That is Why Lokesh Koul (1990) research is the application

of the scientific method in study of problems.

Generally, research is a course of study of finding out
solutions to a certain research problem by applying
systematic methods and procedures through generating
verifiable data (Long and Heiss, 1991)
In line to this, its main concern is the development of
knowledge and betterment of life through the process of
identifying and stating the problem; stating hypothesis which
are tentative to solutions to the problem; collecting, analyzing
and interpreting available and relevant data; finally drawing
conclusion which is solution of the problem (Best and Kahn.
1993).
• Research can also be defined as a systematic and objective analysis and recording
of controlled observations that may lead to the development of generalization,
principles or theories, resulting in prediction and possibly ultimate control of
events (Best and Khan 2003).
• Research is a process which has utility only to the extent that the class of inquiry
employed as a research activity vehicle is capable of adding knowledge of
stimulating progress and helping society and man relate more efficiently and
effectively to the problem that society and man perpetuate and create (Mc Grath:
1970).
• Activity 1.1
•  Examine & analyze the definition given by various scholars and try to
identify difference and similarities of the central ideas.
• Major Characteristics of Educational Research
• To understand the meaning and to clarify the spirit of
research in a more detail, a summary of some research
characteristics are described as follows according to, Singh
(2005) and (Best and Khan 1999).
•Research is directed towards the solution of a
problem. The ultimate goal is to discover cause
and effect relationships between variables,
though researchers often have to settle for the
useful discovery of systematic relationship
because the evidence for a cause and effect
relationship is insufficient.
• Research emphasizes the development of generalization, principles or theories
that will be helpful in predicting future occurrences. Research usually goes
beyond the specific objects, groups or situations investigated and infer the
characteristics of a target population from the sample observed. Research is
more than information retrieval; the sample gathering of information. Although
many school research departments gather and tabulate statistical information
that may be useful in decision making, these activities are not properly termed
research.
• Research is based upon observable experience or empirical evidence. Certain
interesting questions do not lend themselves to research procedures because
they cannot be observed. Research rejects revelation (interesting fact that is
made known to people) and dogma as a method of establishing knowledge and
accepts only what can be verified by observation.
• Research involves gathering new data from primary or firsthand sources or using
existing data for a new purpose. Teachers frequently assign a so called research
project that involves writing a paper dealing with the life of prominent person.
The students are expected to read a number of encyclopedias, books or
periodical references and to synthesize the information in a written report. This
is not research for the data are not new. Merely, reorganizing or restating what is
already known and has already been written, valuable as it may be as learning
experience is not research. It adds nothing to what is known.
• Although research activity may at times be somewhat random and systematic it
is more often characterized by carefully designed procedures that apply rigorous
analysis. Although trial and error are often involved, research is rarely blind,
shotgun investigation or an experiment just to see what happens.
• Research requires expertise or capability. The researcher knows what is already
known about the problem and how others have investigated it. He or she has
searched the related literature carefully and is also thoroughly grounded in the
terminology, concepts and technical skills necessary to understand and analyzed
the data gathered. This is meant, a crucial analysis and interpretation of the
collected data will be achieved if and only if the researcher has the expected
expertise to handle the task.
• Research activities do not occur by chance or based on personal interest. Rather,
good research strives to be objective and logical, applying every possible test to
validate the procedures employed, the data collected and the conclusion
researched. The researcher to his/her level best attempts to eradicate personal
bias. Although, absolute objectivity is elusive, the researcher tries to suppress
partiality and emotion in his/her analysis.
• Research involves the quest for answers to unsolved problems. Pushing back the
frontiers of ignorance is its goal, and originality is frequently the quality of good
research project.
• Research is characterized by patient or tolerant and unhurried activity. It is rarely
spectacular (very impressive and dramatic) and researchers must expect
disappointment and discouragement as they peruse (carry out) the answer to
difficult questions.
• Research is carefully recorded and reported. Any competent scholar will have the
information necessary to analyze, evaluate, and even replicate the study.
• Research sometimes requires courage. The history of science reveals that many
important discoveries were under the opposition of political and religious
authorities. Like that of the early researchers the contemporaries in such fields as
genetics, sexual behavior, and even business practices have around violent
criticism from those personal convictions, experience or observations were in
conflict with some of the research conclusions.
 OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH

