HAWASSA UNIVERSITY;

W/G/C/F/N/R/

RESEARCH METHODS LASU II

SEMESTER III

2021
 What is research?
• It is a careful, systematic patient (careful) study
and investigation in some field of knowledge,
conducted(running) to find facts or principles.
• Research is a deliberate human effort to extend
his understanding about the world in which he
lives.
• It is a better source of knowledge than ones own
experience, beliefs, intuitions alone since it
systematically describes or measures reality.
 Cont…

• It is a quest(search) for
knowledge.
• Research is conducted to find out
the truth which is hidden and
which has not been discovered
as yet.
• Research helps to make sound
decisions.
 Some of the specific objectives of doing research
• To achieve new insights.
• To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular
individual situation or group.
• To determine the frequency with which something occurs
or with which it is associated with something else.
• To test a hypothesis of a casual relationship between
variables .
• To discover answers to questions through the application of
scientific procedures.
 Why people are interested in carrying out a
research?.

• A desire to get a research degree along

with its consequential benefits
• A desire to face the challenge in solving the
unsolved problems.
• A desire to get intellectual joy of doing
some creative work.
• A desire to be of service to society.
 Qualities of good research

• Good research is systematic.

• The research is structured with specified steps to be undertaken
in a specified sequence in accordance with the well defined set of
rules.
• Good research is logical.
• Good research is empirical, experiential,
observed, practical.
 2. Types of research
• Research Can be classified in a number of different ways-
– by its purpose, by its research techniques, and time dimensions.
• Based on the research techniques or methods
research can be classified as:
– descriptive, exploratory, basic-fundamental- and

action research.
• Based on time dimension research could be categorized as:
– cross sectional and longitudinal research.
Based on source of data collection.
 quantitative and qualitative research
 2.1 Descriptive research
• DR is designed to describe and interpret what is.
• It is concerned with conditions and relationships
that exist:
– practices that prevail, beliefs, or attitudes that are held,
processes that are going on, effects that are being felt or
threats that are developing.
• The main purpose of DR is to describe the state of
affairs as it exists at present.
• Most research projects designed in the field of
social science and business are based on
descriptive research studies.
 2.1 Descriptive research- contd
• In descriptive research the focus is on how
and who questions. How some thing, this or
that has happened? Who is involved?
Explaining new issues or exploring why
something happens is less of a concern for DR
than describing how things are.
• Types of DR
A. Survey and historical studies are common
examples that apply in descriptive methodology
 2.1 Descriptive research- contd
2.1.1 Survey research
– Survey means to view comprehensively and in
detail. The act of obtaining data and mapping
– This is the most commonly used descriptive method
in social science research.
– Survey is done to:
• describe the nature of existing conditions,
• identify standards against which existing conditions can
be compared ,or
• determining the relationship that exists between
specific events.
 2.1 Descriptive research- contd
• 2.1.1 Survey research- contd
• In a survey research respondents are asked about:
– their Attitudes/ beliefs/ opinions: (biggest problem facing the
organization)
– characteristic: (married, single divorced, age, membership to a
party, etc)
– past and present behaviors,
– expectations ( what will happen as a result of some activities)
– self classification (Social class, rich , poor) ,
– Knowledge (knowing about the presence of any development
program, etc)
– Please note that the survey approach is a strategy, not a research
method. Many methods can be incorporated in the use of a social
survey.
 Types of survey
• Postal questionnaire
• Internet surveys
• Face to face interviews
• Telephone interviews
• Documents
• 0bservations
 2.1 Descriptive research- contd
2.1.2 Historical research
• HR is the systematic and objective location,
evaluation and synthesis of evidence in order
to establish facts and draw conclusions about
past events.
 2.2 Exploratory research
• When you encounter an issue that is already known and
have a description of it you may begin to wonder WHY
things are the way they are.
• The desire to know ‘’why’’ to explain is the purpose of
exploratory research. It builds on exploratory and descriptive
research and goes on to identify the reason why some thing
occurs.
• Exploratory research therefore looks for causes and reasons.
• For example a descriptive researcher may discover 10
percent of the parents abuse their children, where as the
exploratory researcher is more interested in learning why
parents abuse their children.
 2.2. Goals of exploratory research- contd
• Determine the accuracy of a principle or theory
• Find out which competing explanation is better.
• Advance knowledge about an underlying process.
• Link different issues or topics under a common general
statement
• Build and elaborate a theory so it becomes more complete.
• Extend a theory into new areas or issues.
• Provide evidence to support or refute an explanation or
predictions.
 2.2 Common types of exploratory research
2.2.1 Case study
• Case study examines features of many peoples or units
either at one time period or across time period. In case
study you may carefully select one or few cases to
illustrate an issue and study it or them in detail analytically.
• Case study helps you connect with the MICRO LEVEL or
the actions of individual people, to the MACRO level or
large-scale social structures and processes.
• Researcher gather case study data for a period of time.
Data may be collected over months, years, or across many
decades.
 2.2 Common types of exploratory research : contd
• 2.2.2 Tracer study- is also known as follow up
study. It aims to investigate the subsequent
development of individuals after a specified
treatment or condition.
• Tracer study is used to make an investigation on
the direction of movements and predicts what is
likely to take place in the future.
• Tracer studies are designed to establish patters
of change in the past in order to predict future
patterns or conditions by analyzing data collected
about subjects and environment.
 2.2.2 Tracer study-
• For instance you can make a tracer study of
the former graduates about their
employment, matching between training and
type of job they do, occurrence of a new
environmental trends that justify the need
of change.
 2.3 Basic research
• BR advances fundamental knowledge about the social
world.
• It focuses on refuting or supporting theories that explain
how the social world operates, what makes things happen,
why social relations are a certain way, and why society
changes.
• BR is the source of most new scientific ideas and ways of
thinking about the world.
• New idea or fundamental knowledge is not generated only
by basic research. Applied research too can build new
knowledge.
 2.4 Applied research
• Applied research tries to solve SPECIFIC POLICY PROBLEMS,
or helps practitioners accomplish task.
• Theory in most cases does not help to find solutions to a
specific problem. Applied research is frequently descriptive
research, and its main strength is its immediate practical
use.
• People employed by business, government agencies, social
service agencies, and health organizations and educational
institutions conduct applied research.
• Decisions to make a new product, to choose one policy over
another, or to continue or end public program may be based
on applied search.
 2.4.1 Types of Applied research

