field of research
• History of phenomenon studied in the field of research
• Previous studies conducted in the field of research
• Research gap
• Theoretical framework in the field of research
• Conceptual framework for the research

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STRUCTURE OF A RESEARCH PROPOSAL (Contd.)
Chapter Three: Research - Sampling Frame
- Sampling Method
Methodology
• Research Philosophy - Sample Size
- Unit of Analysis
• Research Design
• Data Collection Instrument e.g.
• Research Approach
questionnaire, interview
- Quantitative Research Approach
• Operationalization of Variables
- Qualitative Research Approach
• Data Collection and Analysis
- Mixed Research Approach-
• Data treatment by Objectives
• Study Population and Sampling
• Validity and Reliability of Research
Techniques
Instrument
- Study Population
• Ethical Considerations 29
STRUCTURE OF A RESEARCH PROPOSAL (Contd.)
Chapter Four: Data Analysis, Presentation and
Discussion
Chapter Five: Conclusion and Recommendations
- Summary of findings
- Conclusion
- Contributions to Knowledge
- Recommendations
- Suggestion for further studies

• List of References 30
 BEFORE YOU GET STARTED WITH RESEARCH
• There are 5 ‘Ws’ to think about when you want to get started with
a research project:
1. What?: what is the research about/topic?
2. Why?: why do you want to do the research? … in terms of its
purpose, interest in the topic and gaps you identified in
literature?
3. Who?: who will be your participants? Will you be able to have
unhindered access to them?
4. Where?: where will the research be conducted? Is the location
safe? What is your budget and time available?
5. When?: when are you going to do the research?
• After thinking about the 5 ’Ws’, try to sum up your proposed
research in one sentence. 31
 Topic/Title
• Consist a Main title and/or sub-title
• Main organizing principle that guides the preparation of a
research report.
• Capture the basic idea of what you intend to achieve in the
research.
• Provides a focus that governs what we want to write.
• contains important ‘key words’ that will relate to the
content and context of the proposed research.
• be relevant to the field of study.
• appeal to potential supervisors.
• Therefore, a good research is seen in the way its topic is
framed. 32
Choosing a Research Topic - 1

https://www.enago.com/academy/choose-good-research-topic-phd/

33
 Choosing a Research Topic - 2
• In choosing a research topic, the following must be considered:
i. Interest: topic must be of great interest to sustain the required
motivation
ii. Original: should be sufficiently original and does not involve
objectionable duplication.
iii. Researchable: must be empirically researchable with clarity
of indicators and measurement of concepts (if used).
iv. Scope of research: narrow topic down to something
manageable within the time and resources available.
v. Expertise: adequate expertise to carry it out independently
34
 Choosing a Research Topic - 3
vi. Significance: topic must add to the existing body of
knowledge, bridge current gaps in knowledge, and useful
in policy formulation.
vii.Availability of Literature/Data: ensure that data is
available and you have access to current literature/data.
viii.Ethical considerations: avoid any ethical violation that
affects the sensibilities and rights of research participants
and originality of results.
ix. Be open minded: if your topic fails two or more of the
considerations above, be open to change to another topic
with approval of your supervisor.
35
 Steps in Writing a Research Topic
• Step 1: Have an in-depth understanding of the topic, i.e.
i. Identify the key words in the topic
ii.What research questions will the study answer?
iii.Which sphere of knowledge does it cover?
iv.What variables will be considered?

• Step 2: Review related literature that support and or refute the

topic i.e.
i. What is the currency of literature on the topic?
ii.Identify the specific things others have done in the past.
iii.Identify the gap your study will be filling 36
 Abstract
• Provides a summary of your proposed research
• Executive summary/Extended abstract shows:

- What you intend to do;

- Why you are proposing to do it;

- How you are proposing to do it

37
 Table of Contents
• A list of contents of the research proposal indicating the
pages each item is found
• Serves as a map for the reader, making it easier for
them to find information in the research proposal
• Shows each chapter or section titles with their
commencing page numbers
• It also shows the list of Tables, Figures (charts and
photographs) and the pages they are found

38
 Chapter One: Introduction
• Background to the Study
ØOpen a dialogue with your assessors or readers
Ø Convince your reader that you are the right person to
conduct the proposed research
ØProve to the reader that you are the best researcher in
this field
ØBegin with broad idea and narrow it down to specifics

