RESEARCH METHODS

Lecture One
Introduction to Research Methods
By Dr. Feseha S.
 Basic concept of research
• Research is an organized and systematic way to find answers to questions and
testing hypothesis.
• Or it is the systematic and objective analysis and recording of controlled
observations that may lead to development of generalizations, principles or
theories, resulting in prediction and possible control of events
• Research is a creative process
• Research is the systematic approach to obtaining and confirming new and
reliable knowledge”
• Purpose is new knowledge, which must be reliable
Cont.…
• Scientific research my defined as a systematic, controlled, empirical, and critical
investigation of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among
observed phenomena.

• Research is not

• Searching out published research results in libraries (or the internet)

• This is an important early step of research

• The research process always includes synthesis and analysis

• But, just reviewing of literature is not research

Research is …
• Searching for explanation of events, phenomena, relationships and causes

What, how and why things occur

Are there interactions?

• A process

Planned and managed – to make the information generated credible

The process is creative

• It is circular – always leads to more questions

• All well designed and conducted research has potential application

Reasoning in research
Deductive Reasoning

• Thinking proceeds from general assumption to specific application

• GENERAL to SPECIFIC

Inductive Reasoning

• Conclusions about events (general) are based on information generated

through many individual and direct observations (specific).

• SPECIFIC to GENERAL
 Inductive Reasoning
• Researchers observe an individual or group of individuals from a larger
population__ based on these observations, generalizations are made back to the
larger population

Two kinds of induction:

• –Perfect: Conclusions based on observations made from ALL members of a

group or population

• – Imperfect: Conclusions based on observations made from a random sample

of members of a population
 Deductive vs. Inductive Reasoning
Deductive:

• – Every mammal has lungs. All rabbits are mammals. Therefore, every rabbit has lungs.

Inductive:

• – Every rabbit that has been observed has lungs. Therefore, every rabbit has lungs.

• Sometimes we acquire knowledge through the use of logic.

• Here is an example of a logical deduction:

• All birds have feathers. This animal has feathers. Therefore, this animal is a bird.

• (Almost) all birds can fly. This animal can fly. Therefore, this animal is a bird.
Deductive vs. Inductive Reasoning
• Many times, as in the case above, logic leads us to the truth. However,
sometimes using logic alone leads us to incorrect conclusions.

• Consider the example below:

• (Almost) all birds can fly.

• This animal can fly.

• Therefore, this animal is a bird.

Deduction and Induction
Logical Steps of Scientific Method
• Systematic; cyclic; series of logical steps.

Identifying the problem

 Formulating a hypothesis

 Developing the research plan

 Collecting and analyzing the data

 Interpreting results and forming conclusions

Logical Steps of Scientific Method
Theory vs. Hypothesis
Hypothesis
• A belief or prediction of the final outcome of the research
• A concrete, specific statement about the relationships between phenomena
• Based on deductive reasoning
Theory
• A belief or assumption about how things relate to each other
• A theory establishes a cause-and-effect relationship between variables with a purpose
of explaining and predicting phenomena
• Based on inductive reasoning
Research Classifications
System #1:
• Basic research
• Applied research
System #2:
• Quantitative research
• Qualitative research
System #3:
• Experimental research
• Non experimental research
 Research Classifications
• Research Classifications
1. Application of research study
• pure research and
• -applied research
2. Objectives in undertaking the research
• descriptive
• correlational
• explanatory
• exploratory
3. Inquiry mode employed
• Structured approach
• Unstructured approach
Application of research study
• From the point of view of application, there are two broad categories of research: Pure &
Applied Research.

• Pure/ Basic research:

• Involves developing and testing theories and hypotheses that are intellectually challenging to
the researcher but may or may not have practical application at the present time or in the
future.

Basic – to determine or establish fundamental facts and relationships within a discipline or

field of study. Develop theories …

• The knowledge produced through pure research is sought in order to add to the existing body
of research methods.
Types of research
Applied research

• Applied Research is done to solve specific, practical questions; for policy

formulation, administration and understanding of a phenomenon.

• It can be exploratory, but is usually descriptive.

• It is almost always done on the basis of basic research

• (Applied – undertaken specifically for the purpose of obtaining information to

help resolve a particular problem
Basic vs Applied
Research topics
• Criteria for a good research topic

• A good research topic should be feasible (can be done), interesting, novel,

ethical and relevant (has an implication).

• These criteria have been collectively called the

• F.I.N.E.R
Research topics
• Feasibility
• The following are examples of factors to be considered, depending on the category of
research.
• It should be possible to recruit the number of subjects required to provide the answer
to the research question within the timeframe of the planned research.
• The research facility available to the investigators should have the equipment, supplies
and other requirements to undertake the research.
• The investigators must have the required expertise.
• The cost of doing the research must be affordable and the financial resources
available.
Research topics
• Interest

• The research topic must be of interest to the investigators and to the scientific
community. If the investigators are not excited about the topic, or cannot get
colleagues interested in it, the project is probably not worth doing.