• Some of the major ones are:

– Action Research,
– Social impact Assessment Research
– Evaluation research
 2.4.1 Types of Applied research- contd

• A. Action research: AR is that treats

knowledge as a form of power and abolishes
the line between research and social action.
• An approach in which the action researcher
and a client collaborate in the diagnosis of a
problem and in the development of a solution
based on the diagnosis.
 2.4.1 Types of Applied research- contd

• B. Social impact Assessment: The major purpose of social

impact assessment is to estimate the likely consequences of
a planned change. Such an assessment can be used for
planning and making choices among alternative policies.
Many outcomes are assessed and researchers work in an
interdisciplinary research team.
• Areas assessed in social impact studies include:
• Community service, social conditions, economic impact,
demographic consequences, Environment quality, health
outcomes, psychological well being.
 2.4.1 Types of Applied research- contd

C. Evaluation Research. It is a widely used type of applied research

that addresses the question, DID IT WORK?
• Evaluation is a process of establishing value judgments based on
evidence.
• ER measures the effectiveness of a program, policy or way of doing
something.
• Some examples of ER questions are: does the environmental policy
improve the environmental problems in the city? Does the new
incentive scheme improve worker’s job performance?
• Two types of ER are FORMATIVE and SUMMATIVE .
• Formative evaluation is built in monitoring or continuous feed back on a
program used for program management.
• Summative evaluation looks at final outcomes.
 Basic and applied social research compared
• Basic
1. Research is intrinsically
satisfying for the researcher
and judgments are by other
sociologists.
2. Research problems and
subjects are selected with a
great deal of freedom
3. Research is judged by
absolute norms of scientific
rigor, and the highest
standards of scholarship are
sought.
• Applied
1. Research is part of a job and is
judged by sponsors who are
outside the discipline of
sociology.
2. Research problems are narrowly
constrained to the demands
of employees or sponsors.
3. The rigor and standard of
scholarship depend on the
uses of results. Research can
be quick, and dirty or may
match high scientific standards.
Basic
4. The primary concern is
with the internal logic and
rigor of research design.
5. The driving goals are to
contribute to basic,
theoretical knowledge.
6. Success comes when
results appear in a
scholarly journal and have
an impact on others in the
scientific community.
Applied
4. The primary concern is to
generalize findings to
areas of interest to
sponsors.
5. The driving goal is to
have practical payoffs
or uses for results.
6. Success comes when
sponsors in decision
making use results.
 2.5 The time dimension in Research
• Another dimension of social research is the treatment of
time.
• Three types of researches in time dimensions are:
• Cross sectional
• Longitudinal
• Case studies
 A. Cross sectional
• Most sociological research takes a snapshot
approach to the social world.
• In cross sectional research, researchers
observe at one point in time.
• Cross sectional research is usually the
simplest and least costly alternative, its
disadvantage is that it can not capture social
process or change.
 B. Longitudinal research
• Researches using longitudinal research examine features of
people or other units at more than one time.
• Three types of longitudinal research
– Time series research- is a longitudinal study in which
the same type of information is collected on a group of
people or other units across multiple time periods.
Researchers can observe stability or change in features of
units or can track conditions over time.
– The researcher observes exactly the same people,
group, organization across time periods.
Observing Grade one grade two students
performance in maths and doing the same on
same students in their grade two and so on.
 C. A Cohort /group analysis
• Rather than observing the exact same people,
a category of people who share similar life
experience in a specified time period is
studied.
Steps in the research process
 Steps in the research process
1. Problem identification and definition-
in this step the researcher starts with a question or a problem for which
the answer is not available.

2. Survey or review of literature- the researcher

presents what is known so far about the problem under consideration.

3. Statement of hypothesis and basic

questions- that indicate the future direction of the research
exercise.
4. Defining the research methodology- the researcher
outlines all the steps that will be taken to make the investigation.
 Steps in the research process- contd
5. Validating the data gathering techniques or tools.
6. Collection, analysis and interpretation of data.
7. Summarizing the findings
8. Drawing conclusions and suggesting possible
solution to the problem.
9. Taking actions- applying the recommendations or
look for a forum or an opportunity to disseminating
the research result.
TOPIC II: Research problem and the preparation of the
Research proposal
1. Objectives to be achieved in this topic:
– understanding the meaning of a research problem,
– select a research problem for investigation,
– know techniques used in defining a research problem.
– Evaluate a research problem
– Define hypothesis, derivation of hypothesis, importance of hypothesis,
criteria of usable hypothesis and forms of stating hypothesis.
2. Introduction:
• The first step is when beginning a research project is to select a topic. There
is no formula for selecting a topic. Select topics that interests you.
• Many sources of research topics:
• How to select a topic or a problem to carry out a research in your area?
3. The meaning of a research problem
• The focal point of every research activity is a
research problem.
• Research starts with felt a difficulty.
• It takes place when there is a problematic
situation and a need to solve the problem.
• A research problem refers to some difficulty that
a researcher experiences in the context of either a
theoretical or practical situation or wants to
obtain a solution for the same.
 4. Selecting the problem
• In the research process the first and foremost step is the
choice of a suitable problem for investigation.
• The identification of a research problem is an important
phase of the entire research process.
• It requires a great deal of time, energy and logical thinking
on part of the researcher.
• Several factors deter the selection of a suitable problem
by a researcher, especially if he is a beginner. These include
limited knowledge of the research process, unfamiliarity with
the areas in which the research is going to be conducted or
lack of readiness for problem selection, etc,
 5. Some important sources which are helpful to a
researcher for selecting a problem.
1. Personal experience- day to day observations of the incidences in the
working place and out of the working environment.
2. Contact and discussion with people- esp. research oriented people
during conferences, seminars, membership to professional organizations
3. Inference from theory- i.e from critical look into the various
sociological theories.
4. Professional literature- consultation of research reports,
bibliographies of books, articles, periodicals, research abstracts, etc
5. Technological and social changes- these influence the function of
an organization and such changes bring about new problems for
research. Changes may affect policy issues.
 6. Defining the statement of the problem
• Following selection of the problem, define the research
problem clearly.
• A problem clearly stated is a problem half solved.
• To define a problem means to put a fence round it, to
separate it by careful distinctions from like questions found in related
situations of need. In other words defining a problem involves a task of
laying down boundaries within which a researcher shall study the
problem with predetermined objective in view.
• A research problem needs to be specified explicitly and Narrowed
down the problem to the workable size.
• A proper definition of the research problem will enable the researcher
to be on the right track where as ill-defined problems may create
hurdles.
 7. Techniques used as a prerequisite
to define a problem
• Make sure that the topic chosen is neither vague
nor too broad in scope. Also avoid to narrow
problem. Make sure that you can state it as a
question..
• The formal definition of a problem involves
description of the background of the study, its
theoretical basis, and underlying assumptions and
statement of the problem in specific and concrete
and workable questions.
7. Techniques used as a prerequisite to define a problem -ctd