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 Tips for Writing Background to the Study
i. Inform the reader about the research problem
ii. Identify who the research problem is affecting
iii. Provide evidence of the previous research efforts
aimed at addressing the problem
iv. Outline how your research is going to solve the
identified research problem.
v. Explain how equipped you are with the right methods
to addressing the research problem.
vi. Highlight the benefits you offer in addressing the
research problem 40
 Statement of the Problem
• What the heart is to human existence is what the ‘statement of problem’ is
in every research.
• Hence, there is no need for a research where a problem does not exist.
• Statement of research problem is the foundation and focus of any research
report.
• It is also one of the most challenging and difficult phase of the research
process.
• It is a clear, unambiguous, stand alone statement that makes explicit the
specific question that a researcher wants to answer or a problem that a
researcher wants to solve.
• A good research problem statement outlines the current situation,
identifies the challenges, specifies the location and indicates the unit of
analysis.
41
 Statement of the Problem
• Before a problem statement is stated, a brief background is usually
given to situate the study appropriately:
1. Describe the ideal situation: general definition of the topic/problem
area describing the ideal situation (what should be, what is expected,
desired);
2. Highlight what obtains: describe a condition that prevents the ideal
situation discussed in step 1 from being achieved or realized at the
present time;
3. Link the gap between the ideal and reality: connect steps 1 & 2 using
a term such as ‘but, however, unfortunately, in spite of, despite’;
4. State how your proposed research is appropriate in providing
understanding of the subject hence the motivation for your study.
NOTE: Research problem statements are preferred when they have an
outcome-based verb. 42
 Example of Statement of the Problem
TOPIC: Motivation and Employee Productivity in Nigeria’s Private Universities
• STATEMENT 1
In order to accomplish their missions, private universities in Nigeria need motivated
workforces.
• STATEMENT 2
There are however frequent and severe disciplinary actions, absenteeism, as well as various
forms of distracting activities in private universities which affect the accomplishment of the
set missions. Previous investigation reveals that both non-management and management staff
are not adequately motivated.
• STATEMENT 3
Without effective motivational packages and procedures the said vices are likely to continue
and retard the achievement of the universities missions.
• STATEMENT 4
Therefore, this study appraise the motivation systems in private universities in Nigeria and its
impact on employees productivity.
43
 Research Questions/Hypotheses
• Every research starts with a basic question or proposition
that seek to address or provide solution to the identified
problem.
• It is the first active step in a research after deciding what
you want to study.
• Research questions should:
- Be brief, relevant, focused and arguable;
- not be answered by simple reasoning;
- require critical analysis and field tested procedures and
processes to answer;
- neither be very broad nor very narrow 44
 Research Questions
• Research questions are often formulated using words such as What , How,
or Why
• What: It is exploratory
• How: It is descriptive
• Why: It is explanatory
• In posing research question, note this four points:
i. What am I trying to explain (i.e. what is the dependent variable)?
ii. What are the possible causes (what are the independent variables)?
iii. Which causes will I explore?
iv. What possible mechanisms connect the presumed causes to the
presumed effects (what are the intervening variables)?
• Each research question translates into an equivalent research objective.
45
 Research Aim and Objectives
• The ultimate aim of a research is to generate
measurable and testable data, gradually adding to the
accumulation of human knowledge.
• Aim is the statement of intent usually written in broad
terms to set out what you hope to achieve at the end of
the project.
• Objectives on the other hand, are specific statements
that define measurable outcomes, i.e. what steps will
be taken to achieve the desired outcome.
• They are research questions stated in actionable
format.
46
Example of Topic, Research Problem & Question

https://figshare.com/articles/presentation/Identification_of_Research_Problem_Statement/4479272
47
 Examples of Outcome-based Verbs
• It is recommended to use outcome-based verbs for stating the research
problem and the research objectives as shown in the list below.
• Verbs such as: understand, know, explore, investigate, examine, and discuss
can be used for the aim.
• Identify • Assess • Establish • Contrast
• Define • Design • Conceptualize • Suggest
• Describe • Construct • Integrate • Interpret
• Review • Apply • Compile • Analyse
• Indicate • Demonstrate • Develop • Create
• formulate • Illustrate • Consolidate • Differentiate
• Explain • Categorize • Clarify • Derive
• Compare • Deduce • Appraise • Evaluate
• Recommend • Calculate 48
 Justification for the Study
• A good and acceptable reason(s) for proposing the
research project.