The purpose of research is

• to discover answers to questions through the application of scientific Procedures.
• to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been discovered as yet.
• each research study has its own specific purpose, we may think of research
objectives as falling into a number of following broad groupings: 
i). To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it
(studies with this object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative
research studies)
ii). To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a
group (studies with this object in view are known as descriptive research
studies)
iii). To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is
associated with something else (studies with this object in view are known as
diagnostic research studies);
iv). To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies
are known as hypothesis-testing research studies).
 MOTIVATION IN RESEARCH
What makes people to undertake research? This is a question of
fundamental importance.
The motives for doing research / factors motivating people to undertake
research studies may be either one or more of the following:
• Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits;
• Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e.,
concern over practical
• Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;
• Desire to be of service to society;
• Desire to get respectability.
• directives of government, employment conditions, curiosity about new things,
desire to understand causal relationships, social thinking and awakening, and the
like may as well motivate (or at times compel) people to perform research
operations.
TYPES OF RESEARCH
• Research could be divided into different types based on different criteria.
• Based on the research method used, on the research function and on the
nature/type of data mostly used in the research.
(I). Classification by Methods
• Research methods are utmost importance in a research process. There are
three basic categories/ classes of research depending on the methods employed
as most of the authors agreed. These are:
• Historical Research
• Descriptive Research
• Experimental Research
Historical Research: -
• is a type of research that describes the past.
• This type of research follows a scientific inquiry process that involves
investigating, recording, analyzing and interpreting the events of the Past.
• The purpose of historical research is three fold that is, discovering generalizations
that are helpful in understanding the past and the present, and, to some extent,
in anticipating the future.
• It utilizes historical sources like documents, remains, etc. to study events or ideas
of the past, including the philosophy of persons and groups at any remote point
of time.
Descriptive Research: -
• is a type of research that uses scientific inquiry to describe the present.
• This kind of research involves some type of comparison or contrast and attempts
to discover relationships between existing variables.
• Based on the nature of the obtained data, descriptive research can be held in
quantitative or qualitative aspects.
• Descriptive quantitative Research: - is a type of descriptive research that uses
quantitative methods to describe the existing condition.
• Descriptive qualitative Research: - is a type of descriptive research that uses
qualitative methods to describe the existing condition.
Experimental Research: -
• is a type of research that describes what will happen when certain variables are
carefully controlled or manipulated. The main focus in this kind of research is on
variable relationships that require deliberate manipulation.
(ii)Classification by Function/Purpose
• Based on the intended purpose, research is classified in to basic and applied.
1. Applied (or Action) Research
Applied Research
• aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society or an
industrial/business organization.
• aimed at certain conclusions (say, a solution) facing a concrete social or business
problem is an example of applied research.
• Research to identify social, economic or political trends that may affect a
particular institution or the copy research (research to find out whether certain
communications will be read and understood) or the marketing research or
evaluation research are examples of applied research.
• Thus, thecentral aim of applied research is to discover a solution for some
pressing practical problem
Example:
You can employ applied research to discover which of the two
instructional methods leads to higher level of achievement by
giving little attention to the question of why one method works
better than the other. Actually a knowledge of why is usually
more important both to the scientist and the practitioner in the
field than the knowledge of which method works best.
• In seeking out why, the researcher can isolate the essential
elements in the method that are leading to superior results.
• These essential elements once identified, may be applied to
many different situations.
Thus applied research tries to solve specific problems and its main strength lies on
its immediate practical use.
• The consumers of applied research findings are practitioners such as teachers,
counselors, decision makers such as managers, committees, officials and the like.
Therefore, it is a research activity directed towards the solution of immediate,
specific and practical problems.
2. Basic (Pure or Fundamental) Research
is mainly concerned with generalizations and with the
formulation of a theory.
• “Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake is termed ‘pure’ or ‘basic’ research.”
• Research concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to pure
mathematics are examples of fundamental research.
• Similarly, research studies, concerning human behaviour carried on with a view
to make generalizations about human behaviour, are also examples Of
Fundamental research.
• The central aim of basic research is directed towards finding information that
has a broad base of applications and thus, adds to the already existing organized
body of scientific knowledge.
Example:
• Harlow’s research concerning the behavior of
infant monkeys reared under different conditions in the laboratory provides an
impressive example of basic research that has broad implications related to
education and development of humans.
• The transfer of the research results directly to the field practice is usually a goal
of applied research.
( iii)Classification by Types of Data
Based on the approach used in the process of collecting data and solving the
problem research can be divided in to qualitative and quantitative.
Quantitative vs. Qualitative:
• Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount.
• It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity.
• Qualitative research, on the other hand, is concerned with qualitative
phenomenon, i.e.,phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind.
• For instance, when we are interested in investigating the reasons for human
behaviour (i.e., why people think or
do certain things), we quite often talk of ‘Motivation Research’, an important type
of qualitative research.
 aims at discovering the underlying motives and desires, using in depth interviews
for the purpose.
Other techniques of such research are word association tests, sentence completion
tests, story completion tests and similar other projective techniques.
Attitude or opinion research i.e., research designed to find out how people feel or
what they think about a particular subject or institution is also qualitative research.
Qualitative research is specially important in the behavioural sciences where the
aim is to discover the underlying motives of human behaviour.
Through such research we can analyse the various factors which motivate people to
behave in a particular manner or which make people like or dislike a particular
thing.
• What is qualitative research?
• Qualitative research: - is a type of research which is characterized by an
emphasis on describing, understanding and explaining complex phenomena.
The focus is on understanding the full multi–dimensional, dynamic picture of the
subject of study. Since there is no quantification in qualitative research statistical
tools are not required.
• The purposes of qualitative research methods
• Qualitative research methods are valuable in providing rich descriptions of
complex phenomena; following unique or unexpected events, illuminating the
experience and interpretation of events by actors with widely differing stakes
and roles; giving voice to those whose views are rarely heard; conducting initial
explorations to develop theories; and to generate and test hypotheses; and
moving toward explanations.
• Qualitative methods are appropriate when the phenomena under study are
complex, are social in nature, and do not lend themselves to quantification".
• Qualitative research methodologies are designed to provide the researcher with
the perspective of target audience members through immersion in a culture or
situation and direct interaction with the people under study.
• For example, observing the workings of a classroom in terms of the group
dynamics results in qualitative data.
• Qualitative methods include observations, in-depth interviews and focus
groups.
• These methods are designed to help researchers understand the meanings
people assign to social phenomena and to explain the mental processes
underlying behaviors.
• Hypotheses are generated during data collection and analysis, and measurement
tends to be subjective.
• In the qualitative methods, the researcher becomes the instrument of data
collection, and results may vary greatly depending upon who conducts the
research.
• Typical qualitative research methods include:
• Naturalistic inquiry and participant observation
• Case study report
• Structured observations of meetings and events
• Content analysis of documents
• Collection and analysis of archival, administrative and performance data
• Focus groups
• Strengths and weaknesses of Qualitative Research
• The advantage of using qualitative methods is that they generate rich, detailed
data. Its disadvantage is that data collection and analysis may be labor intensive
and time-consuming.
• In fact it is obvious that quantitative and qualitative are both vital to educational
research.
• As it is explained in the above paragraphs, qualitative research uses peoples’
words and actions captured through interviews, observations, and documents
to explore and explain a phenomenon.
• For example, if a researcher wanted to know how a teacher uses a textbook in a
high school science class, he or she would spend extended time in the classroom
observing the teacher and students and interviewing them to get their
perceptions about how the textbook is used in the class.
• A quantitative researcher would probably use a checklist of some sort to quantify
what was observed, and he or she would probably conduct much fewer and
shorter observations in numerous classrooms.  
• What is quantitative research?
• Quantitative research: - is a type of research which is characterized by and
emphasis on dividing phenomena in to manageable, clearly defined pieces, or
variables. The focus is on quantification that demands the use of numerals and
statistical tools.
• The Purposes of Quantitative Research Methods
• Quantitative research methods adopted from the physical sciences that are
designed to ensure objectivity, generalizability and reliability. These techniques
cover the ways research participants are selected randomly from the study
population in an unbiased manner, the standardized questionnaire or
intervention they receive and the statistical methods used to test predetermined
hypotheses regarding the relationships between specific variables. The
researcher is considered external to the actual research, and results are expected
to be replicable no matter who conducts the research.
• A quantitative research methodology is appropriate where quantifiable measures
of variables of interest are possible, where hypotheses can be formulated and
tested, and inferences drawn from samples to populations.
 Applied, Basic, Experimental, Qualitative,
Quantitative, Historical ,descriptive(20%)
1. employs statistical tools and numbers_ Quantitative
2. qualitative________data collection and analysis are labor intensive and
time-consuming.
3. _______used standardized questionnaire or intervention
4. ____qual____ uses peoples’ words and actions captured through
interviews, observations, and documents to explore & explain a
phenomenon.
5. ____qual_____appropriate when the phenomena under study are
complex, social in nature, & do not lend themselves to quantification“
6. ___qual_____include observations, in-depth interviews & focus groups.
7. _____quan___ is a type of research which is characterized by and
emphasis on dividing phenomena in to manageable, clearly defined
pieces, or variables
8. ____desc______emphasis on describing, understanding & explaining
complex phenomena
9. ____quan____is based on the measurement of quantity or amount.
10. ___qual_______ is concerned with phenomena relating to quality or kind.
 Applied, Basic, Experimental, Qualitative, Quantitative, Historical
,descriptive(10 %)
1. __basic ______finding information that has a broad base of applications and
thus, adds to the already existing organized body of scientific knowledge.
2. applied ________Aims at discovering a solution for some pressing practical
problem
3. ___exper_____is a type of research that describes what will happen when
certain variables are carefully controlled or manipulated
4. ____desc____is a type of research that uses scientific inquiry to describe the
present or existing conditions
5. _hist_______is a type of research that uses scientific inquiry to describe the
past.
• Typical quantitative research methods include:
• Survey study
• Comparative study
• Experimental study
• The Strengths and Weaknesses of Quantitative Research methods
• The strengths of the quantitative method are that its methods produce
quantifiable, reliable data that are usually generalizable to some larger
population.
• Quantitative measures are often most appropriate for conducting needs
assessments or for evaluations or comparing outcomes with baseline data. This
research method breaks down when the phenomenon under study is difficult to
measure or quantify.
• In fact, quantification is important for separating phenomena into distinct and
workable elements of a well-defined conceptual framework. However, when
research focuses on what has already known how to quantify; it may miss factors
that are key to a real understanding of the phenomena being studied.
• The greatest weakness of the quantitative approach is that it de-contextualizes
human behavior in a way that removes the event from its real world setting and
ignores the effects of variables that have not been included in the model.
Conceptual vs. Empirical:
Conceptual research is that related to some abstract
idea(s) or theory. It is generally used by philosophers and
thinkers to develop new concepts or to reinterpret existing ones.
On the other hand, empirical research relies on experience or
observation alone, often without due regard for system and
theory. It is data-based research, coming up with conclusions
which are capable of being verified by observation or
experiment.
We can also call it as experimental type of research. In such a
research it is necessary to get at facts firsthand, at their source,
and actively to go about doing certain things to stimulate the
production of desired information.
In such a research, the researcher must first provide himself
with a working hypothesis or guess as to the probable results.
He then works to get enough facts (data) to prove or disprove
his hypothesis. He then sets up experimental designs which he
thinks will manipulate the persons or the materials concerned
so as to bring forth the desired information. Such research is
thus characterized by the experimenter’s control over the
variables under study and his deliberate manipulation of
one of them to study its effects. Empirical research is
appropriate when proof is sought that certain variables affect
other variables in some way. Evidence gathered through
Experiments or empirical studies is today considered to be the
most powerful support possible for a given hypothesis.
Significance of Research
• “All progress is born of inquiry. Doubt is often better than overconfidence,
for it leads to inquiry, and inquiry leads to invention” is a famous Hudson
Maxim
• Some of the significance of research:
• To those students who are to write a master’s or Ph.D. thesis, research may mean
a careerism or a way to attain a high position in the social structure;
• To professionals in research methodology, research may mean a source of
livelihood;
• To philosophers and thinkers, research may mean the outlet for new ideas and
insights
• To literary men and women, research may mean the development of new styles
and creative work;
• To analysts and intellectuals, research may mean the generalizations of new
theories and etc
 Research Process
• consists of series of actions or steps necessary to effectively carry out
research