• A good statement of a problem must clarify

what is to be determined or solved. It must
restrict the scope of the study to specific
and workable research questions.
• The most important step in this direction is to
specify the variables involved in the
questions and define them in operational
terms.
8. Techniques involved in defining the problem
• Steps to follow
– Understanding the origin and nature of the problem
clearly- discuss the problem who first raised it.
– Survey and examine the available literature related to
the problem thoroughly.
– Discussing the ideas through discussions with
colleagues and other experienced personalities.
– Rephrasing the research problem into analytical
or operational proposition.
8. Techniques involved in defining the problem-ctd
The following points must also be noted while defining a
research problem:
– A. technical terms and words or phrase, with special
meanings used in the statement of the problem should be
clearly defined.
– B. Basic assumptions or postulates relating to the research
problem should be clearly stated .
– A straight forward statement of the value the
investigation i.e., the criteria for the selection of the
problem should be proved.
– The suitability of the time period and sources of data
available must also be considered by research in defining
the problem.
–
 9. Evaluation of the problem
• Before final decision on investigation of the problem, test
the feasibility of the problem in terms of personal suitability
of the researcher and social value of the problem.
• In short the research problem should be evaluated in
terms of the following criteria-
1. Is the problem researchable. The problem must be
stated in workable research questions that can be
answered that can be answered empirically.
2. Is the problem new: as far as possible the research
problem needs to be new. Avoid already investigated problems by other
researchers. To avoid duplication go through records previous studies.
A researcher may however repeat a study when one wants to verify its
conclusion or to extend the validity of its findings in a situation entirely
different from previous one.
9. Evaluation of the problem- contd
3. Is the problem significant- is it a particular study of
particular significance? Does it really fill gaps on existing
knowledge, helps to develop theory, generalization
4. Is the problem feasible for the particular
researcher?
• A. Research competence- i.e. the researcher is qualified and
competent.
• B. Interest and enthusiasm – the researcher should have an
interest in the research problem .
• C. Financial considerations- research is an expensive endeavor.
• D. Time requirement
• E. Administrative consideration –kinds of data, equipment,
specialized personnel and administrative facilities that are needed to
complete the study successfully.
 Components of a research proposal
1. the title- should be worded in such a way it gives sufficient information
about the nature of the study.
– The title should not be too lengthy. It should be specific to the area of the
study.
– The title should not be too brief. Leadership in Sudan, marketing in Japan.
2. statement of the problem- this elaborates about the problem. It focuses
on a clear goal. More importantly it is targeted towards the following:
– Stating the background facts which justifies the study to be in order.
– Developing hypothesis or key research questions which may show the direction of
the whole exercise.
3. Objectives of the study
4. Review of related literature
5. Significance of the study.
 Components of a research proposal