• Identifies what the society stands to gain from the

proposed research.

• Explain what society stands to loose if the

proposed research is not conducted.

49
 Scope of the Research
• Scope of the research can be described in terms
of:

- subject matter to be investigated;

- target population;

- geographic coverage;

- timeline 50
 Chapter 2: Review of Literature
• A systematic documentation and interpretation of the
existing literature showing:
- the existing knowledge on the problem;
- the relevant theories and concepts;
- gaps in literature (i.e. theoretical and practical);
- relationship between the existing literature and proposed
research objectives, questions and problem statement;
- knowledge of key issues, themes and debates;
- clear demonstration that the proposed research has not
been done before. 51
 Chapter 3: Research Methodology
• Methodology : Basic principles of research (e.g.
qualitative, quantitative, mixed research)
• Methods : How to practically implement these
principles in a research project in a systematic and
orderly manner.
Ø designing and executing the research
Øanalyzing the data
Øreporting the results/ findings
52
 Key Components of Research Design & Methods
i. Research philosophy (i.e. how you view the research )
ii. Research approaches (e.g. qualitative, quantitative and mixed approaches)
iii. Research Strategies ( e.g. experiments, surveys, case study, action research,
grounded theory, ethnography, and archival research)
iv. Research Design
v. Study population, Sampling frame and sample size
Ø Sampling techniques
Ø Units of data analysis
Ø Design of data collection instruments
Ø Operationalisation of variables
Ø Data sources, characteristics, and analyses by objectives

v. Validity and Reliability of the research

vi. Ethical considerations 53
 Expected Contributions to Knowledge
• The expected contribution can:

ØChallenge

ØChange

ØAdvance knowledge in the field

• Must be tied to the research questions/objectives.

54
 References
• The American Psychological Association (APA) style of
referencing standard or other recommended style.
• For in-text citations, write the author’s surname followed
by a comma and the year of publication in brackets, for
example ( Johnson, 2013)
• Provide a list of references to key articles and texts that
are both cited within the research proposal
• The Reference list should include the author (s) , title,
journal/book details, publisher, year and page numbers
where relevant.
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 MODULE 3:

LITERATURE REVIEW

56
 What is Literature?
A piece of written information on any subject presented in:
i. Academic, scholarly journal articles (i.e., peer-reviewed)
ii. Books, encyclopedias
iii. Conference Proceedings
iv. Dissertations/Theses
v. Patents
vi. Standards
vii. Technical Reports
viii. Working Papers
ix. Websites and other Internet Resources
x. Policy and legislative documents 57
 What is the Review of Literature?
• A critical, analytical summary and synthesis of the existing
literature on a subject matter.

• An account of what has been written (published or

unpublished) on a topic by scholars, researchers,
practitioners, policy makers and others.

• A systematic evaluation of the existing literature on any

topic or subject. 58
 Basic Features of the Review of Literature
Surveys: An overview of the existing literature.

Summarizes: What the literature presents on a subject.

Links: How the existing literature relates.

Analyzes: Comparisons and Contrasts the existing literature.

Synthesizes: Put together the various views identified in the literature.

59
 Importance of the Review of Literature
1. To have an overview of sources explored in your research.
2. Identifies the contribution of the existing literature to
understanding the research problem.
3. Describes the relationship between your work and those of
others who have worked on the same subject.
4. Identifies new ways to interpret previous research.
5. Reveals any existing gaps in the literature (empirical and
theoretical) your research seeks to close. 60
 Importance of the Review of Literature
6. Identifies areas of previous research on the subject.

7. Locates your own research within the context of the

existing works.

8. Identifies the different theoretical and conceptual

frameworks used by previous authors in the field.

9. Resolves conflicts amongst seemingly contradictory

previous studies.

10. Helps to identify and formulate of the research

problem. 61
 Importance of the Review of Literature
11. Reveals the key and current issues and debates on the
subject.
12. Helps in developing theoretical and conceptual
frameworks of a study.
13. Helps in identifying appropriate research methods for
the study.
14. Summaries the contribution of the works reviewed to
the understanding and development of the subject of
research.
62
 Process involved in the Review of Literature
1. Problem definition.