• are not mutually exclusive nor they are separate & distinct.
• They do not necessarily follow each other in any specific order
• The researcher has to be constantly expecting /predicting at each step in
the research process the requirements of the subsequent/proceeding
steps.
 Major Steps in Research Process are:
1. Formulating the Research Problem(RP):Two types of RPs:
• those which relate to states of nature &
• those which relate to relationships between variables.
• researcher must single out the problem he wants to study
• He must decide the general area of interest or aspect of a subject-matter
that he would like to inquire into.
• Initially the problem may be stated in a broad general way and then the
ambiguities, if any, relating to the problem be resolved.
• The formulation of a general topic into a specific research problem,
thus, constitutes the first step in a scientific enquiry.
• Essentially two steps are involved in formulating the RP
understanding the problem carefully, and
rephrasing the same into meaningful terms
from an analytical point of view
2. Extensive literature survey:
• Once the problem is formulated, a brief summary of it should be
written down.
• It is compulsory/obligatory for a research worker writing a thesis
for a Ph.D. degree to write a synopsis/summations of the topic
and submit it to the necessary Committee or the Research Board
for approval.
• At this juncture/moment the researcher should undertake
extensive literature survey connected with the problem.
• For this purpose, the abstracting and indexing journals &
published/printed or available or unpublished bibliographies
are the first place to go to
• Academic journals, conference proceedings, government reports,
books etc., must be tapped depending on the nature of the problem.
• In this process, it should be remembered that one source will lead to
another. The earlier studies, if any, which are similar to the study in
hand should be carefully studied.
• A good library will be a great help to the researcher at this stage.
• Academic journals, conference proceedings, government reports,
books etc., must be tapped depending on the nature of the problem.
• In this process, it should be remembered that one source will lead to
another. The earlier studies, if any, which are similar to the study in
hand should be carefully studied.
• A good library will be a great help to the researcher at this stage.
3. Development of working hypotheses:
After extensive literature survey, researcher should state in clear terms
the working hypothesis or hypotheses.
Working hypothesis is tentative assumption made in order to draw out
and test its logical or empirical consequences.
As such the manner in which research hypotheses are developed is
particularly important since they provide the focal point for research.
They also affect the manner in which tests must be conducted in the
analysis of data and indirectly the quality of data which is required for the
analysis. In most types of research, the development of working
hypothesis plays an important role.
Hypothesis should be very specific and limited to the piece of research
in hand because it has to be tested.
The role of the hypothesis is to guide the researcher by delimiting the
area of research and to keep him on the right track.
It sharpens his thinking and focuses attention on the more important
facets of the problem.
It also indicates the type of data required and the type of methods of
data analysis to be used.
How does one go about developing working hypotheses? The answer is by using
the following approach:
(a) Discussions with colleagues and experts/professionals about the problem, its
origin and the objectives in seeking a solution;
(b) Examination of data and records, if available,
concerning the problem for possible trends, peculiarities and other clues;
(c) Review of similar studies in the area or of the studies on similar
problems; and
(d) Exploratory personal investigation which involves original field
interviews on a limited scale with interested parties and individuals
with a view to secure greater insight into the practical aspects of the
problem.
4. Preparing the Research Design: the conceptual structure within which
research would be conducted
• The RP having been formulated in clear cut terms, the researcher w ill be
required to prepare a research design, i.e., he will have to state the
conceptual structure within which research would be conducted.
• The preparation of such a design facilitates research to be as efficient as
possible yielding maximal information.
• In other words, the function of research design is to provide for the
collection of relevant evidence with minimal expenditure of effort, time
and money. But how all these can be achieved depends mainly on the
research purpose.
• Research purposes may be grouped into four categories
(i) Exploration,
(ii) Description,
(iii) Diagnosis, and
(iv) Experimentation.
The preparation of the RD, appropriate for a particular
RP involves usually the ff considerations
(i) The means of obtaining the information;
(ii) The availability and skills of the researcher &his staff (if any);
(iii) Explanation of the way in w/c selected means of obtaining information
will be organized & the reasoning leading to the selection;
(iv) The time available for research; &
(v) the cost factor relating to research ,i.e. ,the finance available for the
purpose.
• A flexible research design which provides opportunity for considering many
different aspects of a problem is considered appropriate if the purpose of the
research study is that of exploration.
• But when the purpose happens to be an accurate description of a situation or of
an association between variables, the suitable design will be one that minimizes
bias and maximizes the reliability of the data collected and analyzed.
• There are several research designs, such as, experimental and non-experimental
hypothesis testing.
• Experimental designs can be either informal designs (such as before-and-after
without control, after-only with control, before-and-after with control) or formal
designs (such as completely randomized design, randomized block design, Latin
square design, simple and complex factorial designs), out of which the
researcher must select one for his own project.
5. Determining Sample Design(DSD):
• All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry constitute a
‘universe’ or ‘population’.
• A complete enumeration of all the items in the ‘population’ is known as a
census inquiry. It can be presumed that in such an inquiry when all the
items are covered no element of chance is left and highest accuracy is
obtained. But in practice this may not be true.
• Even the slightest element of bias in such an inquiry will get larger and
larger as the number of observations increases.
• Moreover, there is no way of checking the element of bias or its extent
except through a resurvey or use of sample checks.
• Besides, this type of inquiry involves a great deal of time, money &
energy.
• Not only this, census inquiry is not possible in practice under many
circumstances. For instance, blood testing is done only on sample basis.
Hence, quite often we select only a few items from the universe for our
study purposes. The items so selected constitute what is technically
called a sample.
• The researcher must decide the way of selecting a sample or what is
popularly known as the sample design.
• In other words, a sample design is a definite plan determined before any
data are actually collected for obtaining a sample from a given
population.
• Thus, the plan to select 12 of a city’s 200 drugstores in a certain way
constitutes a sample design.
• Samples can be either probability samples or non-probability samples.
• With probability samples each element has a known probability of
being included in the sample but the non-probability samples do not
allow the researcher to determine this probability.
• Probability samples are those based on simple random sampling,
systematic sampling, stratified sampling, cluster/area sampling
whereas non-probability samples are those based on convenience
sampling, judgment sampling and quota sampling techniques.
• A brief mention of the important sample designs is as follows:
(i) Simple random sampling: equal chance of inclusion
• This type of sampling is also known as chance sampling
or probability sampling where each and every item in the
population has an equal chance of inclusion in the sample
and each one of the possible samples, in case of finite
universe, has the same probability of being selected.
Example 1:
if we have to select a sample of 300 items from a universe
of 15,000 items, then we can put the names or numbers
of all the 15,000 items on slips of paper and conduct a
lottery/coin tossing.
Using the random number tables is another method of
random sampling.
• Various statisticians like Tippett, Yates, Fisher have prepared tables of
random numbers which can be used for selecting a random sample.
Generally, Tippett gave10400 four figure numbers.
• He selected 41600 digits from the census reports and combined them
into fours to give his random numbers which may be used to obtain a
random sample.
• We can illustrate the procedure by an example.
• First of all we reproduce the first thirty sets of Tippett’s numbers
2952 6641 3992 9792 7979 5911
3170 5624 4167 9525 1545 1396
7203 5356 1300 2693 2370 7483
3408 2769 3563 6107 6913 7691
0560 5246 1112 9025 6008 8126
• To select the sample, each item is assigned a number from 1 to
15,000. Then, 300 five digit random numbers are selected from the
table.
• To do this we select some random starting point and then a
systematic pattern is used in proceeding through the table.
• We might start in the 4th row, second column & proceed down the
column to the bottom of the table and then move to the top of the
next column to the right.
• When a number exceeds the limit of the numbers in the frame, in our
case over 15,000, it is simply passed over and the next number selected
that does fall within the relevant range.
• Since the numbers were placed in the table in a completely random
fashion, the resulting sample is random.
• This procedure gives each item an equal probability of being selected.
• In case of endless/COUNTLESS/BOUNDLESS population, the selection of
each item in a random sample is controlled by the same probability and
that successive selections are independent of one another.
Example 2: Suppose we are interested in taking a sample of 10 units from a
population of 5000 units, bearing numbers from 3001 to 8000.
• We shall select 10 such figures from the above random numbers which
are not less than 3001 and not greater than 8000.
• If we randomly decide to read the table numbers from left to right,
starting from the first row itself, we obtain the following numbers: 6641,
3992, 7979, 5911, 3170, 5624, 4167, 7203, 5356,&7483.
(ii) Systematic sampling: every Nth value
• In some instances the most practical way of sampling is
to select every 15th name on a list, every 10th house on
one side of a street and so on.
• Sampling of this type is known as systematic sampling.
An element of randomness is usually introduced into
this kind of sampling by using random numbers to pick
up the unit with which to start.
• This procedure is useful when sampling frame is
available in the form of a list.
• In such a design the selection process starts by picking
some random point in the list and then every nth
element is selected until the desired number is secured.
The sampling technique can be employed as follows.
I Let K = Where N=600, and n=100, thus k =600/100 = 6
ii A random number between 0&K, i.e., 0-6 is selected.
iii If the random number selected is 4, then the numbers will be 4th 10th 16th
22nd 28th etc. till you reach 100 of them. If the random number is 3, then
the numbers will be 3rd, 9th 15th 21st 27th etc until you reach the total
sample
(iii) Stratified sampling:
• If the population from which a sample is to be drawn does not constitute a
homogeneous group, then stratified sampling technique is applied so as to
obtain a representative sample.
• In this technique, the population is stratified into a number of non-
overlapping subpopulations or strata and sample items are selected from
each stratum.
• If the items selected from each stratum is based on simple random
sampling the entire procedure, first stratification and then simple random
sampling, is known as stratified random sampling.
The following three questions are highly relevant in the context of stratified
sampling:
(a) How to form strata?
(b) How should items be selected from each stratum?
(c) How many items be selected from each stratum or how to allocate the
sample size of each stratum?
• Regarding the first question, we can say that the
strata be formed on the basis of common
characteristic(s) of the items to be put in each stratum
• for selection of items for the sample from each stratum, resorted to is
that of simple random sampling.
• Systematic sampling can be used if it is considered more appropriate in
certain situations.
• Regarding the third question, we usually follow the method of
proportional allocation under which the sizes of the samples from the
different strata are kept proportional to the sizes of the strata.
• That is, if Pi represents the proportion of population included in stratum i,
and n represents the total sample size, the number of elements selected
from stratum i is n . Pi.
• To illustrate it, let us suppose that we want a sample of size n = 30 to be
drawn from a population of size N = 8000 which is divided into three strata
of size N1 = 4000, N2 = 2400 and N3 = 1600. Adopting proportional
allocation, we shall get the sample sizes as under for the different strata:
For strata with N1 = 4000, we have P1 = 4000/8000 and hence n1 = n . P1 =
30 (4000/8000) = 15
Similarly, for strata with N2 = 2400, we have n2 = n . P2 = 30 (2400/8000) =
9, and
for strata with N3 = 1600, we have n3 = n . P3 = 30 (1600/8000) = 6.
• Thus, using proportional allocation, the sample sizes for different strata are
15, 9 and 6 respectively which is in proportion to the sizes of the strata viz.,
4000 : 2400 : 1600.
VI) Cluster sampling & Area sampling:
• involves grouping the population and then selecting the groups or the
clusters rather than individual elements for inclusion in the sample.
• Example : Suppose some departmental store wishes to sample its credit
card holders. It has issued its cards to 15,000 customers. The sample size is
to be kept say 450. For cluster sampling this list of 15,000 card holders
could be formed into 100 clusters of 150 card holders each. Three clusters
might then be selected for the sample randomly.
• The sample size must often be larger than the simple random sample to
ensure the same level of accuracy because is cluster sampling procedural
potential for order bias and other sources of error is usually accentuated.
• The clustering approach can, however, make the sampling procedure
relatively easier & increase the efficiency of field work, specially in the
case of personal interviews.
Area sampling
• is quite close to cluster sampling & is often talked about when the total
geographical area of interest happens to be big one.
• Under area sampling we first divide the total area into a number of
smaller non-overlapping areas, generally called geographical clusters, then
a number of these smaller areas are randomly selected, & all units in
these small areas are included in the sample.
• Area sampling is specially helpful where we do not have the list of the
population concerned.
• It also makes the field interviewing more efficient since interviewer can do
many interviews at each location.
(v) Multi-stage sampling:
• This is a further development of the idea of cluster sampling.
• is for big inquiries extending to a considerably large geographical area
like an entire country.
• under multi-stage sampling the first stage may be to select large primary
sampling units such as states, then districts, then towns & certain
families within towns.
• If the technique of random-sampling is applied at all stages, the
sampling procedure is described as multi-stage random sampling.
(vii) Sequential sampling:
• This is somewhat a complex sample design where the ultimate size of the
sample is not fixed in advance but is determined according to
mathematical decisions on the basis of information yielded as survey
progresses.
• This design is usually adopted under acceptance sampling plan in the
context of statistical quality control.
Non-Probability Sampling:
Accidental/ Convenience Sampling:
• When this method is used, all units for the study that a researcher
incidentally comes into contact with a certain period of time are given
emphasis.
• This method is also known to be convenience sampling or opportunity
sampling.
•E.g. For a researcher who wants to collect data from the students about
the service of the school library, he/she might interview the students who
come first to the library.
Purposive sampling
• This method can be employed to select samples that meet the purpose of
the research.
• In this case the samples to be selected are assumed to be rich in the
information required.
• The selection of members is based on a criterion that will be established
first.

