QUANTITATIVE METHOD
PRELIMS REVIEWER
Research In Our Everyday Lives
• what we understand is the question or
problem to be answered
• how the findings are presented
• why the research was conducted
• what we know about who conducted
the research
• what other people think about the
information
• how the research findings relate to us
RESEARCH AS A PROCESS
– is given the impression of linearity, yet
research investigation is often an
iterative process whereby the process of
conducting the research will give rise to
new ideas which, in turn, feed back into
the data collection and analysis stage.
SUMMARY OF THE RESEARCH
PROCESS
• Identify and formulate the research
topic or problem – Select, narrow and
formulate the topic or problem to be
studied and conduct preliminary
literature search.
• Literature search and review – Read
around the subject to help clarify your
research topic, questions, and methods.
• Research objectives, questions, and
hypotheses – Define clear questions
and/or hypotheses.
• Research approach, design, and
strategy – Select a research approach
and design that will make it possible to
answer research questions and plan the
overall research strategy.
Identify the data you want to record and
from whom/where you are going to
collect it (sampling).
• Data collection
• Data analysis – The data collected
are prepared in such a way that they
describe and highlight what was found
in the research.
Analytical tools are used to describe the
data and measure or explore
relationships between the subjects or
items of interest.
• Generalization and write-up – The
researcher relates the evidence
collected to the research question(s),
draws
conclusions about the question(s) or Choices in research planning must also
hypotheses, and acknowledges take into account the following:
limitations of the research.
• the types of information outputs
Planning your research involves the required – who needs the information
consideration of four overlapping and for what purposes
themes:
• research resources – time, funds,
• Conceptual Approach – the facilities, staff, and access
philosophical underpinnings of research
• ethical considerations – for example,
• Research design – how data within the research plan is it possible to
collection is organized obtain informed consent from all
participants, does the plan involve any
• Data collection techniques – how risks to the safety of the researcher, can
data are collected the researchers assure the
• Sampling – from whom data are confidentiality of all information given?
collected CLARIFYING TERMINOLOGY

• ‘Research topic’ often used

These aspects of research planning can interchangeably or to mean the same
be represented as forming different thing as others’ use of the terms
layers of a research ‘onion’. ‘research problem’ and ‘research
situation’.

• ‘Research strategy’ often used

interchangeably or to mean the same
thing as others’ use of the term
‘research approach’.

• ‘Method’ can refer to a broad strategy

of data collection or a specific tool for
collecting data.