2. Literature search.

3. Evaluation of the literature identified.

4. Selection of relevant literature to be reviewed.

5. Review of relevant literature.

63
 Things to include in the Review of Literature
1) Sources of literature and the authors.
2) Context of research and year of publication.
3) Underpinning theories of the research.
4) Major issues and debates in the field of study.
5) Research methods used.
6) Key Findings and conclusions of the works reviewed.
7) How the studies reviewed relate to your work and those of
other authors. 64
 Steps to Writing the Literature Review
• Step 1: Write an Abstract/Synopsis for each work read.
• Step 2: Organize the works read into categories or groups.
• Step 3: Read to identify more relevant works on the
subject.
• Step 4: Write individual sections.
• Step 5: Bring together the sections into a whole.
• Step 6: Read and edit the whole.
65
 Organization of the Review of Literature
• Organize the review in sub-sections based on the research
objectives.
• In each sub-section present the review according to:
ØYear of the publications (use literature published within the
last 10 years).

Øsources of the publication.

ØThematic issues/underpinning theories.

ØMethodology. 66
 Writing the Review of Literature
•Use evidence (i.e. citations)
•Be selective (use the most important points)

•Use quotes to emphasize key points.

•Summarize and synthesize key issues of interest
•Keep your own voice and do not copy the words of others

•Apply caution when paraphrasing.

67
 Referencing
• Shows that you are not the source of the literature
represented
• Gives credit to those who have previously documented
information on the subject matter
• Reveals the various authors of the materials you used in
your work
• Evidence that the research is within the context of the
existing body of knowledge
68
 In-Text Citation
• Giving credit to authors for their works used in the
literature review Chapter of your work
• The following citation Styles exist:
• APA (American Psychological Association) used in
Education, Psychology, and Sciences
• MLA (Modern Language Association) used in
Humanities
• Chicago/Turabian style is generally used in
Business, History, and the Fine Arts 69
 In-text citation with the APA Style
• Three key information to be included are
1. Author’s last name (e.g. Belema)
2. Year of publication of the literature reviewed
(e.g. 2016)
3. Page number (where there is direct quotation)
( e.g. Shammah, 2016: 20) or (Shammah, 2016, p. 20)
4. For sources with no date use n.d. (e.g. Love, n.d)
70
 General Guidelines for In-text citation
i. Author's name at the end of the sentence
A study found that the most important element in housing
satisfaction is privacy (Ibem and/& Alagbe, 2015).
ii. Author's name part of narrative at the beginning of the
sentence:
Ibem and Alagbe (2015) found that the most important
element in housing satisfaction is privacy.
Aduwo and Opoko (2014) investigated housing
transformation in Lagos, Nigeria and found/reported that …
71
 General Guidelines for in-text citation
• For direct quotations of more than 40 words
Housing satisfaction has been defined as the
extent to which residents are happy with their
their housing situation. That is, their level of
contentment or discontentment with their present
housing conditions (Ibem & Alagbe, 2015, p. 20 or
Ibem & Alagbe, 2015: 20)

72
 General Guidelines for In-text citation
• Group/Corporate author:
First citation: (Federal Republic of Nigeria [FRN], 2015)
Subsequent citation: (FRN, 2015)
• Multiple works: Separate each work with semi-colons
For example:
Research shows that privacy is an important aspect of housing satisfaction
in public housing in Nigeria (Opoko, 2012; Ibem & Aduwo, 2013; Ibem &
Alagbe, 2015).
73
 General Guidelines for In-text citation
• One author: (Sophia, 2014)
• Two authors: (Oluwatayo &/and Aduwo, 2016)
• Three to five authors:
First citation: (Aderonmu, Babalola, Fulani, & Ezema, 2016)
Subsequent citations: (Aderonmu et al., 2016)
• Two works by the same author (arranged by year of
publication)
(Pumping, 2009; 2010)
74
 General Guidelines for In-text citation
• A web page that lists no author
Cite in text the first few words of the reference list entry (usually the
title) and the year. Use double quotation marks around the title or
abbreviated title.:
For example: (“Nigeria needs over 170 million housing units,” 2015).
• Two authors same last names
John observed that the prevalence of crime was high (D. John, 2012).
Another author thinks that curbing crime in our society is a huge task (A.
John, 2016)
75
 Some Useful Tips
• Read as much literature as you can on the subject.