E.g. If a researcher wishes to conduct a study on the causes of students’

misbehavior, then he/she fully selects the home room teachers, school
guidance and council, unit leader, and school principal for the study.
 Available/ Comprehensive/ Sampling
• When the numbers of the population pertaining to the required
characteristics is small, all of them might be included in the study.

E.g. If you want to study about the problems faced by disabled

students in your school and the number of disabled students in the
school is 15, it will not be difficult to include all of them.

Quota Sampling
• In stratified sampling the cost of taking random samples from individual
strata is often so expensive that interviewers are simply given quota to
be filled from different strata, the actual selection of items for sample
being left to the interviewer’s judgment. This is called quota sampling.
• The size of the quota for each stratum is generally proportionate to the
size of that stratum in the population.
• Quota sampling is thus an important form of non- probability sampling.
• Quota samples generally happen to be judgment samples rather than
random samples.
• The grouping variable may be age, sex, race, area, etc.

• E.g. To study the attitude of students to wards mathematics you may

simply allocate 15 male and 15 female students with out considering their
proportion.
Activity 1: Do this activity on piece of paper
Example:
• Assume that a teacher may wish a sample of 20 students out of 40 from
grade 10 in a school. Let N = 40 (population) and n = 20 (sample).
• You will give numbers from 1 to 40 for the subjects.
• Now select the samples from your total target population by employing
SRS?
Activity 2

• suppose n = 40 population of size N = 10000 which is divided into three

strata of size
N1 = 5000,= N1/N(n)= 5000/10000(40)= 200
N2 = 2000 = (N2/N(n) =2000/10000(40)= 8
N3 = 3000 =N3/N(n=3000/10000(40)=1.2
Adopting proportional allocation, we shall get the sample sizes as under
for the different strata:
 Find n1 = 200
 n2 = 8
 n3=1.2
Activity 3
Example 1:
• if we have to select a sample of 6 items from a universe
of 15,000 items, then we can put the names or numbers
of all the 15,000 items on slips of paper and conduct a lottery/coin tossing.
• Using the Following random number tables you can also select your
subjects.
2952 6641 3992 9792 7979 5911
3170 5624 4167 9525 1545 1396
7203 5356 1300 2693 2370 7483
3408 2769 3563 6107 6913 7691
0560 5246 1112 9025 6008 8126
Activity 4
1. How would you select a sample of 40 students from a total of
320 in certain High School? BY stratified sampling/ Nth value
 
2. From a certain region education bureau you wish to select a sample of 300
teachers from a listing of 3800. Discuss several ways that the sample could be
selected, considering the issues that may be involved.

3. You are planning to draw a stratified random sample of 100 from high schools
population that contains 60 males and 40 females. Among males, 40% are grade
12, 10%grade 11, 20% grade 10, and 30% grade 9 students. Among females, 50%
are grade 12, 25% grade 11, 5% grade 10, and 20% are grade 9 students. How
many respondents would you need in each of the eight categories?100

