Research Method (MSW)

January, 2012

Qualitative Research

Ashenafi Hagos School of Social Work at

AAU
 Qualitative Research
The discussion will mainly focuses on:
• I. Types of Qualitative Research Designs or
Research Strategies
• II. Methods of Data Collection
 Qualitative Research methods
• Research method: ”strategy of enquiry which
moves from the underlying philosophical
assumptions to research design and data
collection” such as:
• Case study
• Ethnography
• Grounded theory
• Action research

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 Types of Qualitative Research Designs

• The case study

• Grounded theory
• Phenomenology
• Ethnography
• Historical Research
• Action research
 Methods of Data Collection

 Methods/ techniques of data Collection

interviewing
observing
artifacts, documents, and records
visual methods/ Video
focus groups
Participant observation (field notes)
 Text and Image analysis (documents, media data)
Qualitative Research Strategies

• I. Case Study
 The Case Study
– “… a case study is an exploration of a ‘bounded system’ …
over time through detailed, in-depth data collection involving
multiple sources of information rich in context. This bounded
system is bounded by time and place, and it is the case being
studied – a program, an event, an activity, or individuals”
• Case study methods involve systematically gathering
enough information about a particular person, social
setting, event, or group to permit the researcher to
effectively understand how it operates or functions.
• The case study is not actually a data-gathering
technique, but a methodological approach that
incorporates a number of data-gathering measures
 Case Study
• Case studies may focus on an individual, a group, or an entire
community and may utilize a number of data technologies
such as life histories, documents, oral histories, in-depth
interviews, and participant observation
• Extremely rich, detailed, and in-depth information
characterize the type of information gathered in a case study
• In contrast, the often extensive large-scale survey research
data may seem somewhat superficial in nature
• Focus on what can be learned from the individual case
• A ‘case’ may be simple or complex; eg.
– Single child
– Class of children
 Case Study
• A case study is an empirical inquiry that
– Investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life
context, especially when
– the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not cleraly
evident
• When to use a Case Study?
– Many more variables of interest than data points
– Relies of multiple sources of evidence
– Benefits from prior theoretic propositions, guiding data collection
and analysis.
– In answering ”how” and ”why” questions
 Unit of Analysis
• What is the ”case”?
– An individual?
– A decision?
– A program?
• Relates to research questions and proposition
– Without clear propositions, one might be tempted to cover
“everything”.
– Non-favoring research questions – too vague or too numerous
• Different units of analysis requires different research
design and data collection strategy.
 Types of case study
• Researchers have different purposes for studying cases.
Case studies can be classified into three different types:
intrinsic, instrumental, and collective
• Intrinsic
– Undertaken when a researcher wants to better understand a
particular case
– The case itself is of interest because of its uniqueness or
ordinariness
– The role of the researcher is not to understand or test abstract
theory or to develop new theoretical explanations; instead, the
intention is to better understand intrinsic aspects of the particular
child, patient, criminal, organization, or whatever the case may be
 Types of Case Study
• Instrumental case study
– A particular case is studied to provide insight into an issue or
to refine a theory
– Instrumental case studies often are investigated in depth, and
all aspects and activities are detailed, but not simply to
elaborate the case
• Collective case study
– A number of cases are studied jointly in order to investigate a
phenomenon (instrumental case study extended to several
cases)
– allow better understanding or perhaps enhanced the ability
to theorize about a broader context
 Case Study Designs
• Single vs. Multiple case
– Single case appropriate in certain conditions
– Multiple case design better in general
• Embedded vs. Holistic
– Holistic = one unit of analysis
– Emdedded = several units of analysis
 Single-case Design
• Five rationales
1. Critical case: clear set of propositions
2. Extreme/unique case
3. Representative/typical case
4. Revelatory case
 Previously inaccessible phenomena
5. Longitudinal case
 Same things at different points in time
 Assumes that conditions changes over time
6. As a pilot case for multiple case studies
 Not considered as a case study of its own
 Case Study
• CASE STUDY DESIGN TYPES
• There are several appropriate designs for case
studies
• These include exploratory, explanatory, and
descriptive cases studies
• THE SCIENTIFIC BENEFIT OF CASE STUDIES
– The scientific benefit of the case study method lies in its
ability to open the way for discoveries
– It can easily serve as the breeding ground for insights
and even hypotheses that may be pursued in
subsequent studies.
 Case Study
• CASE STUDIES OF ORGANIZATIONS
– Case studies of organizations may be defined as the systematic
gathering of enough information about a particular organization
to allow the investigator insight into the life of that organization
– This type of study might be fairly general in its scope, offering
approximately equal weight to every aspect of the organization.
• CASE STUDIES OF COMMUNITIES
– A community can be defined as some geographically delineated
unit within a larger society.
– Such a community is small enough to permit considerable
cultural (or sub-cultural) homogeneity, diffuse interactions and
relationships between members, and to produce a social
identification by its members
Qualitative Research Strategies