6. Definition of terms and concepts.

7. Delimitation of the study
8. Limitations of the study
9. Procedures for data collection./
- sampling
- tools
- Methods of data analysis
- Administration of the instruments
10. The time schedule
11. Budget schedule 12. Bibliography.
 Components of a research proposal
• There are certain elements that appear
as very essential to good research,
which need to be reflected in the
preparation of the research proposal.
These include the following.
1. THE TITLE: the title of the research should be
worded in such a way that it gives sufficient
information about the nature of the study.
 Components of a research proposal- contd
In selecting a title for investigation , the
researcher should consider the following.
A. The title should not be too lengthy or too involved. It
should be specific to the area of study.
– For instance the following topics appear o be too long.
– A study of the academic achievement of children in
pastoral regions whose parents have participated in
literacy classes against those whose parents did not.
– Comparison of academic achievements among grade
eight children who have attended pre school
education and those who did not.
 Components of a research proposal- contd
B. The title should not be too brief or too
short. For example the following titles
appear to be too vague to convey the
required meaning.
– Marketing in Japan; Leadership in Sudan
– Unemployment in Ethiopia
– C. The title should not be burdened by pompous
words and should not include in terms of
unscientific, rhetoric, argumentative , emotional,
or biased nature.
 2. Statement of the problem
• Statement of the problem elaborates about
the problem. It attempts to focus on a clear
goal. It is targeted towards the following.
– Stating the background facts, which justify the
study to be in order.
– Developing hypothesis or key research question,
which may show the direction of the whole
exercise.
 3. Objectives of the study and
Research Questions
• State the major and specific objectives.
• Set questions that address each resaerch
objective
 4. Review of Related Literature
• The theoretical and empirical framework from
which the problem arises must be briefly described.
A brief resume of the related studies found in
journals, periodicals, magazines, , reports, etc.
should be made.
• This provides evidence that the researcher is
familiar with what is already known and also what
is unknown and unproved.
• It also avoids the risk of duplication of what has
been done .
 5. Significance of the study
• The researcher must establish the justification for the
need/importance of the research.
• The justification should focus/stress the following
points.
i. A wide time gap b/n the earlier and the present study.
The need for new knowledge, techniques or condition will
necessitate for replicating the study.
ii. Existence of knowledge gaps that were uncovered by
the previous study. Former studies might have
investigated only some aspects of the issue., or treated in
breadth than depth. Therefore the need for the current
study could be to help address those areas that remain
untouched or inadequately treated.
 5. Significance of the study- contd
iii. Lack or shortage of information about a
problem. In some instances information in
the area may be missing or scant. The
present study may therefore be shading
some light on the problem or in filling gaps in
the knowledge pertaining a given area.
– In general in this section the researcher can
classify and explain the policy, academic
and awareness significance of the study.
 6. Definition of terms or concepts
• The technical terms or words and phrases
having special meanings need to be defined
operationally by the help of special
dictionaries.
 7. Delimitation of the study
• Boundaries of the study should be made clear
with reference to:
– A. The scope of the study by specifying the areas
to which the conclusion could be confined, and
– B. The procedural treatment that includes the
sampling procedures, the techniques of data
collection and analysis, the development of
measuring tools and their use in the study
 8. Limitation of the study
• Although a researcher tries his best to
design his research as properly as possible,
there are externals/ uncontrollable variables
that confront his investigation and affect his
conclusion.
• In his proposal the researcher has to specify the
factors that hinder the attainment of his objectives
fully. Such anticipated restrictions are referred as
limitations of the study.
 8. Limitation of the study-contd
• The possible solution of the study include:
– Practical weakness in the methodologies the researcher
adopted.
– Lack of access to the right data.
– Poor choice/development/delivery of instruments. (poor
data collection methods).
– Sampling restrictions.
– Lack of up-to-date literature in the areas
– Usual time born situation in the study site.
• WRITING LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
RECOMMENDED OR NOT???
 9. Procedures for collecting data
• In this section the details about sampling procedure, the
data collecting tools, analysis and administration of
instruments are described.
– A. sampling
– a research proposal should clearly indicate the
population from which the researcher will draw
his/her sample, describe the procedure to be
used to select the sample. (details in other section)
– B. Tools: in order to gather evidences or data for
the study the researcher has to develop
appropriate and reliable instruments.
 9. Procedures for collecting data-contd
• C. method of data analysis: In this section the
researcher describes how to organize,
analyze and interpret data.
• D. Administration of the instruments: in this
section the researcher indicates the
procedures to be followed in collecting data
for the study.
 10. Time schedule
• Prepare a realistic time schedule for
completing the study within the timetable
available.
 11. The budget schedule
• Should include a budget schedule when
submitted to donors, government or non
governmental institutions. This is a financial
breakdown that helps to estimate the cost
of the study.
 12. Bibliography
• In this section list of books, journals,
documents, etc refereed for the study are
recorded following the standard set for
reference writing.
 RESEARCH DESIGN
• Objectives to be achieved
– Explain the meaning of research design
– Understand the major components of research
design
– Know the need for research design
– Understand major characteristics of a good
research design
– Know important concepts such as dependent,
independent and extraneous variables, and
– Identify the different types of research design
 Meaning of Research Design
• A research design is defined as the arrangement of
conditions for collection and analysis of data in a
manner that aims to combine relevance to the
research purpose for the economy in procedure.
• In other words the RD in the conceptual structure
within which research is conducted; it constitutes the
BLUEPRINT for the collection, measurement and
analysis of data.
• Accordingly , the design incorporates a FRAMEWORK
of what the researcher is going to do from writing
the basic questions and their operational implications
to the final analysis of data.
 Need for research design
• Just as we need a BLUEPRINT (the plan of a house) well
thought and prepared by an expert ARCHITECT, so we need
a RESEARCH DESIGN or plan in advance of data collection
and analysis for our research project.
• The need for a thoroughly thought research design
arise due to the following reasons.
• It helps the researcher to organize his ideas in a form
whereby it will be possible for him to look for flaws and
inadequacies.
• It facilitates the smooth running of various research
operations.
 Need for research design
• It makes research as efficient as possible yielding
maximal information with minimal expenditure of
effort, time and money.
• It serves as a framework for the process of reliable
and valid data collection, and data analysis.
• It saves the researcher from offering hasty
generalizations or misleading conclusions; and
• It serves as basis for others to provide their genuine
comments and comprehensive review of the
proposed study.
More specifically the design decisions
happen to be in respect of :
i. What is the study about
ii. Why is the study being made?
iii. Where will the study be carried out?
iv. What type of data are required?
v. Where can the required data be found?
vi. What periods of time will the study include?
VII. What will be the sampling design?
viii. What techniques of data collection will be used?
ix. How will the data be analyzed?
x. In what style will the report be prepared?
 Based on the above viewpoints we can divide or split
the over all research design into the following major
parts
A. The Sampling design: which deals with the method
of selecting items to be observed for the given study
B. The observational design: which deals with the
conditions under which the observations are to be
made.
C. The statistical design: which contains of how many
items are to be observed, and how the information
and data gathered to be analyzed; and
D. The operational design: which deals with the
techniques by which the procedures specified in the
sampling, statistical and observational designs can
be carried out.
 Any research design must, at least
contain the following
• A clear statement of the problem
• The population to be studied.
• Procedures and techniques to be used for
gathering data
• Methods to be used in processing and
analysis data ; and
• Time and cost breakdowns for the whole
project.
 What is a variable?
• A variable is simply an attribute on which
cases vary. Cases can obviously be people,
but they can also include things such as
households, cities, organizations, schools, and
nations. Constant charateriscis are not
variables.
 Important concepts relating to Research Design
1. Dependent and independent variables
• A variable is an indicator or measure of the
construct/idea/hypothesis/theory/paradigm/ of interest. A
variable can be any thing that has more than one value (e.g.
sex, weight, income, religion, exam scores, height, attitude
etc).
• DEPENDENT VARIABLE: a variable that depends upon or is consequence
of other variable.
• INDEPENDENT VARIABLE: a variable that is antecedent/precursor or a
cause influencing the attribute of the dependent variable.
• Some researchers use terms such as casual or
predictor for independent variable , and
Resultant or criterion for Dependent variables.
 Examples on dependent and
independent variables
1. The influence of gender on ESLCE score. Here
Gender is independent variable and ESLCE
Performance is Dependent Variable.
2. The effect of fertilizer application on maize
yield. Fertilizer- independent variable; yield
Dependent variable
3. The effect of land holding certificate on farmers
motivation to manage land. Land holding
certificate is independent variable and
motivation is dependent variable
 Extraneous Intervening variables
• A variable which interferes with the effect of
the relationship between the dependent and
independent variable.
• It is an independent variable that is not related
to the purpose of the study, but may affect the
dependent variable in some way.
• Example: suppose a researcher wants to test the
hypothesis that there is a relationship between
children’s gains in social studies achievement
and their self concept. In this case self concept
is an independent variable and social studies
achievement is a dependent variable.
 Extraneous Intervening variables
• Intelligence may as well affect the social studies
achievement, but since it is not related to the purpose of
the study undertaken by the researcher, it will be termed as
an extraneous variable. Similarly in the study of the effect
of socioeconomic background of a student’s family on
learning, the variables such as IQ, age, school, and other
facilities may act as intervening variables.
• All these effects are technically described as
EXPERIMENTAL ERROR. A study must always be designed
that the effect upon the dependent variable is attributed
to entirely to the dependent variable(s) and not to some
extraneous variable(s).
 Additional issues on variables that need to be well
understood