4. You are going to interview 60 teachers in a school system of 200 teachers. In this
system there are 100 elementary school teachers 20 men and 80 women, 50
junior high school teachers’ 20 men and 30 women, and 50 high school teachers
30 men and 20 women. How many teachers in each of the six categories would
you include in your sample of 6o?
6. Collecting the data:
• In dealing with any real life problem it is often found
that data at hand are inadequate, & hence, it becomes
necessary to collect data that are appropriate.
• There are several ways of collecting the appropriate
data which differ considerably in context of money
costs, time and other resources at the disposal of the
researcher.
• Primary data can be collected either through
experiment ,through survey, interview, FGD.
• If the researcher conducts an experiment, he observes
some quantitative measurements, or the data, with the
help of which he examines the truth contained in his
hypothesis.
• But in the case of a survey, data can be collected by any
(i) By observation:
 implies the collection of information by way of investigator’s own
observation, without interviewing the respondents.
 The information obtained relates to what is currently happening and is
not complicated by either the past behavior or future intentions or
attitudes of respondents.
 This method is no doubt an expensive method and the information
provided by this method is also very limited. As such this method is not
suitable in inquiries where large samples are concerned.
(ii) Through personal interview: structural survey
The investigator follows a rigid procedure and seeks answers
to a set of pre-conceived questions through personal
interviews.
This method of collecting data is usually carried out in a
structured way where output depends upon the ability of the
interviewer to a large extent.
(iii) Through telephone interviews: for industrial survey
 This method of collecting information involves contacting the
respondents on telephone itself.
This is not a very widely used method but it plays an
important role in industrial surveys in developed regions,
particularly, when the survey has to be accomplished in a very
limited time.
(iv) By mailing of questionnaires: both by contacting with each other (mostly
used in economic and business surveys).
 The researcher and the respondents do come in contact with each other if
this method of survey is adopted.
 are mailed to the respondents with a request to return after completing
the same.
It is the most extensively used method in various economic and business
surveys.
Before applying this method, usually a Pilot Study for testing the
questionnaire is conduced which reveals the weaknesses, if any, of the
questionnaire.
 must be prepared very carefully so that it may prove to be effective in
collecting the relevant information.
(v) Through schedules:
• Under this method the enumerators are appointed and given training.
• They are provided with schedules containing relevant questions.
• These enumerators go to respondents with these schedules.
• Data are collected by filling up the schedules by enumerators on the basis
of replies given by respondents. Much depends upon the capability of
enumerators so far as this method is concerned. Some occasional field
checks on the work of the enumerators may ensure sincere work.
7. Execution of the project:
 Accomplishment of the project is a very important step in the
research process.
 If the execution of the project proceeds on correct lines, the
data to be collected would be adequate and dependable.
 The researcher should see that the project is executed in a
systematic manner and in time.
 If the survey is to be conducted by means of structured
questionnaires, data can be readily machine-processed.
 In such a situation, questions as well as the possible answers
may be coded. If the data are to be collected through
interviewers, arrangements should be made for proper selection
and training of the interviewers.
The training may be given with the help of instruction manuals
which explain clearly the job of the interviewers at each step.
Occasional field checks should be made to ensure that the interviewers
are doing their assigned job sincerely and efficiently.
 A careful watch should be kept for unanticipated factors in order to keep
the survey as much realistic as possible.
This, in other words, means that steps should be taken to ensure that the
survey is under statistical control so that the collected information is in
accordance with the pre-defined standard of accuracy. If some of the
respondents do not cooperate, some suitable methods should be designed
to tackle this problem.
 One method of dealing with the non-response problem is to make a list
of the non-respondents and take a small sub-sample of them, and then
with the help of experts vigorous efforts can be made for securing
response.
Occasional field checks should be made to ensure that the interviewers are
doing their assigned job sincerely and efficiently.
 A careful watch should be kept for unanticipated factors in order to keep
the survey as much realistic as possible.
This, in other words, means that steps should be taken to ensure that the
survey is under statistical control so that the collected information is in
accordance with the pre-defined standard of accuracy. If some of the
respondents do not cooperate, some suitable methods should be designed
to tackle this problem.
 One method of dealing with the non-response problem is to make a list of
the non-respondents and take a small sub-sample of them, and then with
the help of experts vigorous efforts can be made for securing response.
8. Analysis of data: through coding, tabulation and then drawing statistical inferences.
• After the data have been collected, the researcher turns to the
task of analyzing them.
• The analysis of data requires a number of closely related
operations such as establishment of categories, the application of
these categories to raw data through coding, tabulation and then
drawing statistical inferences.
• The unwieldy/heavy data should necessarily be condensed into a
few manageable groups and tables for further analysis.
• Thus, researcher should classify the raw data into some
purposeful and usable categories.
• Coding operation is usually done at this stage through which the
categories of data are transformed into symbols that may be
tabulated and counted.
• Editing is the procedure that improves the quality of the data for
coding. With coding the stage is ready for tabulation.
• Tabulation is a part of the technical procedure wherein the classified data
are put in the form of tables.
• The mechanical devices can be made use of at this juncture/stage.
• A great deal of data, specially in large inquiries, is tabulated by computers.
• Computers not only save time but also make it possible to study large
number of variables affecting a problem simultaneously.
• Analysis work after tabulation is generally based on the computation of
various percentages, coefficients, etc., by applying various well defined
statistical formulae.
• In the process of analysis, relationships or differences supporting or
conflicting with original or new hypotheses should be subjected to tests of
significance to determine with what validity data can be said to indicate
any conclusion(s).
• For instance, if there are two samples of weekly wages, each sample being
drawn from factories in different parts of the same city, giving two
different mean values, then our problem may be whether the two mean
values are significantly different or the difference is just a matter of
chance.
• Through the use of statistical tests we can establish whether such a
difference is a real one or is the result of random fluctuations.
• If the difference happens to be real, the inference will be that the two
samples
come from different universes & if the difference is due
to chance, the conclusion would be that the two
samples belong to the same universe.
• Similarly, the technique of analysis of variance can help
us in analyzing whether three or more varieties of
seeds grown on certain fields yield significantly
different results or not.
• In brief, the researcher can analyze the collected data
with the help of various statistical measures.
9. Hypothesis-testing: (Do the facts support the hypotheses) for the sake of
accepting or rejecting
After analyzing the data as stated above, the researcher is in a position
to test the hypotheses, if any, he had formulated earlier.
Do the facts support the hypotheses or they happen to be contrary? This
is the usual question which should be answered while testing hypotheses.
• Various tests, such as Chi square test, t-test, F-test, have been developed
by statisticians for the
• purpose. The hypotheses may be tested through the use of one or more
of such tests, depending upon
• the nature and object of research inquiry. Hypothesis-testing will result in
either accepting the hypothesis
• or in rejecting it. If the researcher had no hypotheses to start with,
generalizations established on the
• basis of data may be stated as hypotheses to be tested by subsequent
researches in times to come.
10. Generalizations and interpretation(setting some theories based up on
your finding):
. If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may be possible for
the researcher to arrive at generalization, i.e., to build a theory.
As a matter of fact, the real value of research lies in its ability to arrive at
certain generalizations. If the researcher had no hypothesis to start with,
he might seek to explain his findings on the basis of some theory.
 It is known as interpretation. The process of interpretation may quite
often trigger off/generate new questions which in turn may lead to further
researches
11. Preparation of the report or the thesis:
Writing of report must be done with great care keeping
in view the following:
1) The layout of the report should be :
the preliminary pages; the main text, & the end matter.
(i) the preliminary pages
In its preliminary pages the report should carry title and
date followed by acknowledgements and preface. Then
there should be a table of contents followed by a list of
tables and list of graphs and charts, if any, given in the
report.(ii)The main text of the report should have the
following parts:
(a) Introduction:
 It should contain a clear statement of the objective of the research and
an explanation of the
methodology adopted in accomplishing the research. The scope of the
study along with various limitations should as well be stated in this
part.
(b) Summary of findings:
 After introduction there would appear a statement of findings and
recommendations in non-technical language. If the findings are extensive,
they should be summarized.
(c) Main report:
 The main body of the report should be presented in logical sequence
and broken-down into readily identifiable sections.
(d) Conclusion:
• Towards the end of the main text, researcher should again put
down the results of his research clearly and precisely.
• In fact, it is the final summing up.
(iii)The End Matter:
At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all
technical data. Bibliography, i.e., list of books, journals, reports, etc.,
consulted, should also be given in the end. Index should also be given
specially in a published research report.
2. Report should be written in a concise and objective style in simple
language avoiding vague expressions such as ‘it seems,’ ‘there may be’,
and the like.
3. Charts and illustrations/pictures or photographs in the main report
should be used only if they present the information more clearly and
forcibly.
4. Calculated ‘confidence limits’ must be mentioned and the various
constraints experienced in conducting research operations may as well
be stated.
• Criteria of Good Research
• they all meet on the common ground of scientific method
employed by them.
• One expects scientific research to satisfy the following criteria:
• The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and
common concepts be used.
• The research procedure used should be described in sufficient
detail to permit another researcher to repeat the research for
further advancement, keeping the continuity of what has already
been attained.
• The procedural design of the research should be carefully
planned to yield results that are as objective as possible.
• The researcher should report with complete
frankness/truthfulness, flaws in procedural design and
estimate their effects upon the findings.
The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its
significance and the methods of analysis used should be appropriate.
 The validity and reliability of the data should be checked carefully.
 Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the
research and limited to those for which the data provide an adequate
basis.
Greater confidence in research is warranted/neccessary if the researcher
is experienced, has a good reputation in research and is a person of
integrity.
The qualities of a good Research: systematic, logical replicable, and
empirical
1. Good research is systematic: structured with specified steps
• It means that research is structured with specified steps to be taken in
a specified sequence in accordance with the well defined set of rules.
• Systematic characteristic of the research does not rule out creative
thinking but it certainly does reject the use of guessing and intuition in
arriving at conclusions.
2. Good research is logical: is guided by the rules of logical reasoning
• This implies that research is guided by the rules of logical reasoning and
the logical process of induction and deduction are of great value in
carrying out research.
• Induction is the process of reasoning from a part to the whole whereas
deduction is the process of reasoning from a conclusion which follows
from that very premise.
• In fact, logical reasoning makes research more meaningful in the context
of decision making.
3. Good research is empirical:
It implies that research is related basically to one or more aspects of a real
situation and deals with concrete data that provides a basis for external
validity to research results.
4. Good research is replicable:
This characteristic allows research results to be verified by replicating the
study and thereby building a sound basis for decisions.
Wollega University College of Social Sciences
Department of Geography &Environmental Studies
Quiz for Research in GeES
Name_____________DI__________Section______
Direction: Attempt the following questions very
and try to show the most important steps to be
to draw sample (n) from population (N)
1. How would you select a sample of 40 students from a total of 320 in certain
high school? (5%)N/n=320/40=8
2. How can you make use of systematic sampling technique to select a sample
of 70 students (n) out of a total of 350 students (N)?(5 pints)
3. Let say you are planning to draw a stratified random sample of 100 (n) from
high schools population of 300. The sample contains 60 males and 40
females. Among males, 40 % are grade 12, 10 % grade 11, 20 % grade 10,
and 30 % grade 9 students. Among females, 50 % are grade 12, 25 % grade
11, 5% grade 10, and 20 % are grade 9 students. How many respondents
would you need in each of the eight categories?(10 points)
4. If Solomon wants to study the attitudes of religions on chewing chat in Bake
Jama Sub-City. Assume the total size of population (N) is 8000 and of this
4000 are Muslim, 2000 are protestant and 2000 Orthodox Church followers.
The total sample size (n) required is 200. So what size of sample should he
consider from each stratum for his study?(10 points)
• N1=4000/8000(200)=100
• N2=2000/8000(200)=50
• N3=2000/8000(200)=50
CHAPTER FOUR: Data Collection
•  Then in what ways data could be collected from those selected samples
and how the various tools should be constructed are concerns of this
sub-unit.
What is data?
• Evidences or information that can be gathered (collected) using some
standardized tools /designed instrument/.
• are the corner stones in a research process so that inferences and
generalizations held may be identified as valid, verified as correct or
rejected as untenable.
Primary Sources of data:
• are data that are collected by immediate users or the
data for the experiment or survey being conducted.
• come from the original sources and are collected for the
task at hand, original data related to events in the past.
• are documents (such as diaries; autobiographies, court
records, students’ mark lists, personal letters), artifacts
(such as tools and objects of the past on the spot
records of fields & photographs).
• are data that help the researcher to get detailed first
hand available information or evidences directly from
the respondents or any thing under study.
Secondary sources of data:
• are data that can be collected not directly from the sources.
• They are written documents containing the work of different scholars such
as books, journals & different written documents.
• Designing instruments for data collection is an important activity in a
research process to obtain relevant information about the problem under
investigation and to find evidence on intervention results.
Data Gathering Instruments/Tools
Questionnaires
• are series of questions written requiring people to select, list, classify,
quantify, state, rank, etc. of their responses.
Types of Questionnaires
• two types of questionnaires
Open-ended Questionnaire(expressing by your own words)
•  are the questions which call the respondents responses in their own
words; i.e. the respondents frames & supply their own responses.
Example
• What do you think about the contribution of plasma to the interaction of
the teacher & the students?
• What conditions do you suggest for plasma teaching to be effective in
your school?
Close ended Questionnaire
• questions that call for short check responses, i.e., they provide for making
a Yes/No response, or checking an item out of a list of a given responses.
• respondents reply in a limited number of ways.
Example
• How do you rate the contribution of plasma teaching in improving
students’ language skills? A. High B. Medium C. Low
• Do you think that plasma teaching decrease student- teacher interaction?
YES/NO
 • can also be presented in other Format such as: i) Likert scale/ Rating
scale ii) Check list
Example
• The following is questionnaire designed to get information about the
attitude of high school students towards plasma in the form of Likert
scale.