• Novelty

• It is essential that the investigator is familiar with the upto-date literature on the
planned topic for the research.

• The research must be expected to contribute new information.

 Research topics
• Novel does not necessarily mean that the research has not been done before.
The prefix “re” in the word research implies searching again.

• Most good studies are neither original nor simple duplication of other studies.

• The progress of science is incremental, with knowledge gradually building up

from different studies.

• The question should not be about whether the study has been done before, but
whether it will add to the existing body of knowledge.
Research topics
• Ethics

• Ethical issues must be addressed at the early stage of selecting the research topic.

• Other ethical issues will need to be addressed in planning the research.

• Some ethical problems may indicate that the research should not be considered from
the beginning.

• If the research topic involves experimentation on human subjects, the following issues
should be considered.

• If the topic is about testing a new therapy or procedure, evidence should already be
available to suggest that it can be superior to currently available alternatives.
Research topics
• Adequate data must be available from animal studies and from studies on a small
number of human subjects to confirm safety and to suggest effectiveness, before
subjecting patients to a new drug or procedure
• It is unjustifiable to do clinical trials on therapies that are unlikely to become
available to people in the country or community.
• The research should not conflict with the society’s cultural, moral, religious and
legal values.
Relevance
• This criterion can be called: the “so-what?” test.
• For the research to be considered relevant, it must have the potential to advance
scientific knowledge, influence clinical management, influence health policy, or
guide further research
 Research Questions
• Before you begin writing a research proposal, take some time to map out your research
strategy.
• A necessary first step is to formulate a research question.
• A Research Question is a statement that identifies the phenomenon to be studied.
• Something you want to know about your discipline, or about a specific area within your
discipline.
• Not a topic, fragment, phrase, or sentence. It ends with a question mark!
• Clear and precisely stated. It is not too broad, nor is it too narrow.
• Open-ended, as opposed to closed.
• It cannot be answered in a sentence or phrase.
Research Questions
• A valid and clear research question is:

• well justified;

• original;

• feasible;

• focused;

• In order to come up with an original research question you need to know (very well) the
literature in the area first!

• Find out what has been done and how you can contribute to the existing academic debate.
Identifying a research question flow - chart
Personal Knowledge and the Research Question (Strategy #1)
• List your interests as they pertain to your specific discipline or assignment.

• Consider one of the items on your list. Jot down everything you know about the topic as
quickly as you can (list or paragraph form is fine).

• Now find the answers to the following questions in your free write, or add the answers to
your free write: “Who? What? When ? Where? Why? How? So what?” and “What if…?”

• These represent possible “gaps” in your knowledge; the last four are particularly tough
because they are open-ended – they often lead to good research questions .

• Continue steps 2 and 3 with each item on your initial list until you have found an open-ended
question you would like to answer.
Secondary Sources and the Research Question (Strategy #2)
• READ

• Often times, we don’t know what we are curious about until we read about
subjects that interest us first. Go to the library, and also search online academic
and professional sites related to your discipline and topic.

• After you have read, try doing strategy #1 again!

Modes of Thought and the Research Question (Strategy #3)
• Consider the Rhetorical Modes which we all use to organize our ideas in speaking
or writing.

• Comparison & Contrast

• Process

• Classification or Division

• Cause & Effect

• Problem & Solution

• Consider “Why? How? So what?” and “What if…?” for each of these modes.
Focusing and Supporting Research Questions
• Focusing Question -- The most important question you discovered from the three prior
activities.

• Supporting Questions -- Questions that will help you explore the relationships around the
focusing question in greater depth.

• Example

• Focusing Question: How can the university community increase its economic impact on the
Florence-Muscle Shoals community?

• Supporting Questions: How does the university currently impact the community
economically? What could be done that isn’t being done, and why? What are the
limitations?
Remember as you G(r)o(w)…
• Make your question one that somebody else will want an answer to as well. They will
be your AUDIENCE.

• Your PURPOSE is your reason for asking your question. The answer to your research
question will be a complete statement expressed as a sentence – your THESIS.

• If you used a Rhetorical Mode to formulate your question, you should use that mode to
ORGANIZE THE PARAGRAPHS of your paper (though you may certainly use other
modes as you DEVELOP your ideas!)

• Most importantly, do not get discouraged or worried if you find your thesis or your
beliefs changing – this is a natural part of the researching and writing processes!
The Process of Research
• The process is initiated with a question or problem (step 1)

• Next, goals and objectives are formulated to deal with the question or problem
(step 2)

• Then the research design is developed to achieve the objectives (step 3)

• Results are generated by conducting the research (step 4)

• Interpretation and analysis of results follow (step 5)

The Process of Research