1. Control: minimize the influence or effect of extraneous variables.

2. Confounded relationship: when the dependent variable is not free from
the influence of extraneous variable.
3. Research hypothesis- this is a predictive statement that relates an
independent variable to a dependent variable. Often a research
hypothesis must contain at least one independent and one dependent
variable.
4. Experimental and non experimental hypothesis testing: Research in
which the independent variable is manipulated is termed ‘Experimental
Hypothesis Testing’’ and research in which an independent variable is
not manipulated it is called non experimental hypothesis testing
 Additional issues on variables that need to be
well understood
• . E.g Studying whether intelligence affects the
reading ability for a group students . For instance ,
suppose a researcher wants to study whether
intelligence affects reading ability for a group of
students and for this purpose he randomly selects
50 students and tests their intelligence and reading
ability by calculating the coefficient of correlation
between the two sets of scores. This is an example
of non-experimental hypothesis research testing
because here the independent variable intelligence
is not manipulated.
Additional issues on variables that need to be well understood
• But now suppose the researcher randomly selects 50
students from a group of students who are able to take a
course in statistics and then divides them into two groups
by randomly assigning 25 to group A the usual study
program, and 25 to group B, the special studies program.
• At the end of the course he administers a test to each
group in order to judge the effectiveness of the training
program on the student’s performance level. This is an
experimental hypothesis testing research because in this
case the independent variable, vis., the training program , is
manipulated.
 Additional issues on variables that need to be well
understood
5. Experimental and control group-
6. Treatments- the different conditions under which
experimental and control groups are put.
• Experimental group- group exposed to special conditions
• Control group- group exposed to usual conditions

7. Experiment- the process of examining the truth of a

statistical hypothesis relating to some research problem.
8. Experimental unit: The predetermined plots or the block,
where different treatments are used are known as
experimental units.
 Types of Research Design
• Three categories
– Research design in the case of explanatory
research studies
– Research design in the case of descriptive and
diagnostic research studies and
– RD in the case of experimental (hypothesis
testing) research studies
 RESERCH DESIGN IN THE CASE OF EXPERIENENTAL
RESERCH STUDIES

• Experimental studies (or hypothesis testing

research studies) are those where the researcher
tests the hypothesis of causal relationships
between variables. Such studies require
procedures that will not only reduce bias and
increase reliability, but also will permit drawing
inferences about causality.
• Basic principles of Experimental Designs
– Three principles
• The principle of Replication
• The principle of randomization
• The principle of local control
 Research Methods/Research techniques
• Research methods: refer to the behavior and
instruments used in selecting and constructing
research technique
• Research Techniques - Refers to the behavior
and instruments we use in performing research
operations such as making observations,
recording data, techniques of processing data
and the like.
• Research methods are more general. It is
research methods that generates research
techniques.
 Research Methods/Research techniques
• Research methods refers to all those methods that are used to
conduct research. Thus research methods are concerned with the
methods that the researcher use in performing research
operations.
• Research methods can be put into the following three groups
– Those methods which are concerned with collection of data.
– Those statistical techniques which are used for establishing
relationships between the data and unknowns
– Those methods which are used to evaluate the accuracy of
results obtained.
 Research Methodology
• Is a way to systematically solve the research
problem. It may be understood as a science
of studying how to develop certain indices or
instruments; how to calculate measures of
central tendency, dispersion or association;
how to apply particular research techniques;
but they also need to know which of these
methods or techniques are relevant and
which are not, and what would they mean
and indicate , and why.
 Research designs
Five different types can be identified
1. Experimental design
2. Cross sectional or social survey design
3. Longitudinal design
4. Case study design
5. Comparative design
 1. Experimental design
• In this approach the researcher manipulates
the independent variables which is difficult in
social science research.
 Cross sectional Design
• CSRD is often called a social survey design, but the idea of
social survey is so closely connected in most people’s minds
with the questionnaires and structured interviewing that
the more generic sounding term cross sectional design.
• A CSD entails the collection of data on more than one case
(usually quite a lot more than one) and at a single point in
time in order to collect a body of quantitative and
qualitative data in connection with two or more variables
(usually more than two), which are then examined to detect
patters of association.
 Elements of the CSD
A. More than one case; interest of researchers in a
CSD are interested in VARIATION. So we need to examine
more than one case.
B. At a single point in time; IN a CSD research, data on the
variables of interest are collected more or less
simultaneously.
C. Quantitative or quantifiable data: helps to establish
variation between cases (and then to examine association
between variables).
D. Patterns of association: with CSD it is only possible to examine relationships
between variables, because the data on them are collected more or less
simultaneously, and the researcher does not (invariably because he or
she cannot) manipulate any of the variables.
 3. Longitudinal Design(s)
• Longitudinal research design represents a
distinct form of research design. Because of
the time and cost involved, it is relatively
little used design used in social research so it
is not proposed to allocate a great deal of
space to it.
 4. case study design
Case study design: detailed and intensive
analysis of a single case. Case study research
is concerned with the complexity and
particular nature of the case in question.
Examples of case study- a single community,
a single school, a single family, a single
organization such as studies of a factory.
 Research design
• A structure that guides the execution of a research method and
analysis of the subsequent data.
• Provides a framework for the collection and data analysis.
A choice of research design reflects about the priority being given
to a range of dimensions of the research process. These include
the importance attached to :
• Expressing causal connections between variables
• Generalizing to large groups of individuals than those actually
forming part of the investigations.
• Understanding behavior and meaning of that behavior in its
specific social context
• Having temporal ( i.e over time) appreciation of social phenomena
and their interconnections.
 What is research method
• A RM is simply a technique for collecting data. It can
involve a specific instrument, such as a self completion
questionnaire or a structured interview schedule, or
participant observation where by the researcher listens to
and watches others.
• Case study can be considered as a research design so some
argue it is a research method as well. However once a case
has been selected a research method or methods are
needed to collect data. Simply selecting an organization
and deciding to study it intensively are not going to
provide data. Do you observe? Do you conduct
interviews? Do you examine documents? Do you
administer questionnaires? We can in fact use any or all
of these research methods.
 Criteria in social research
• Reliability: is concerned the question of
whether the results of a study are repeatable.
• Replication: sometimes researchers choose to
replicate the findings of others. Reasons- a
feeling that the original results do not match
other evidences that is relevant to the domain
in question. If a researcher does not spell out his
or her procedures in great detail, replication is
impossible.
 Criteria in social research
3. Validity: concerned with integrity of the conclusions
that are generated from a piece of research.
• Types of validity
– measurement validity
– Internal validity- concerned with the question of whether
a conclusion that incorporates a causal relationship
between two variables holds water.
– External validity- result of the study can be generalized
beyond the specific research context.
– Ecological validity- the question whether social scientific
findings are applicable to people’s every day natural
settings.
 Qualitative research strategies- contd