No. Item Strongl Agree Undecide Disagree Stronglydi

y d s
Agree Agree

1 Plasma teaching improves

students language skill

2 Plasma teaching decrease

student teacher interaction
a) Merits of Questionnaire
• Easy to administer
• It is economical way of collecting information from large number of
respondents.
• Filled at the respondents convenience
• Stable, consistent and uniform
• Data are quantifiable
b) Limitation of Questionnaires
• Limited response or not in depth (for close ended)
• Difficult to interpret, tabulate & summarize (for open ended)
• Administrated only to literate respondents with considerable amount of
education.
• Low return especially for mailed questionnaire.
Stages in questionnaire Construction
are time consuming to construct.
steps in their construction could be
• Deciding what the problem really is and what information is required to
provide answers.
• Deciding what types of questions to use: Close or open.
• Writing a first draft of the questionnaire
• Piloting the draft questionnaire with a sample of respondents.
• Revising the question on the basis of criticism E.g. Deleting ambiguous or
poorly worded question etc.
• Administering the questionnaire
 Important points in Construction of Qn
• Questions must be well presented, and be easy to read and follow
• Providing space in between must easily identify questions and response
categories
• Adequate space should be left for the subject to make relevant remarks
• Each question should be relevant to the research topic
• Vague and non specific questions should be discarded
• Threatening questions should be avoided
 Types of questions to be Avoided
Double-barreled questions
• Avoid double-barreled questions
Example: Have you ever experienced burn-out, and what do you do to
prevent it?
• Ask one question at a time. Do not combine questions and expect an
answer.
Two in one questions
• Do not combine opposite questions in one question
Example: what are the advantages and disadvantage of working in a
private school?
Avoid double-question questions
Example: Do you ever feel irritated and depressed by our students?
• The respondent might be irritated but not depressed, or vice versa, or
both, or neither. Separating out the parts and things will be much clearer.
Restrictive Questions
• Avoid questions which inherently eliminate some options.
Example:
• Do you think that male school administrators are as good as female
school administrators?
• The wording of this question eliminates the possibility that males might
be better.
Leading questions
• Do not precede questions with a position statement.
Example:
• Plasma teaching which reduces the teacher’s role has a lot of problems.
Can you mention some of the problems?
• In this type of question, the interviewer states a view or summarizes the
position of a current or recent event and then asks for a response. This
tends to lead the respondent in a given direction.
Loaded questions
• Avoid questions which are emotionally charged and use loaded words.
Example: Would you favour or oppose murder by agreeing with a women’s
free choice concerning abortion?
Formats of the questionnaire:
The questionnaire has three main parts/elements
The cover letter:
• it includes explanation on the objective and educational significance of
the study: state the rationale for completing the questionnaire and assures
confidentiality.
• It involves background information such as institution, sex, age,
educational level, marital status, occupation, etc.
The instruction:
• it gives direction on how a respondent fills in the questionnaire
The main body:
• it involves purely questions related to the problem that need answer.
 Activity 4.1
• Compare and contrast open ended and closed ended questionnaire?
• Mention the main components of a questionnaire?
• Do you think that the respondents affect the content of the questionnaire?
How?
 Interview
• a process of communication in which the subject or
interviewee gives the needed information verbally in
face-to-face situation
• is an oral questionnaire.
• It involves a person, designated the interviewer asking
question in a face-to-face contact to the other person’s
designated the interviewee who give answers to these
questions.
• are classified into structured & unstructured interview
according to the type of approach employed.
Structured Interview
• is one in which the procedure to be followed is determined in advance of
the interview.
• Here, the same types of questions are presented in the same order to each
interviewee and wording of the instruction to the interviewees is specified.
• The interviewer has no freedom to rephrase questions, add extra ones, and
change the order in which the questions have to be presented.
ii. Unstructured Interview
• provide greater flexibility.
• Although the series of questions to be asked and the procedure to be
followed might be decided upon before hand, the interviewer is largely free
to arrange the form and timing of the questions.
• Thus, the respondents are encouraged to relate freely and frankly their
concrete experience.
• The researcher can rephrase the questions, modify them and add some
new questions in to his list.
• That is, he has much greater freedom to record the responses according to
his own frame of judging, relevance and convenience.
Merits of Interview
 It provides an opportunity to the interviewer to question thoroughly certain areas of
inquiry.
 It enables the interviewer to get information concerning feelings, attitudes or
emotions in relation to certain questions
 A personal interviews, compared especially to questionnaires, usually yield a high
percentage of returns,
 The interviewer can usually control which person (s) will answer questions. Where
this is not possible in mailed questionnaire.
 The language of the interview can be adapted to the ability of the person
interviewed.
 The interview does not require reading ability for administration
 It give an opportunity for clearing up misunderstandings
 Limitations of Interview
I. Interviews are time consuming.
ii. The effectiveness of the interview depends greatly upon the skill of the
interviewer, not ordinarily possessed by inexperienced researcher.
iii. The presence of the interviewer on the spot may over stimulate the
respondent, sometimes even to the extent that he/she give imaginary
information, just to make it interesting.
iv. The interviewee may not respond freely, frankly and accurately.
v. There is a constant danger of subjectivity on the part of the interviewer.
Steps in Interviews
Preparing the schedule
• Translating research objectives or questions in to interview questions
• Ordering the question E.g. closed ended to open-ended
• Deciding how the responses will be collected (for tape versus note taking)
Piloting
• Practicing/ trying out on a small sample.
• Eliminate ambiguous, confusing or insensitive questions
Selecting the subject/ sample
• Choosing representative, sensible sample
• Negotiating access and suitable venue, with individual and institutions
The interview itself
• Physical posioning and preparation: side by
side or face to face? Tape recording or note
taking?
• Briefing and explanation: e.g. purpose of the
interview and the research generally; how will
the data be used? Anonymity?
• Questioning
• Rounding up; future contact, feedback
• Activity 4.2
• Mention the type of interview with your own appropriate example?
• Discuss the procedures involved in the process of interview?
• Explain the advantages and disadvantages of interview?
• Explain the major guidelines of conducting interview?
 Observation
• Observation is the process in which one or more persons observe what is
occurring in some real life situation, and classify and record pertinent
happenings according to some planned scheme.
• It is used to evaluate the overt behavior of individuals in controlled and
uncontrolled situations.
Types of
• Four main groups.
• open observation, focused observation, structured observation and
systematic observation.
Open observation:
• In this method, the observer uses a blank sheet of paper to record the
lesson.
• The observer either notes down key points about the lesson or uses a
personal form of short hand for making a verbatim recording as faucal as
possible.
Example:
• Suppose a teacher wants to evaluate the students in the presentation and
attempts to make open observation.
• The teacher should aim to record descriptive information on lesson
presentation, voice, methods of presentation, questioning styles,
feedbacks, etc.
Focused Observation:
• In this method of observation, the teacher researcher must appropriately
specify what exactly to observe in the classroom.
For example, if the observation is on “effective teaching” there are many
variables that influence it (nature of curriculum, instructional quality, time
of instruction, classroom management, etc.)
• Thus, in focused observation, taking into consideration the factors that
influence the research topic is highly important.
Structured Observation:
• In this method, the observer requires simple information that can be
controlled by either using a tally system or a diagram.
• The observer puts down a tally or tick marks every time a particular event
occurs. But when observation is to take place without these characteristics
to be thought of in advance, the same is termed as unstructured
observation. Structured observation is considered appropriate in descriptive
studies, whereas in an exploratory study the observational procedure is
most likely to be relatively unstructured
Systematic Observation:
• This method of data collection depends entirely on
the use of observation scales.
• It is relatively better for teachers’ researchers to
design their own observant scales.
• On other hand, there are also already devised
observation scales that could be used by researchers
for their studies.
• But it is important for the teacher researcher to match
his/her needs closely to the intent and focuses of the
scale.
How to use observation
• needs planning, execution, and careful recording and interpretation.
Planning
• To use observation we have to plan and planning in observation needs
the following points.
• Listing the specific activities or behaviors to be observed
• Identifying the scope of observation
• Deciding duration of the observation period
• Preparing instruments to be used for observation and recording
Execution of Observation
• Observations may be either participant or non-participant.
• In the participant observation, the observer more or less becomes one of
the group members.
• In such situation the observer will be very near to the person being
observed and may actually take part in some activities with the
person/student/ under observation observed individually.
 Merits of Observation
• Use less complicated procedures.
• Offers information when samples are unable or unwilling to cooperate.
• Approaches realty in its natural structure.
• Allows the collection of a wide range of information.
• It can be useful in locating data about non readers, young people, people
with mental problem, & laboratory animals.
• It does not require special laboratory setting.
Limitation of Observation
• It could not be used when large groups of events are studied.
• It could not provide information about past or future.
• It could not study attitudes directly.
• It is relatively exposed to the observer’s bias.
• It is time consuming.
Document Analysis
• Document like letters, memos, newspaper, etc. that deal with curriculum or
other educational concern can illustrate the rational & Purpose in an
interesting way. The use of such material can provide background
information which otherwise will not be possible. In other words,
documents can provide information, which is relevant to the issues &
classroom action research.
• Relevant documents could include:
• Syllabus and schemes of work
• Curriculum reports of school working parties & committees.
• Examination papers & test used.
• Minutes of departmental meetings.
• Work cards & assignment sheets.
• Sections used from text books.
• Samples of children’s written work.
Types of Documents
The commonly known documents can be categorized into four major parties as follows:
• Public documents: E.g. Year books, core archives, mass media, census statistics, mass
media novels, poetry
• Archival records: E.g. Service records of hospitals, documents, & records of organizations.
• Personal Documents: E.g. Life histories, diaries, memorandum, autobiographies, and
letters.
• Studies reports: E.g. Related to research.
Merits and Limitation of Documents
a. Merits of Document analysis
• Provide a context for understanding a particular curriculum or teaching method in
classroom research.
• Enables researchers to study past events or issues.
• Provide an easy way of obtaining other people’s perceptions.
• Mostly easily accessible.
• It is more economical.
b. Limitation of Document analysis
• Some of the documents are not easily accessible
• Some documents are not complete and up-to-date.
• The reliability of some documents is questionable; documents are biased to some degree
since they represent the views of their writers.
COLLECTION OF SECONDARY DATA
• Secondary data means data that are already available i.e., they refer to the data which have already
• been collected and analysed by someone else. When the researcher utilises secondary data, then he
• has to look into various sources from where he can obtain them. In this case he is certainly not
• confronted with the problems that are usually associated with the collection of original data. Secondary
• data may either be published data or unpublished data. Usually published data are available in: (a)
• various publications of the central, state are local governments; (b) various publications of foreign
• governments or of international bodies and their subsidiary organisations; (c) technical and trade
• journals; (d) books, magazines and newspapers; (e) reports and publications of various associations
• connected with business and industry, banks, stock exchanges, etc.; (f) reports prepared by research
• scholars, universities, economists, etc. in different fields; and (g) public records and statistics, historical
• documents, and other sources of published information. The sources of unpublished data are many;
• they may be found in diaries, letters, unpublished biographies and autobiographies and also may be
• available with scholars and research workers, trade associations, labour bureaus and other public/
• private individuals and organisations.
• Researcher must be very careful in using secondary data. He must make a minute scrutiny
• because it is just possible that the secondary data may be unsuitable or may be inadequate in the
• context of the problem which the researcher wants to study. In this connection Dr. A.L. Bowley
• very aptly observes that it is never safe to take published statistics at their face value without knowing
• their meaning and limitations and it is always necessary to criticise arguments that can be based on
• Them.
Writing Research Report(WRR)
• Once you have completed your research and analyzed your data, there are three main ways
of reporting your findings
written reports and journal articles, both of which can
be reproduced on-line, and
 oral presentations.
• WRR is the final but very important part of the research work.
• includes everything or step from the selection of research topic up to the findings of the
study for research.
• deals with the communication of the result of your investigation to others.
• is straight forward document that sets froth clearly and precisely what you have done to
resolve the research problem.
• is a complete account of all the efforts you put in undertaking your investigation.
• Here below, layout of the research report, acknowledging sources and bibliographical usage,
and general points about the Style and format of research report will be discussed.
Layout/outline of the Research Report
• means as to what the research report should contain and how it is organized.
• The report should comprise three major sections.
Preliminary section
The main text (or main body)
The end matter.
 The Preliminary Section
• The preparation of the preliminary pages is largely a matter of the rules of
style or format.
• includes the title page, acknowledgement, abstract, table of contents, list of
tables and list of figures or maps (if any).
a) Title page.
• Cover page
• is the first page of the report which includes title of the study, name of the
institution to which the report will be submitted, name of the researcher,
degree for which the report will be submitted, name of advisor & date of
submission of the report.
• If the research is for publication or for journal, the last three should not be
included.
• If the report is a dissertation or thesis, the title page will include details about
the purpose of the report, for example ‘A thesis submitted in partial
fulfillment of the requirements of Wollega University for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy’.
• If the research has been funded by a particular organization, details of this
may be included on the title page.   
b) Acknowledgments
• Some researchers may wish to acknowledge the help of their research
participants, tutors, employers and/or funding body.
• In research report, the page comes next to the title page is that of the
acknowledgments.
• Acknowledgement is recognizing individuals and institutions to which you are
indebted/obliged for providing credible assistance in due course of study.
• This part should be kept as brief and simple as possible.
c) Table of Contents /Contents page
• In this section is, listed the contents of the report, either in chapter or section
headings/ sub-headings, if relevant & their page numbers.
• include list of major classification of the report with their corresponding
page numbers for easy reference.
• includes the introduction, the chapters with their subdivisions, the
bibliography and the appendix with appropriate page numbers.
• provides a reader a bird’s eye view of the report and enables to locate
quickly each section of it.
d) List of Tables
• includes title and page number of all tables
• In this page (s) all the title of the tables used to represent and summarize the data in
the research should be collected and indicated in the separate page; including the page