• Create a full list of works read relevant to your study.

• Summarize in your own words the methods, findings,

conceptual and theoretical frameworks.

• Write in complete sentences anything you found useful

from the papers/articles reviewed.
76
 Some Useful Tips (contd.)
• Put the works into CATEGORIES (i.e., studies on similar
topics).

• Identify THEMES in the different categories.

• Repeat the same process for every piece of literature read.

• Write your literature review in prose using a combination

of citations.

77
THANK YOU

78
 MODULE 4:

Field work and data collection

79
 Field work
• Fieldwork is the gathering and recording of raw data
from the study population or objects.

• Brings the research closest to the subject of the

research.

• A process that involves an exchange between the

researcher, participants, objects stakeholders,
gatekeepers and the community being studied.

80
 Steps in Conducting Field Work
• The process and methods used in collect and recording
raw data differs from one discipline to another and
subject under investigation
• In social science research the following steps may apply
Ø Select the site for the research
ØPre-test your data collection instrument(s)
ØNegotiate access to selected study areas/sites or
cases
Ø Carry out a reconnaissance survey of the study area
ØRecruit participants of the research
Ø Collect and record data 81
 Data Collection Instruments
• Also known as instruments for gathering data

• Devices or tools designed to assist the researcher

extract data from objects or subjects of study

• They allow the researcher to generate information that

he/she want to collect about objects/ subjects of study

82
 Questionnaire
• Set of standardised questions that deals on a specific
subject
• Consists of a set of structured or unstructured
questions intended to elicit responses from human
participants.
• Participants read the questions, understand, and
provide answers to them.
• Contains both open-ended and close-ended questions.
83
 Questionnaire
• Types of responses to questions in a questionnaire

ØDichotomous response (e.g. Yes or No; True or False)

ØNominal response (e.g. married, single, divorced )

ØOrdinal response (e.g. Strongly disagree, Disagree,

Neutral, Agree, Strongly Agree )

Ø Ratio/Continuous response (e.g. age, number of

rooms, age of building, length of stay in the residence,
monthly income)
84
 Questionnaire
• Questionnaire can be administered by:
i. Hand
ii. As e-mail attachment
iii. Post
iv. Online platforms such survey monkey, Google forms
V. Online software packages e.g. Qualitrics
vi. Self-administered
85
 Interview Guide
• Collecting data from people by asking them a set of
prepared questions in what is known as interview.
• The list containing the questions to ask in an interview is
referred to as interview guide

• Types of interviews
Østructured interview

Øthe semi-structured interview

Øthe in-depth interviews

86
 Conducting Interviews
• Face-to-face basis
• Internet-based technologies (e.g. Skype, Whatsapp, and
others) or telephone calls
• Recording can be by:
Ø Note taking
Ø Using electronic voice or video recorder
Ø Combination of these methods

87
 Focused Group Discussion (FGD)
• A group of people who have specific characteristics and
can provide qualitative data via a focused discussion
sessions

• FGD is a structured discussion involving a facilitator

and selected individuals

• FGD usually comprised between 8 and 10 participants

with one Facilitator and a Note-taker

88
 Focused Group Discussion (FGD)
• FGD is led by a facilitator who poses questions for
participants to air their thoughts and opinions on the
issue under investigation.
• Data recorded by:
Ø Note-taking
Ø Electronically via voice or video recorder

89
 Observation Schedule
• Observation of people, buildings and their surroundings, events,
processes or phenomenon.
• Checklist containing things/subjects or events to observe in the
field is called Observation Schedule
• Types of observations:
Ø Participant observation
ØNon-participant observation

90
 Observation Schedule
• Physical observations can be recorded
Ømanually using the observation schedule
Øphotographic materials, digital cameras, mobile devices
Ø video recordings
ØSketches
ØMeasured drawings
• Recorded remotely using multi-media technology and
Internet-enabled data technologies such as
Ø Geographic Information System (GIS)
Ø Geographic Positioning System (GPS). 91
 Documents and Records Review
• Also called document analysis or analysis of documents