• Advantages of ethnography
• Direct observation
• Empirical
• Links with theory- a means for developing or
testing theory
• Detailed data
• Holistic
• Contrast and
 Participant observation- closely related to
ethnography
• Research in which the researcher immerses
himself or herself in a social setting for an
extended period of time, observing behavior,
listening what is said in conversations between
others, and with the field workers, and asking
questions.
• Participant observation usually includes
interviewing key informants and studying
documents and as such is difficult to distinguish
it from ethnography.
 Qualitative research strategies- contd
2. Grounded theory- is a strategy of inquiry in
which the researcher derives a general, abstract
theory of a process, action, or interaction grounded
in the views of participants. The process uses
multiple stages of data collection and the refinement
and interrelationship of categories of information.
Two primary characteristics of this design are the
constant comparison of data with emerging
categories and theoretical sampling of different
groups to maximize the similarities and differences
of information.
Qualitative research strategies- contd

3. Case studies- are a strategy of inquiry in

which the researcher explores in depth a
programme, event, activity, process or one or
more individuals. Cases are bounded by time
and activity, and researchers collect detailed
information using a variety of data collection
procedures over a sustained period of time.
 Qualitative research strategies- contd

• 4. Phenomenological research- is a strategy of inquiry in

which the researcher identifies he essence of human
experiences about a phenomenon as described by
participants. Understanding the lived experiences marks
phenomenology as a philosophy as well as a method, and the
procedure involves studying a small number of subjects
through extensive and prolonged engagement to develop
patterns and relationships of meaning.
• In this process the researcher brackets or sets aide his or
her experiences in order to understand those of the
participants in the study.
Qualitative research strategies- contd
5. Narrative research: - is a strategy of inquiry
in which a researcher studies the lives of
individuals and asks one or more individuals
to provide stories about their lives. This
information is then retold or restoried by
the researcher into a narrative chronology.
 Qualitative Data
• Words and visual images
• The principles of qualitative data anlaysis
• The process of qualitative data analysis
• Preparing qualitative data for analysis
• Familiarity with the data
• Interpreting the data: codes, categories and
concepts, Key decisions in the analysis of
qualitative data,
 Qualitative data: Words and visual Images

• Qualitative data take the form of words

(spoken or written) and visual images
(observed or creatively produced).
• They are associated primarily with strategies
with research methods such as ethnography,
phenomenology, grounded theory, and with
research methods such as interviews,
documents, and observation, open ended
questionnaires, .
 Sources of qualitative data
Words and Visual Image…………………………………………Research method
A. interview talks and narratives
(for life histories)………………………………………………………..… Interviews
B. Diaries, minutes of meetings, scripts
(e.g. for political speeches or media
programmes)………………………………………………………..…….Documents
C. Interactions b/n people (including
naturally ocuring actions, responses, languages
Events 9 e.g. ceremonies, rituals, performances)
Picturees (e.g. Photographs, artwork, video
recording…………………………………………………………………….Observation
D. Answers to open ended questions…………….…………Questionnaires
 The principles of Qualitative data analysis
• The analysis of qualitative data is based upon the four principles.
• First: the analysis of the data and the conclusions drawn from the
research should be firmly rooted in the data (or i.e. Grounding all
analysis and conclusions directly in the evidence that has been
collected).
• Second: the researchers explanation of the data should emerge from a
careful and meticulous reading of the data.
 The principles of Qualitative data analysis
• Third: the researcher should avoid introducing
unwanted preconception into the data analysis i.e
personal prejudice. Or biases arising from
knowledge of previous theories and research in
the particular area of investigation
• Fourth: the analysis of data should involve an
iterative process. The development of theory,
hypothesis or generalization should be based on a
process that constantly moves back and forth
comparing the empirical data with the codes,
categories and concepts that are being used.
 The process of qualitative data
analysis
• Five stages involved in the analysis of
qualitative data. In logical order these are:
– Preparation of the data
– Familiarity with the data
– Interpreting the data (developing codes,
categories, and concepts)
– Verifying the data
– Representing the data
 Preparing qualitative data for analysis

• QD can come in a variety of format:

– fieldwork notes, interview, transcripts, texts,
photographs, etc. . So there is a need for
organizing the data. Keep back up copies of all
original material.
 Familiarity with the data
• Reading and re-reading text data or looking
and re-looking at image data. Make cross
reference the data from different sources.
Carefully understand the data/dig meanings.
This enables the researcher to identify
appropriate codes for each case.
Interpreting the data, categories and concepts