number in which each of the table found.
• However, if there is no table used in the research no need of including list of tables
e)List of Figures or Maps
• includes title and page number of all graphs ,Maps, illustrations, charts, etc.
• When figures and/or maps are used in the research report, it is necessary to put their
list in a separate page.
• Like list of tables the full title of the figures and/or maps and their pages should be
indicated.
f) Abbreviations & Acronyms
• Here, all the short hand representations of words and phrases used in the report should
be listed down with their respective meanings.
g) Abstract
• This tends to be a one page summary of the research, its purpose, methods, main
findings & conclusion, recommendations.
• The abstract (or executive summary) is a definite statement of the problem and concise
description of the research methods, major findings, conclusions, and implication.
B) The Main Text (or Body)
• This part of the research report contains most of the
works done during the research. It includes the
introduction, review of related literature, research
method, data presentation, analysis and interpretation
and summary, conclusions, and recommendations in five
different units.
i) Background to the study
• In this section is included all your background research,
which may be obtained from the literature, from personal
experience or both.
• You must indicate from where all the information to
which you refer has come, so remember to keep a
complete record of everything you read.
• If you do not do this, you could be accused
of plagiarism which is a
form of intellectual theft.
• When you are referring to a particular book or journal article, find out the
accepted standard for referencing from your institution (see below).
• This part includes the theoretical interests or concerns that initiated the
researcher to conduct this research or it summarizes the influences, which
come into play to shape your research. The analysis leads you to cross-
examine your own assumptions about why the problem is significant, and
from what point of view the problem is significant. You need to ask what
interests are driving the research.
ii) Statement of the Problem
• This part of the research report consists of the brief repetition of problems
of the study. At the end of this component some specific targets that are
clear and unambiguous will be stated in a question form.
iii) Research Objectives of the Study
• This includes a brief explanation of the purposes of the research.
• General Objective and Specific Objectives should be shown independently
iii) Hypothesis of the Study/ Basic Research Questions
• In this part we have to briefly state the hypothesis that we formulated in the
proposal part of the study. Hypothesis is the tentative answer to the raised
problem. If we have stated the basic research questions we can ignore this
part as it is not mandatory in Social Science research.
iv) Significance and Rationale of the Study
• In this part, the general theoretical and practical importance of the research
treated briefly. In addition we have to specify the beneficiaries from the
obtained theoretical knowledge and practical solution to the intended
problems.
v) Scope of the Study/Delimitation of the study
• In this component of the research report, the boundary of the research
project in terms of its coverage (in terms of the study area and in terms of
the main focus of the research variables) stated clearly.
vi) Limitation of the Study
• Limitation of the study explains the major constraints that challenge the
researcher while conducting the research work and that may have significant
effect on the research results.
vii) Operational Definition of Terms
• In this part of the report, you need to have the exact definitions of terms in
order to avoid ambiguity in understanding their true meaning.
• Review of the Related Literature
• This is a part used for documenting with insight theoretical and
investigations that had been carried out as related to the study at hand. The
value of a review to the reader is that it explains the context and back
ground of the study. The review of related literature is usually presented as a
separate chapter.
i) The Meaning of Review Literature
• Review of related literature consists of two words: Review and Literature.
• Here, in research methodology the term literature refers to the knowledge
of a particular area of investigation of any discipline which includes
theoretical, practical and its research studies.
• ‘Review’ means to organize the knowledge of specific area of research to
evolve an edifice of knowledge.
• The task of review literature is highly creative and tedious because
researcher has to synthesize the available knowledge of the field in a unique
way to provide the rational for his study.
ii) Two phases of Review Literature
• Reviewing the literature has two phases.
• The first phase includes identifying all the relevant published materials in
the problem area and reading the part of it with which we are not
thoroughly familiar.
• We develop the foundation ideas and results on which our own study will
be built.
• The second phase of the review literature involves writing this foundation of
ideas in to a section of the research report.
• This section is for the joint benefit of the researchers and readers.
• For the researcher, it establishes the back ground in the field.
• For the readers it provides a summary of thinking and research necessary
for them to understand the study.
iii) The Need for Review Literature
• It is essential due to the following reasons:
• is as spring board to plan a newly commenced research work.
• provides every researcher up dated information related to his own
problem.
• avoids the replication of the study findings and helps to take an advantage
from similar or related literature as regards to methodology, techniques of
data collection, procedure adopted and conclusion drawn.
• He/she can justify his own endeavor in the field of study.
• The researcher formulates his hypotheses on the basis of review literature.
Review literature also provides the rational for the study.
• It helps in developing experts and general scholarship of the investigator in
the area investigated.
• Helps to distinguish what has been done from what needs to be done.
• As such the review of literature indicates the clear picture of the problem to
be solved.
iv) Principles & procedures for the Review of Literature
• The following are the specific procedures through which review can be done
appropriately.
• It is very essential to develop deep understanding about the variables and the
field of study by consulting a general source such as text-book which are
helpful to provide the meaning and nature of the concepts, variables or
theoretical framework of the study.
• The researcher for library material must be systematic and thorough.
• The investigator generally should start by collecting references from the
library index.
• The researcher should take note systematically in the light of such criteria as
uniformity, accuracy and ease of assembly.
• The notes should be taken on the card.
• Each entry should be made separately. References should be recorded with
complete bibliographic data.
• It should be recorded on the front side of the card and content should be
taken below and reverse side of it.
• Each note should be recorded carefully and accurately.
• The investigator should take as complete notes as he might need.
• On the other hand taking unnecessary notes is wasteful.
• It would be better that similar sources are gathered.
• A major prerequisite for effective library work is the ability to read at high
speed.
• This can only be developed through practice.
• The researcher must learn to skim material to see what it has to contribute
to the study, only after its reference has been established, it should be read
in detail.
• The actual note taking process is always a difficult task for the researcher.
He has to spend long hours in the library taking notes by-hand.
v) Precautions in Note Taking
• Note taking is an art which can be acquired by practice and persistent
efforts. The following cares should be taken in taking notes.
• The researcher should be well acquainted with bibliography references,
foot notes and notations which are used for reporting research work. Eg.
Ibid, journal No. and Vol. etc.
• The library note should not be taken on note book papers or sheet of
paper. The researcher should make cards measuring 3x5 or 4x6 which are
specially prepared for this purpose. Because they are easy to carry and easy
to arrange in topic wise.
• At the top of the card library number or name should be noted down. After
that author or editor, year of publication, or number and volume. These
should be written below the reference or at the back of the card.
• One card should include only one topic or one reference or one study so that
rearrangement may be easier.
• Notes must be complete, legible and understandable and no gap should be
left.
• The appropriate and relevant material should be noted down and the
researcher should not waste time for unnecessary materials.
vi) Suggestion for Reporting Review Literature
• The investigator should make an attempt to exhaust all sources of review of
literature.
• The review of literature generally helps in identifying and selecting a research
problem.
• If researcher has selected a problem of his own or suggested by some expert;
even then the researcher has to review literature for its justification that it is
a novel problem.
• After selecting and defining a problem the researcher has to formulate
hypothesis for the problem.
• The review literature provides rationale or basis for these hypotheses;
the rational for method, sample; tools and statistical techniques are
obtained from the review of the studies.
• The results and findings are discussed at length with the help of review
literature.
• Thus the review literature is used from seeding a problem up to
reporting the findings of the study.
3. Designs of the Study/Methodologies
• This section explains how the problem was investigated and why particular
methods and techniques were employed.
• Accounts of procedure, size of sample, methods of selection, choice of
variables and controls, and tests of measurement and statistical analysis, if
any, should be provided.
• All important terms should be defined precisely and deficiency in the
methods mentioned.
• It is important to bear in mind that in certain kinds of investigation, the
research needs to be reputable, and a fellow researcher should be able to
obtain enough information from this section.
4. Presentations, Analysis and Interpretation of Data
• In this section, data is presented in tables, charts, graphs and other figures
followed by textual discussion.
• The text which should be written after the result should not be a duplicate of
a table/figure since tables/figures are self explanatory.
• Only important facts that lead to generalization will be discussed.
• All tables and figures should be numbered and give a title.
• Tables that are too lengthy (or cumbersome) and figures may better be
placed in the appendix.
5. Summary, Conclusions & Recommendations
a) Summary: it includes a brief restatement of the problem, description
of the problem, the hypothesis, the main features of the methods, and the
major findings of the study. Its wording must be clear and concise. No
information should be included here that had not been treated in the
preceding sections.
b) Conclusions: it is an inference based on the findings expressed in
terms of the hypothesis/Basic Research Questions of the study. Findings of
a study are direct observation summarized and integrated by statistical
analysis and conclusions are limited to those points that have direct support
in the research findings.
 c) Recommendations:
• are the possible solutions forwarded as a result of the outcomes of the
study that may alleviate the problem.
• In specifying the recommendations, the following
points should be examined critically.
• Any recommendation we attempt to give should assess the economic,
political and social conditions of the society where the research has been
conducted,
• They should be achievable and practical,
• They should address the organization responsible for,
• They should be short and precise,
• They should give room for conducting research in related issues in the
future.
C) The End Matter
• is known as a reference section where you keep your bibliography and
appendix.
1 Bibliography
• is a list of all the works referred to during your investigation in the
alphabetical order.
• In this section you will be acquainted with how to acknowledge the source
materials (books, journals, etc) from which you have taken some ideas.
• If the number of reference materials is large you may divide the bibliography
into various sections.
2 Appendices
• All important but not essential materials to be included in the main body
are presented in the appendices.
• may include questionnaires, copies of covering letters used, evaluation
sheets, check lists, long quotations, test, Questionnaires, interview forms,
raw data, long tables, maps and figures.
 Acknowledging Sources & Bibliographic Usage
• The basic styles for documenting major sources in bibliography are the
following.
• Each reference book in bibliography is set up alphabetically.
• When the name of the author is indicated basic entries are author’s name,
year of publication in bracket, title of the book underlined or bold and
publication information.
• In this case the above elements are organized in the following order:
• Name of the author (s) followed by a full stop.
• The first author appears fist and takes the last name of each author when
there are more than one author.
• Year of publication in parentheses or bracket( ) followed by the full stop.
• Title of the book (underlined or bold or italic) followed by full stop.
• When there are main title and sub-title, the main title separated y from
sub-title by colon.
• Following the full stop after the title, place of publication comes next
followed by a colon.
• The last element is publisher name followed by full stop.
Books
A single author
Example: 1. If – an author of a book is – David Pratt as indicated on the title
page. title of the book is – Curriculum design and development place of
publication is – USA date of publication is – 1990 and publisher is –
Harcourt Jovanovich, then this information can be written in the
bibliography as
Pratt, D. (1990). Curriculum Design and
Development. USA: Harcourt Jovanovich.
 For a book having a sub-title
• Philip, H. (1985). The World Crisis in Education: The view from the
eighties. Oxford: University Press.
b) Two authors Book
• Take the last names of both authors. However, write that of the first author
first, and name of the second author after comma.
• Example: If peter G. Cole and Lorna K. Chan is authors of a book (as
indicated on the title page), the bibliographic form is
• Cole, P. G. and Chan, L.K. (1994). Theaching principles and practices.
More than three authors Book
• When a book is written by more than three authors you will write only the
first author and others or et al.
Example
• Gorton, Richard, and Others. (1988). Harvard Book of School Management.
Phoenix: Oryx press.
• Gorton, Richard, et al. (1988). Harvard Book of Management. Phoenix: Oryx
press.
d) If the author’s name is not indicated in a book, start with the title of the
book.
Example: The constitution of Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia. Addis
Ababa: Bole Printing Press, 1991.
F)Books with an Editor /Many editors
• In a single publication, you may find different writers whose work is
presented by an editor or group of editors, the following are the procedures
needed while citing such sources.
• Write the name of the author of the article in the usual reverse order.
• State the full title of the article and enclose it in a quotation mark.
• Write the name of editor, reverse it and add “(ed)”
• Write the title used for the entire publication, and underline it.
• Include all publication information.
Examples
• Marshal, Judi. (1986). “Women Mangers.” In Mum Ford Alan (ed). Hand
Book of Management Development. Aldershot: Goveler Publing Company,
pp. 358-373.
• Markos Ezra and Dillnesaw Asrat (1998). “population
Environment, Resources and Sustainable Development in Ethiopia.”
Markos Ezra, Seyoum Gebre Selassie (eds). Hand book on population and
Family Life Education for secondary school teachers in Ethiopia. Addis
Ababa: ICDR.PP.193-238.
• When there are no names of authors or contributors except that of the
editor or editors, write ed or eds in bracket following the editor/s name.
Example: Elliott, J. (Ed.) (1994). Reconstructing Teacher Education.London:
McMillan.
 • When a book has different edition numbers, write the edition number in bracket
following the title and put a period.
• Example: Arends, R. (1994). Learning to teach (3rd ed.) New York: Mc Graw
Hill Inc.
• When a number of reference books by the same author are listed, each entry should
be ordered chronologically.
Examples:
• Ryans, D. (1972). Analyzing Teaching. New York: McMillan Co. Ltd
__________________ (1989). Characteristics of Teachers’. New Delhi:
Startling publishers Ltd.
 Journals
• The entry for an article in journal contains
• Authors name,
• Date of publication,
• Title of the article in quotation mark,
• Name of the journal (underline or bold) after a comma,
• Volume of the journal in normal numerals,
• Number of the journal after a comma and
• Page number after comma again.
Example
• Amare Asgdom (1996) “Rethinking Education in Ethiopia,” the Ethiopian
Journal of Education,Vol. 16, No 2, PP, 144-120
 News Paper
• The citation includes:
• Name of the author,
• Title of the article,
• Name of the news paper underlined or bold,
• Date and page number.
Example: Abebe Kebede, “HIV Prevalence in thiopia,” The Ethiopian Herald.
Sept. 11, 2004, P.5
Unpublished Sources.
• The critical entries are name of the writer, title of the unpublished work and
place /institution/.
Example: Menna, Olango. (1995). The effect of Job-related stress of faculty
intent to live Academia, unpublished Ph. D dissertation, Oklahoma state
University.
 Governmental Publications