• Systematic process of analysing written texts that contain

information on the subject, object or phenomenon being
investigated

• Documents are the key sources of information

• Both published and unpublished document in hard and soft copy

formats can be analysed

92
DATA ANALYSIS

93
 What is Data Analysis?
• Data analysis entails:
• organization
• identification
• description
• exploration of
Øpatterns, trends, and hidden insights embedded
in the information gathered from the field work.
94
 Types of Variables
• Data are collected for different variables
i. Independent variables: Variables that explain other variables
ii. Dependent variables: Variables that are explained by other
variables
iii. Moderating variables: Variables that influence the relationship
between independent and dependent variables
iv. Mediating/ intermediate variables :Variables that are explained
by independent variables and at the same time also explain
dependent variables
v. Control variables: External variables that are not really relevant in
explaining a given dependent variable, but may have some
influence on the dependent variable, and must be controlled. 95
 Measures of Variables
• Nominal Variable
• This is for nominal data
ØThis can be put into categories only
Ø It cannot be ranked in any order
ØExamples : According to Gender: 1=Male , 2=Female
ØPerformance in exam: 1= Pass; 2=Fail

96
 Ordinal Variable
• Ordinal data
• It can be put into categories and the categories can be
ranked in ascending order
ØIncome Classification:
1= Low; 2=Middle; 3= High
ØPerformance in Exam:
1=F, 2=E; 3= D, 4 =C; 5= B, 6= A
ØLevel of Satisfaction:
1= Dissatisfied, 2= Not Sure, 3= Satisfied 97
 Interval Variable
• Interval data
• This is similar to an ordinal variable,
• The distance or gap between the values of are equally
spaced
• The interval between subsequent categories can be
determined

98
 Interval Variable (contd.)
ØExamples :
1. Income:
1.N1 - N5; 2. N6 - N10; 3. N11- N15; 4. N16-N20
2. Performance in Exam
1. 0 – 39;
2. 40 - 44
3. 45 - 49
4.50 - 59
5. 60 – 64
6. 65 and above 99
 Ratio Variable
• Ratio data
• This can have absolute zero value
• Differences between values can be compared
Examples:
Height: 2cm; 5m; 10m
Mass: 1g; 2kg; 25kg
Distance: 50m; 1km, 100km
Age: 2 years, 20 years; 50 years, 100 years etc.
100
 Analysis of Numerical Data
• Types of Statistical analyses

i. Descriptive Analysis

ii. Relational Analysis

iii. Inferential Analysis

101
 Descriptive Analysis
• Uses descriptive statistics
• Used to summarize and describe the basic features of
the data
• Do not investigate relationships or cause and effects
• Help to understand the structure and distribution of the
data
• Used to analyse one or single variable, often referred to
as univariate analysis
• Examples measures of central tendency and
dispersions 102
Descriptive Statistics
• Measure of Central tendency
Ø Mean or average
Ø Median (i.e. middle score of a distribution)
Ø Mode (i.e. most frequently occurring score).
• Measure of Dispersion
Ø Measure variability using variance, standard
deviation (SD) range, and quartile
• Results of descriptive statistics are presented using
Øpercentages, frequency distributions, tables, bar and pie
charts, histogram, line graph, box-and -whisker plot.
103
 Relational Analysis
• Relational statistics
• Most common relational statistic is correlation
• Measures the existence and strength of some
relationship between
Øtwo variables (Bivariate analysis)
Ø more than two variables (Multivariate analysis)
• Strength of the relationship is measured using
correlation coefficient
ØCorrelation coefficient can be positive, negative, or
zero.
Ø Zero signifies no relationship between the variables
investigated. 104
 Relational Statistics (Contd.)
• Tools for correlation analysis
ØSpearman Correlation for non-parametric data e.g.
Nominal data, ordinal data
Ø Product Moment Correlation for parametric data
e.g. Interval data, Ratio, etc

105
 Inferential Analysis
• Uses inferential statistics
• Allow the researcher to:
Øinvestigate relationships between variables
Ødraw some conclusions
Ømake generalizations
Øpredict behaviour and trends about the entire
population

106
 Inferential Statistics ( Contd.)
• Investigate differences in means

• Tests statistical significance using tests such as t-test

and chi-square among others

• Explore the relationship between three or more

variables at the same time ( i.e. multivariate analysis)

• Investigate causes and effects ( e.g. regression analysis)