• Code the data- codes are tags, or labels that

are attached to the raw data.
• Categorize these codes.
• Identify themes and relationships among the
codes and categories
• Develop concepts and arrive at some
generalized statements.
 Verifying the data
• Validity- accuracy and precision of the data.
• Reliability- the research instrument is neutral in
its effect and consistent across multiple
occasions of its use.
• Generalizability or transferability- external
validity
• External validity- Prospect of applying the
findings from the research to other examples of
the phenomenon.
• Objectivity- absence of bias
 Representing the data
• Concerned with proper documentation of the
data during the whole process from raw data
to conclusions.
The main research methods associated
with qualitative research
• Ethnography or participant observation
• Qualitative interviewing
• Focus groups
• Language based approaches to the
collection of qulaitative data such as
discourse and conversation analysis
• The collection and qualitative analysis of texts
and documents.
 The main steps in qualitative research
Step 1. General research questions. E.g. Crime in
communities, land disputes
Step 2. Selecting relevant sites and subjects
Step 3. Collection of relevant data
Step 4. Interpretation of data
Step 5. Conceptual and theoretical work
Step 5a. lighter specification of the research
questions
Step 5b. Collection of further data.
Step 6. Writing up findings/conclusions
 Triangulation
• The use of more than one method or source of
data in the study of a social phenomenon so
that finding may be cross checked.
• Triangulation- involves seeing things from more
than one perspective. This can mean the use of
different methods, different sources of data or
even different researchers within the study. The
researcher can get a better understanding of
the things that is being investigated if he views it
from different positions.
 Content analysis
• Imagine that you are interested in the amount and nature
of the interest shown by mass media such as news papers,
in a major news item such as AIDS. You might ask
– When did the news item on the this topic begin to appear.
– Which news papers were fastest in generating an interest in the
topic
– At what point did media interest begin to wane/diminish? Have
journals is’ stances changed, for example, in terms of pro- versus
anti-science or pro – versus anti government.
– If you want to know the answer for research questions such as
these, you are likely to need to see content analysis to answer
them.
 Content analysis- definition
• CA is a research technique for the objective, systematic, and
qualitative description of the manifest/obvious/apparent content of
communication.
• CA is any technique for making inferences by objectively and
systematically identifying specified characteristics of messages.
• Objectivity/no bias and systematic/consistence approach are important
attributes of content analysis.
• Manifest content- means that content analysis is concerned with
uncovering the apparent content of the item in question: what it is
clearly about.
• Uncovering such latent/apparent content means interpreting
meanings that lie beneath the surface.
 Content analysis-contd
• Content analysis is a method which helps the researcher to
analyze the content of documents. Basically it deals with
any text whether it is in the form of writing, sounds or
picture, as a way of quantifying the contents of that text.
Political scientists might use it to study the transcripts of
speeches, educationists to study the content of children’s
books, and historians to study statesmen’s correspondence.
• Content analysis has the potential to disclose many hidden
aspects of what is being communicated through the written
text.
Specifying the research questions for content Analysis
• Specify research questions precisely as this
will guide the selection of the media/text to
be content analyzed and the coding
schedule.
• Selecting sample
• Sampling media- crime, drink driving social
science research
• Coding
 Coding in content analysis
• E.g a student chooses to focus on the reporting of
crime subject to court proceedings. To simplify the
issue the researcher has to identify the major
variables as follows
– Nature of the offence- burglary, physical attack
– Gender of perpetrator
– Social class of perpetrator
– Age of perpetrator
– Gender of victim
– Social class of victim depiction of victim
– You can carry out a content analysis on rural land
dispute.
 MIXED RESERCH/MIXING QUANTITATIVE AND
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS

• What is mixed methods approach

• When is it appropriate to use mixed methods
• Types of mixed method designs
• Mixed model research designs
 Mixed methods contined
• MM strategy is one that uses both qualitative
and quantitative methods.
Three features of Mixed Method
– Use of qualitative and quantitative approaches
within a single research project.
– Explicit focus on the link between approaches- i.e
triangulation
– Emphasis is on practical approaches to research
problems –pragmatist. i.e problem driven
 When is it appropriate to use a mixed method
approach?

• Social researchers use the mixed approach for one

or more of the following reasons.
A. Improved accuracy: researchers can improve their
confidence in the accuracy of findings through the use of
different methods to investigate the same project. In line
with the principles of triangulation the mixed method
approach provides the researcher with the opportunity
to check the findings from one method against the
findings from a different method.
 When is it appropriate to use a mixed method
approach?

• Mixed method is a means for developing research

instruments. For example researchers who are
designing a questionnaire for use in a survey can
employ qualitative data through focus group
discussions and interview to improve the validity
of subsequent survey questionnaire that produces
quantitative data.
 When is it appropriate to use a mixed method
approach? Contd

B. A more complete picture- mixed method enhances the

findings of research by providing a fuller and more complete picture of
the thing that is being studied. Data produced can be complementary.
C. Compensating strengths and weakness: recognizing that
different methods have their respective strengths and weaknesses, one
of the valuable uses of mixing methods is to offset any inherent
weakness or bias in a particular method by combining it with different
one that can compensate for weakness or bias. E.g use of semi-structured
interview supplemented by a closed answered questionnaire.
• NB. To qualify as a mixed methods strategy the research needs to have
a clear and explicit rationale for using the contrasting methods.
 When is it appropriate to use a mixed method
approach? Contd

• In general a mixed method helps to carry out

a more comprehensive account of the thing
being researched; creates closer links
between different methods and the kinds of
data. Enhances good use of triangulation and
also a practical , problem driven approach to
research.
 Disadvantage of Mixed Research
• The time and cost of the research project can
increase.
• The researcher needs to develop skills with
more than one method the findings from
different methods might not corroborate.
CHAPTER XI. WRITING RESEARCH
PAPERS
 1 Introduction

Objectives of the chapter are to enable

students:
• Clearly identify the different components of a
research report
• Carry out persuasive writing
• Appreciate the value of getting feedback from
supervisor and others
11.2 Identifying the purpose of writing and to be persuasive