RESEARCH PROCESS
TERMINOLOGY, MODULE
DEFINITIONS

• Plan – General plan of how research

questions will be answered, this
includes the approach and design.
• Research approach – is the
theoretical or conceptual basis for the
research. For example: positivist,
interpretivist, realist etc.
• Research design – How data
collection is organized in order to
answer the research question.
Basic design types are:
(1) Situation, ‘snap-shot’ or Baseline
(sometimes called case-study)
(2) Cross-sectional comparison
(3) Longitudinal
(4) Longitudinal comparison
(5) Experiment.
• Research strategy – refers to a
methodological practice or tradition: For
example: experiment, survey research,
or case studies.
• Data collection techniques – How
data are collected: questionnaire;
interview; observation; documentary
analysis.
WHAT MAKES RESEARCH
SCIENTIFIC?
Scientific method is one means by
which knowledge is created; however, it
is not the only way we know or
understand our world.
Three other modes of knowing in human
societies can be identified (Frankfort-
Nachmias and Nachmias 1996).
• Authoritarian – individuals serve as
sources of knowledge by virtue of their
social or political position.
• Mystical – knowledge is sought from
the supernatural world.
• Rationalistic – within the school of
rationalism knowledge can be derived
from the rules of logic and without
reference to the empirical world.
Scientific knowledge about the world is
based upon empirical observation.
• Observation – is used to develop
theory to help us to describe,
understand, and predict how our world
works.
• Methodology – The procedures by
which observations are gathered,
evaluated, and used to produce new
knowledge
• Research methodologies – are the
rules and procedures by which
knowledge is generated and shared.
EVALUATE SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
(Bryman 2008)
• Reliability - Is the research study
repeatable? – that is: are the measures
used reliable and consistent. If I go back
and repeat the measurements in the
same conditions will I get the same
results?
• Replication - This refers to the idea
that the procedures (methodology)
employed in the study
• Validity – concerns the integrity of
conclusions that are generated through
a research study.
“To achieve confidence in the results of
a study demands ‘disciplined inquiry’
such that the data, arguments, and
reasoning are able to withstand
examination by other members of the
scientific community” (Punch 1998).
RESEARCH
– is composed of two syllables, re and
search. Re means again, anew or over
again. Search means to examine
closely and carefully, to test and try,
or to probe. Together they form a noun
describing a careful, systematic, patient
study and investigation in some field of
knowledge, undertaken to establish
facts or principles.
– Research is a structured enquiry that
utilizes acceptable scientific
methodology to solve problems and
create new knowledge that is generally
applicable.
• Rajasekar et. al. (2006) – research is
a logical and systematic search for new
and useful information on a particular
topic.
When you say that you are undertaking
a research study to find answers to a
question, you are implying that the
process:
1. is being undertaken within a
framework of a set of philosophies (
research approaches);
2. uses procedures, methods and
techniques that have been tested for
their validity and reliability;
3. is designed to be unbiased and
objective.
• Philosophies – mean approaches e.g.
qualitative, quantitative and the
academic discipline in which you have
been trained.
•Validity – means that correct
procedures have been applied to find
answers to a question.
• Reliability – refers to the quality of a
measurement procedure that provides
repeatability and accuracy.
• Unbiased and objective – means that
you have taken each step in an
unbiased manner
• Bias – is a deliberate attempt to either
conceal or highlight something
 CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH
• Controlled - implies that, in exploring
causality in relation to two variables
(factors), you set up your study in a way
that minimizes the effects of other
factors affecting the relationship.
• Rigorous - you must be scrupulous in
ensuring that the procedures followed to
find answers to questions are relevant,
appropriate and justified.
• Systematic - implies that the
procedure adopted to undertake an
investigation follow a certain logical
sequence.
• Valid and verifiable - implies that
whatever you conclude on the basis of
your findings is correct and can be
verified by you and others.
• Empirical - means that any
conclusions drawn are based upon hard
evidence gathered from information
collected from real life experiences or
observations.
• Critical - critical scrutiny of the
procedures used and the methods
employed is crucial to a research
enquiry. The process of investigation
must be foolproof and free from
drawbacks.
TYPES OF RESEARCH
1. Application of research study
2.Objectives in undertaking the research
3. Inquiry mode employed
RESEARCH APPLICATION
Two categories of Research:
• Pure Research – involves developing
and testing theories and hypotheses
that are intellectually challenging to the
researcher. The knowledge produced
through pure research is sought in
order to add to the existing body of
research methods.
• Applied research – is done to solve
specific, practical questions; for policy
formulation, administration and
understanding of a phenomenon. It can
be exploratory, but is usually
descriptive. Applied research can be
carried out by academic or industrial
institutions.
RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
• Descriptive Research – to describe
systematically a situation, problem,
phenomenon, service or programme, or
provides information about , say, living
condition of a community, or describes
attitudes towards an issue.
• Correlational Research – to discover
or establish the existence of a
relationship/ interdependence between
two or more aspects of a situation.
• Explanatory Research – to clarify
why and how there is a relationship
between two or more aspects of a
situation or phenomenon.
• Exploratory Research – to explore an
area where little is known or to
investigate the possibilities of
undertaking a particular research study
(feasibility study/pilot study).
RESEARCH INQUIRY MODE
• Structured approach – The
structured approach to inquiry is
classified as quantitative research. It is
more appropriate to determine the
extent of a problem, issue or
phenomenon by quantifying the
variation.
– Concerned with actual life research
such as research on increasing
efficiency of a machine, increasing gain
factor of production of a material,
pollution control, preparing vaccination
for a disease, etc.
OTHER TYPES OF RESEARCH
• Action Research – fact findings to
improve the quality of action in the
social world

• Unstructured approach – is classified • Explanatory Research – searching

as qualitative research. This approach
allows flexibility in all aspects of the
research process. It is more appropriate
to explore the nature of a problem, issue
or phenomenon without quantifying it.
– to describe the variation in a
phenomenon, situation or attitude
Rajsekar, ET. al. (2006) proposes Two
Type Of Research:
explanations for events and
phenomena, for example finding answer
to the question why are the things like
what they are?
• Exploratory Research – getting more
information on a topic
• Comparative Research – obtaining
similarities and differences between
events, methods, techniques, etc.

• Basic research (theoretical QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE

research) – is an investigation on basic RESEARCH
principles and reasons for occurrence of
a particular event or process or Quantitative Qualitative
phenomenon. Study or investigations of is based on the concerned with
some natural phenomenon or relating to measurement of qualitative
quantity or phenomenon
pure science.
amount. involving quality.
(** Fundamental Research – Research expressed or It is non-numerical,
described in terms descriptive, applies
on improving a theory or a method **)
of one or more reasoning and
• Applied Research – one solves quantities. uses words.
aims to get the
certain problems employing well known
meaning,
and accepted theories and principles. A feeling and
research, the outcome of which has describe the
immediate application is also termed as situation.
applied research.