107
 Analysis for Investigating Relationships
• Phi Correlation Analysis: Two nominal variables
ü E.g. Gender and Age
• Chi Square Test: Significant relationship between Two
nominal variables
üE.g. Educational Qualification and Religion
• Spearman Rho Correlation Analysis (r) : Significant
relationship between two ordinal variables
ü E.g. Income Group and Job Satisfaction
• Kendall Tau Analysis: two ordinal variables in a large
sample size
ü E.g. Satisfaction with Life and Job Satisfaction
108
 Analyses for Investigating Relationships
• Kendall W Analysis: Two ordinal variables for a large sample
size
• Pearson Product Moment Correlation Analysis: Two interval
variables
ü E.g. Age and height
üTemperature and Relative Humidity
üTime and Speed
• Biserial Correlation: Interval variable and a nominal variable
üE.g. Income group and Gender
üPerformance Grouping and Gender
• Point Biserial Correlation: Interval variable and a naturally
occurring nominal variable
üAge group and Gender 109
 Multiple Regression Analysis
• This is used to investigate relationship amongst more than
two variables.

• It can also used to investigate the inference or impact of

independent variables on dependent variables

ü E.g. The influence of Age, Gender, Quality of

Teachers, Teaching Styles and Learning environment
on STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

110
Analysis for investigating differences between
variables (means and medians)
• Mann Whitney Test (U)

ØThis is also called the U test

Ø Investigating significant differences between the

Means of Two Ordinal Variables

• Kruskal Wallis Test (H)

Ø Investigating significant differences between more

than Two Ordinal Variables
111
 Analysis for Investigating Differences Between
Means and Medians of Variables

• T-Test (Student T -Test): Two interval scale variables

ü Age group and Income Group

• Z-Test

ØInvestigating significant difference between two

interval scale variables and the sample size is above 30

112
 Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
• Difference among more than two interval variables

ANOVA can be:

Ø One Way ANOVA

Ø Two way ANOVA

• Two way ANOVA investigates three variables,

• One way investigates two variables

113
Summary of Statistics Data Analysis tools

114
 Analysis of Qualitative Data
• Non-numeric data obtained from interviews,
observations, documentary analysis

• Analysed using content analysis

• Systematic coding and description of the meaning in

written, spoken, or visual/graphic communication

• It identifies, quantifies and analyses the presence,

meanings, and relationships of words, and concepts and
themes

• Draw inferences on the meaning of messages 115

 Types of Content Analysis
• Conceptual (thematic) analysis
ØIdentifies the existence and frequency of concepts
and themes in a text
• Relational Content analysis
ØExamines the existence of relationships among
concepts and themes in a text
ØHelps the researcher to identify the semantic or
meaning and relationships within text or texts
ØAlso called Semantic analysis 116
 Software Packages for Quantitative Data Analysis
• Quantitative Data
ØIBM SPSS :Statistical Package for the Social Sciences
ØStata
ØSAS : Statistical Analysis Software
ØMATLAB
ØJMP
ØMicrosoft Excel
ØPython
ØSQL
• ATLAS
• Nvivo 117
 Why Do We Carry Out Research
• To enable us make informed decisions
• Informed decision is evidence-based decision
• Conclusions in research are usually based on
empirical evidence
• Empirical evidence is from data collected from
field work

118
 How To Make Informed Decisions
• We use Statistical Logic
Ø Logic is reasoning that is according to strict
principles of validity

ØStatistical Logic is reasoning guided by principles of

statistical validity.

119
 Logic 1: Focusing the Problem
• Stage 1: Definition of the problem (i.e. problem
identification).
• Stage 2: Operationalization of variables
ØA variable is the basic unit of analysis.
Ø It is a quantity whose value, changes from unit of
investigation to the other and in some cases over a
period of time
Ø A smallest measurable unit that data can be collected
on
ØWe investigate variables and not constants in research
120
 Hypothesis
• A tentative statement made at the outset of the research
• An assumption made at the outset of the research and
tested in the course of the research.
• It is written in a testable form
• A statement of the relationship or difference between
variables.
• It states or provides a direction or focus for the research
121
 Types of Hypothesis
• Directional Hypothesis

ØThis is hypothesis that indicates the direction of the

relationship between two variables.

ØThe relationship is also called correlation

• Can indicate that there is a positive relationship or

negative relationship between two variables, that is to
say r > 0 if it is positive and r < 0 if it is negative.