• Field Report, Thesis/Dissertation,

Conference paper, Seminar paper,
Journal article, Proceeding article
• Be persuasive:
– This point is crucial.
– Writing up your research is not simply a
matter of reporting your findings and
drawing some conclusion.
 Objectives of the chapter are to
enable students:
– It contains many features such as referring to the
literature on which you drew, explaining how
you did your research, and outlining how you
conducted your analysis. But above all you must
be persuasive.
• Simply saying this is what I have found is not
enough.
Structuring the write up
Typical structure of a thesis
1. The title page : you should examine your
institution’s rules about what should be
entered here
• Title of the study
• Name of the institution to which the report will be
submitted
• Name of candidate
• Degree for which the report will be submitted
• Date of Publication of the report
• 2. declaration- that the research out put is your own work
• 3. dedication – if you want to remember some one
 10. The main text
The main research contains:
1. Introduction-
2. Review literature
3. Research design and methodology
4. Presentation and analysis of the data (results and
discussions).
5. Conclusion and recommendations
 1. Introduction
• You should explain what you are writing about and why it is important.
• The major subdivisions of this part are generally the ones shown in your
proposal; statement of the problem, delimitation of the study,
significance of the study, limitations of the study, definition of terms and
organization of the study.
• The research questions and objectives.
• Delimitation of the study: Boundaries /scope of the study should be
made clear with reference to:
– A. the scope of the study by specifying the areas to which the conclusions will
be confined, and
– The procedural treatment including the sampling procedures, the techniques
of data collection and analysis, the development of measuring tools and their
use in the study
 Structuring the write up
4. Acknowledgements- recognize those who helped in the process of your
research
5. Abstract: is a synopsis of a piece of research. Its purpose is to provide a
brief summary which can be circulated widely to allow other people to
see, at a glance . An abstract is normally about 250-300 words in length,
and is presented on a separate sheet.
Under the abstract key words that capture what the report is all about
have to be included – up to five words
6. Table of contents: topics with their corresponding page numbers. After
references indicate appendices
7. List of tables in a separate page
8. List of Figures on a separate page
9. LIST OF ACRONYMS/ABBREVIATION
10. The main text.
 1. Introduction- contd
• Limitations of the study: although a researcher tries
to his best to design his research as properly as
possible, there are externalities (uncontrollable)
variables that confront his investigation and affect
the conclusion. In his research proposal the
researcher has to specify such mitigating factors
that hinder the y in the proposal stage. attainment of
his objectives fully. Such anticipated restrictions are
referred as limitations of the study.
 1. Introduction- contd
• The possible sources of the limitations of the
study include:
– Practical weaknesses in the methodologies the researcher
adapted.
– Lack of access to the right data
– Poor choice/development/delivery of instruments
– Sampling restrictions
– Lack of up-to-date literature in the area
– Unusual time borne situation in the study site.
– It is not advisable to include limitation of the stud
 Introduction- continued
• Significance of the study-When preparing the research proposal , the
researcher has to incorporate the justification for the need of the
research. He/she should justify the importance and urgency of the study,
as to how the results of the study will be useful to the beneficiaries. The
following are some of the points in which the justification stresses.
– A. A wide time gap between the earlier study and the present one. The need
for new knowledge, techniques or conditions will necessitates for replicating
the study.
 Introduction- continued
– Existence of knowledge gaps that were uncovered by the previous
studies. Former studies might have investigated only some aspects
of the issue, or was treated in breadth than depth. Therefore the
need for the current study could be to help address areas that
remain untouched or inadequately treated.
– Lack or shortage of information about a problem. Information may
be scant or missing. Therefore the present useful in shading new
light on the problem or in filling the gap in the knowledge
pertaining to the given area.
– In general , in this section the researcher can classify and explain the
policy, academic and awareness significance of his study
 2. Literature review
• This chapter will review the main ideas and research relating
to your area of interest.
• You need to be critical in your approach of literature review.
• You should use your literature review as a means of showing
why your research questions are important. For example if
one of your arguments in arriving at your research
questions is that, although a lot of research has been done
on X , little or no research has been done on X1, an aspect of
X, the literature review is the point where you can justify
this assertion.
• Remember that that you will use the literature in the result,
discussion and conclusion part.
• Continue reading the literature
 Research design and Research
Methodology
• This part includes the detailed description of the manner in
which decisions have been made about the type of data
needed for the study, the tools and approaches used for their
collection and the methods by which they have been
collected. Definition of the population, the size of the sample
and the rationale for the sample size, number of subjects
involved , statistical tools used and the rationale for using
them will be dealt in this unit.
• Research methods is meant here as a kind of catch it all for
several issues that need to be outlined: Your research design,
your sampling approach, the nature of questionnaires, how
the data was collected, interview schedule, etc and justify
why you used all these
 Results and discussions/ Presentation
and analysis
• In this section the data is presented in Tables and
figures followed by textual discussions.
• Tables that are too lengthy may better placed in the
appendix.
• Tables and figures should be explained. As
tables/figures are self explanatory the textual
discussion should not be duplicate of the table or
figure. Only important facts that lead to
generalization will be discussed.
• Do not include all your results
• You should present and discuss only those findings
that relate to your research questions.
 Discussion
• In the discussion you reflect on the
implication of your findings for the research
questions that have driven your research. In
other words how do your results illuminate
your research questions? If you have stated a
hypothesis revolve around whether the
hypothesis have been confirmed or not.
 Summary, Conclusion and
recommendation
• This part begins with a brief res-statement of the problem, the
hypothesis, description of the problem and discussion of findings and
conclusion of the study. Most readers scan this section in order to get an
overview of the study and judge its relevance. It should be written with
maximum diligence, clarity and brevity.

• A conclusion is not the same as summary.

• The conclusion must focus attention to:
– Announce the retention or rejection of the hypothesis
– Imply unanswered questions that were raised in due course of the study and which required
further investigation in the area
 Summary, Conclusion and recommendation

• The brief summary should be a means of hammering home

to your readers the significance of what you have done.
• Issues to focus on are
– You should make clear the implications of your findings for your
research questions.
– you might also suggest some ways in which your
findings have implications for theories relating to your
area of interest.
– It is often valuable to propose areas of further research
that are suggested by your findings as recommendation.
 Recommendation
• As a result of the outcomes of your study, you may
forward possible solution that may alleviate the
problem. Your recommendations, to be accepted,
should meet the following requirements
– Should be clear and unambigious
– Need to be realistic, plausible and operational
– Should point out the responsible body(part) to translate
the suggested solutions into practice.
– Should be modest/ordinary than assertive (self
confident/assured)
 Referencing
• There are seven key components of the Harvard system.
• Authors name, date of publication, title, journal name, publisher, place
of publication, edition.
• BOOK CITATION: Denzin. N.K. (1989). The Research Act, 3rd edtn.
Englewood,
• A chapter in a book Citation : Denzin, N.K.(1999) Cybertalk and the
method of instances, in S. Jones (ed.) Doing Internet Research: Critical
Issues and Methods for Examining the Net. Thousand Oaks, CA: sage.
PP. 88-99.
• Journal article citation: Flick, U. (2002) Qualitative research: state of the
art, Social Science Information, 41(1):5-24
• Baker, G. (2007) The meaning of postmodernism for research
methodology, British Journal of Health Research, 25:249-66.
 Appendices
• All important but not essential materials to be included in the
main body are presented in the main body are presented in
the appendix. These may include:
• Questionnaire, covering letters used, Evaluation sheet,
Checklist of questions for Key informant Interview, focus
group discussions, documents, , Raw data, Long tables and
figures.
• ======================/////===============