• If governmental agencies published a source, the agency takes the

author’s position.
Example: MOE. (1991). The Ethiopian Education and Training
Policy. Addis Ababa: EMPDA
General Points to note in Bibliography Usage
• When the author’s name is not indicated, alphabetize the book by
its title. Ignore article (A, An or The) for the order of
alphabetization.
• If several works by the same author appear in bibliography they
must be alphabetized among themselves by title.
• When the same author produces two or more publication in a year
alphabetize them by assigning sequential letters (a, b, c) next to the year of
publication.
• If the bibliography is long (more than twenty-five entries) references can be
grouped according to their category usually in three parts: books,
periodicals, and news papers).
• When the author is an Ethiopian, take the name as written on title page
(Ethiopian names can not be inverted).
General points about the Style & format of WRR
• The style of writing a research report should generally be concise, logical,
simple and formal.
• Avoid stories of personal experience and argumentative discourse; make
the tone of the report impersonal.
• In keeping with this, personal pronoun (I, we, you, my, our & us) should
not be used.
• In this case use the third person pronoun and the passive voice.
• Use of numbers: Spell out numbers of one or two figures except in statistical
discussions or where their frequent use is needed. Figures can be used for
decimals and combination of numbers and words for large numbers and
percentages (e.g 5.6 million & 90percent). Use capital roman numbers for
primary division of an article and after the names of individuals in a sentence
( eg. Chapter I, Chapter II, Minilik II, Haileselase I).
• Tables: Do not include too much data on a single table. Tables need to be
given headings. If a table is too long and detailed so as to interrupt the flow
of the textual discussion put it in the appendix.
• Tense use: use past tense when you are referring to what the researcher or
other researchers have done. Use present when you are referring to the table
or charts or when you are presenting general truth and well established
principles.
Pagination:
• Every page of the research report is given numbers. However, on a title page,
bibliography and on appendices you do not type page numbers on them.
• The preliminary parts of your report are numbered with small roman numerals. Page
numbers of the preliminaries should be placed in the center at the bottom of the page
without any punctuation following them.
• Arabic numbers are used to number all other pages beginning with the first page of
chapter I. these numbers appear without punctuation on the top right hand corner of
the page.
Review Exercises
1. What do we mean by research report?
2. What are the elements of the layout of the research report? Explain each
of them briefly.
3. Explain the following terms briefly.
a) Title page
b) Acknowledgement
c) Abstract
d) Table of contents
e) List of tables
f) List of figures/maps
g) Statement of the problem
h) Hypothesis
i) Significance of the study
j) Scope of the study
k) Limitation of the study