• This is also called One-tail hypothesis 122

 Non-directional Hypothesis
• This does not state the direction of relationship
between two variables

• It is also called the Two-tail hypothesis.

• It simply states that there is a significant

relationship between two variables,

• It shows that r is not equal to 0.

123
 Types of Hypotheses
1. Alternative Hypothesis (Ha)
• This is what the researcher expects to find in the
research
• May predict a difference or relationship two
variables in a sample OR influence of one
variable on the other.
ü Ha: There is a significant relationship between
educational qualification and income of
workers in Covenant University
124
 2. Null Hypothesis
• This is a hypothesis that does not indicate any significant
relationship between two variables

• The hypothesis the researcher expects to reject.

• A prediction of no difference between groups or no

relationship OR one variable has no influence on the other

• In our example, the null hypothesis would be stated thus:

üH0: There is no significant relationship between worker's

educational qualification and income in Covenant
University
125
 Logic 2: Sampling Theory
• Research population is the totality of all elements
in a domain, universe or storage

• This could be human beings, buildings, cars,

lecture rooms and other tangible entities

126
 Elements in the Research Population
• Research demographic population is not the same as
research population

• It is not always possible to study all elements in a

population

• This is due to money, time, energy and other resources

involved.
127
 Sampling Theory
• A study of relationships in samples drawn from a
population.
• Sampling is the process of selecting some elements from
the population for investigation
• Selected elements must be truly representative of the
population.
• The elements selected constitutes a sample and it is a
subset of the population.
• If the entire population is studied it is called a Census.
128
 How to Determine Sample Size

1. Using a census for small populations

2. Adoption a sample size of similar studies

3. Using published tables; and

4. Using formulae

129
 How to Select Elements in the Sample Size
• Sampling Techniques

• Two main Sampling techniques are

üProbability sampling technique

ü Non-probability sampling technique

130
 Probability Sampling Technique
• Also known as random sampling technique
• Gives every member or item in the sub-set equal
chance of being selected
• Reduces sampling bias and errors associated
with it
• Helps to achieve a sample sizes that represents
all the uniqueness of the research population
131
Examples of Probability Sampling Technique

1. Simple random sampling

2. Stratified random sampling

3. Systematic random sampling

4. Multi-stage random sampling

5. Cluster sampling

132
 Non-probability Sampling Technique
• Nonrandom sampling technique

• It is not based on random selection of samples.

• Does not give every element or object in the research

population equal chances or of being included in the
sample size

• Has the problem of sampling bias

• There is no guarantee that the sample size will be

representative of the features of the research population
133
 Examples of Non-probability Sampling
Techniques

1. Convenience sampling

2. Purposive or judgmental sampling,

3. Quota sampling,

4. Snowball sampling technique

134
 Goals of the Sampling Theory

• Statistical Estimation

• Statistical inference or generalization

• Testing of Hypothesis

135
 Statistical Estimation
• Target or study population is drawn from the
research population.
• It is the population unto which the research
instruments are administered to
• Descriptive summary measures are used to
understand the behaviour and characteristics of a
research population

136
 Descriptive Summary Measures
These include:
ØMeasures of central tendency
Ø Measures of dispersion
Ø Measures of asymmetry

137
 Measures of Central Tendency
• This describes the typical behavior or characteristics of
a sample of population.

• They include the mean, median and mode

• The mean is the most common central tendency and

average of the numbers listed

• The median is the middle value if we arrange

observations in order from smallest to largest value

• The mode is the value that appears most often.

138
 Measures of Dispersion
• This is also known as variability, scatter, or
spread.
• It is a measure of how spread out a data set is
• These include:
ØVariance
ØRange
ØStandard deviation etc. 139
 Measures of Asymmetry
• Measurement of the distribution of the data with respect
to right and left division

• These are:

ØSkewness

ØKurtosis

140
 Skewness
• This is a measure of symmetry in the distribution of a set
of data

• A distribution, or data set, is symmetric if the left and

right side looks the same from the center point

• A symmetric distribution is called a Normal distribution

• If there is a lack of symmetry in distribution of the data,

the data is said to be skewed to the left of right

141
Skewness

142
Kurtosis

143
Measure of Central Tendency

144
Median and Mode

145
Variation

146
Variance & Standard Deviation

147
Standard Deviation of Population

148
149
Standard Deviation of Population

150
Concept of Standard Error

151
THANK YOU

152