• II. Grounded Theory

 Defining Grounded Theory
• ‘The discovery of theory from data – systematically
obtained and analyzed in social research’ (Glaser &
Strauss, 1967: 1)
• ‘The methodological thrust of grounded theory is
toward the development of theory, without any
particular commitment to specific kinds of data, lines
of research, or theoretical interests . . . Rather it is a
style of doing qualitative analysis that includes a
number of distinct features . . . and the use of a
coding paradigm to ensure conceptual development
and density’ (Strauss, 1987) 18
 Grounded Theory
• Rooted in social sciences
• Grounded theory is a research method that seeks to develop
theory that is grounded in data systematically gathered and
analysed
• There is a continuous interplay between data collection and
analysis
 The purpose is to generate, modify and/or extend theory
• Emphasizes the development of theory
• Which is grounded in data systematically collected and analyzed
(constant comparative analysis to produce substantive theory)
• Looks for generalizable theory - by making comparisons across
situations
 Grounded Theory
• Theory asserts a plausible relation between concepts and
sets of concepts
• Theory must be faithful to the evidence, i.e. theory is
derived from data acquired through fieldwork interviews,
observations and documents
• Data analysis is systematic and begins as soon as data is
available
• Goal is to generate an inductively derived theory about
basic social processes.
• Core feature is that data collection, analysis and sampling
occur simultaneously until data saturation is achieved.
• Termed the Constant Comparative Method.
 Grounded Theory:
• Data collection can stop when new conceptualizations
emerge
• Data analysis proceeds from ‘open’ coding (identifying
categories, properties and dimension) through ‘axial’
coding (examining conditions, strategies and consequences)
to ‘selective’ coding around an emerging storyline
• The resulting theory can be reported in a narrative
framework or as a set of propositions (Dey, 1999, pp.1-2).
 Grounded Theory: Coding
1. Open coding
– Summarizing some text by the use of a succinct code
– Constant comparison: constantly compare and contrast
qualitative data in the search for similarities and
differences
2. Axial coding or selective coding
– Refine the conceptual constructs
3. Theoretical coding
– The formulation of a theory

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 Grounded Theory & Literature Review
• As a general rule, grounded theory researchers
should make sure that they have no preconceived
theoretical ideas before starting the research
• Many people think that this means ignoring the
literature
• But this is not so - the intention is to make sure that
researchers are not constrained by literature when
coding
• Researchers should make sure that they do not
impose concepts on the data – those concepts
should emerge from the data
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 Critique of Grounded Theory
• Advantages:
– It has intuitive appeal for novice researchers, since it allows them
to become immersed in the data at a detailed level
– It gets researchers analyzing the data early
– It encourages systematic, detailed analysis of the data and
provides a method for doing so
– It gives researchers ample evidence to back up their claims
– It encourages a constant interplay between data collection and
analysis
– It is especially useful for describing repeated processes e.g. the
communications processes between doctors and patients, or the
communications processes between information systems analysts
and users 24
 Critique of Grounded Theory (2)
• Disadvantages:
– First time users can get overwhelmed at the coding level
– Open coding takes a long time
– It can be difficult to ‘scale up’ to larger concepts or
themes
– Because it is a detailed method, it can be difficult to see
the bigger picture
– Tends to produce lower level theories only

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Qualitative Research Strategies

• III. Phenomenology
 Phenomenology
 The phenomenological (cf Husserl, Heidegger) approach
aims to develop a complete, accurate, clear and articulate
description and understanding of a particular human
experience or experiential moment
 It achieves its goal through the use of a special investigator
stance and approach and through specialized methods of
participant selection, solicitation of information, systematic
data treatment, and assembling of interview components
into a final report
• A process of learning and constructing the meaning of human
experience through intensive dialogue with persons who are
living the experience.
• Goal is to understand ‘the lived experience’ of the participant
 Phenomenology
• Asks “What is the lived experience” of “What is the
meaning…”
• Researcher’s perspective is bracketed
• Philosophical Orientation
– not a single reality-each individual has his/her own reality
– reality is subjective; the experience is unique to the
individual
• Thus researcher attempts to understand people’s
perceptions , perspectives and understandings of a
particular situation
• What is it like to experience
 Phenomenology
• Sampling: purposive
• Data Collection: varies; observation, interactive
interviews, narratives, video-tapes and written
description by participants
• Analysis: Themes related to the phenomenon are
identified
– begins when the first data are collected
– goodness (rigor) of the data can be demonstrated
by examples of the data; often direct quotations
 Phenomenology
• RESULTS:
– Theoretical statements responding to the research
question
– Identification of themes which describe the
phenomenon
• Strengths:
– The phenomenological approach provides a rich and
complete description of human experiences and
meanings
 Phenomenology
 Findings are allowed to emerge, rather than being imposed by an
investigator
 Careful techniques are used to keep descriptions as faithful as
possible to the experiential raw data; this is accomplished by
extreme care in moving step by step and in being ever mindful not to
delete from, add to, change, or distort anything originally present in
the initial “meaning units” of the participant transcripts
 The investigator attempts to “bracket” presuppositions and biases to
hold them in consciousness through all phases of the research and
minimize their influence on the findings
• Can make some generalizations of what something is like
 PREPARATION
• Requires Considerable Preparation & Time
• Researcher must be TRAINED in:
– Observation Techniques
– Interview Techniques
– Use and Choice of Data Collection Methods
• Not the Approach if looking for Quick Results
& Easy answers

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 Phenomenology
• Weaknesses:
– The method depends on the articulate skills of the participants who
provide the information; logistical and generalization issues are connected
with this
– The language and terms employed in existential-phenomenological
philosophy and phenomenological inquiry are usually obtuse or difficult
– Conclusions depend on the particular participants chosen for the study. In
its orientation toward a particular time frame or moment, the method may
miss information about broader periods or about the development (time
course) of an experience
– In focusing on a rich description of an experience, the method may miss
information about what led up to that experience, what its outcomes or
consequences might be, and what the concomitants and other factors
associated with the experience are
– There is little interest in conceptualizing the experience or in “explaining” it
Qualitative Research Strategy

• IV. Ethnography
 Ethnography
• Rooted in anthropology, i.e. from social and cultural
anthropology: ethnographers spend a significant amount
of time in the field
• Also called participant observation/ naturalistic enquiry
• Ethno = people
• -Graphy = describing something
• Characterized by immersion
• An ethnography is a description and interpretation of a
cultural or social group or system. The research examines
the group’s observable and learned patterns of behavior,
customs, and ways of life
 Role of the Participant Observer
• Complete observer
– Behind one-way mirror, invisible role
• Observer as participant
– Known, overt observer
• Participant as observer
– Pseudo-member, research role known
• Complete participant
– Full membership, research role not known
 Ethnography
 

• Focus is on descriptions of cultural groups and on natural,

ordinary events in natural settings - understand better the
latent or hidden or non-obvious aspects of people’s behaviors,
attitudes, feelings and so forth
• Goal is to understand the “natives’” view of their world or emic
(insiders’) view.
• Requires that the researcher enter the world of the study
participants to watch what happens, listen to what is said, ask
questions, and collect data.
• Used in to study cultural variations in group meanings and
mores
• Studying groups as subcultures within larger social contexts.
• Ask about life experiences or particular patterns of behaviour
within a social context
 Ethnography
• Ethnographic research is especially appropriate
when:
– to know “why” people behave in a certain way over a
period of time
– to understand a phenomenon in its natural setting
– to know how, when and why people behave the way
they do when they interact with others in a particular
setting or situation (i.e. social interaction)
– want data to support your understanding of the
complexity of society
 Ethnography
• It uses multiple data collection methods (help
triangulate) over reasonably sustained period
• Emphasis on people’s lived experiences - locating the
meanings people place on the events, processes, and
patterns of their lives (Miles & Huberman, 1994, p. 11).
• Sampling:
– purposive;
– work with ‘key informants’
– representative of the group under study
• Data Collection:
– Participative observation; interviews, life histories, films,
photographs
– Collect data until meet with an extended period of time
– data are rich, full & complete
 Ethnography

• Data analysis:
– coding,
– transform data into recognizable patterns, themes and link
ideas
– identify patterns and rules of the informant’s culture
– “Emic perspective” - informant’s perspective of reality
– “Etic perspective” - researcher’s perspective of the studied
setting/actions
– Compare “emic”& “etic” perspectives and explore differences
• Disadvantages
– time consuming (at least six months to two years)
– risky in terms of access to the group of people or
organizations
Qualitative Research Strategy

• V. Historiography
 Historiography (1)
• What is historical research?
– Historical research or historiography is an examination of elements from
history
– The term history is used synonymously with the word past and, in turn,
refers conceptually to past events of long ago
• From a social science perspective, history is an account of some
past event or a series of events.
• Historiography, then, is a method for discovering, from records
and accounts, what happened during some past period
• Historiography involves far more than the mere retelling of facts
from the past
• It is more than linking together tired old pieces of information
found in diaries, letters, or other documents, important
• Historical research is at once descriptive, factual, and fluid
 Historiography (2)
• Historical research, then, involves a process that examines
events or combinations of events in order to uncover
accounts of what happened in the past
• Historical research allows the contemporary researcher to
"slip the bonds of their own time” and descend into the
past
• It is the study of the relationships among issues that have
influenced the past, continue to influence the present, and
will certainly affect the future
• This provides access to a broader understanding of human
behavior and thoughts than would be possible if we were
trapped in the static isolation of our own time
 Historiography (3)
• The major impetus in historical research, as with
other data-collection strategies, is the collection of
information and the interpretation or analysis of the
data
• Specifically, historical research is conducted for one
or more reasons: to uncover the unknown; to answer
questions; to seek implications or relationships of
events from the past and their connections with the
present; to assess past activities & accomplishments
of individuals, agencies, or institutions; and to aid
generally in our understanding of human culture
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH

• Sources of Data:
– confidential reports, public records, government documents,
newspaper editorials and stories, essays, songs, poetry, folklore,
films, photos, artifacts, and even interviews or questionnaires.
• The historiographer classifies these various data as either
primary sources or secondary sources
• Primary Sources:
– These sources involve the oral or written testimony of
eyewitnesses. They are original artifacts, documents, and items
related to the direct outcome of an event or an experience. They
may include documents, photographs, recordings, diaries,
journals, life histories, drawings, mementos, or other relics.
 Historical…
• Secondary Sources:
– Secondary sources involve the oral or written testimony
of people not immediately present at the time of a given
event
• They are documents written or objects created by
others that relate to a specific research question or
area of research interest
• The main purpose of historical research is to better
understand the process of change
 Historical…
Sampling:
 Documents,
 journals,
 personal papers, and
 person(s) who can provide oral histories
Data Collection:
 helpful to review materials from one at a time
 interview individuals who will provide oral histories
 often an excess of information; establish data collection and
analysis plan(s)
Data Analysis
 systematically screen for relevant material
 seek to gain insights from individuals providing oral histories
 Historical…
• RESULTS:
– may compare the past with the present
– apply insights gained from the past to present situations
– to better understand the process of change
Qualitative Research Strategy

• VI. Action Research

 Action Research
• Build action theories - action science
• Aim is to develop effective action, improve practice,
and implement change
• Cyclical process, alternating between action and
reflection
 Action Research
• Contribution to the practical concerns: diagnosing a
problem situation, planning action steps,
implementing and evaluating outcomes. Evaluation
leads to a new diagnosis…
• joint collaboration: together with the people
experiencing the problem
• Contextuality and participation
• Vision: researchers have a vision on how the reality
should be – not value free

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 Action Research
 TWO FOLD PURPOSE
 Solve Practical Problems for People in Specific Context
 Contributes to Science
 Cyclical Approach
 Observe ( Gather Info, Define & Describe )
 Think (Analyze What is happening, Theorize Why )
 Act – Plan ( report )
 Implement changes
 Evaluate
 Go back & observe - M&E

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 The Action Culture of Inquiry

• The types of research within the action culture

can be viewed as “in some sense as cousins in a
family of participatory research”
• (Reason, 1994, p. 335)
Types..
Action Research
Participatory Action Research
Participatory Research
Appreciative Inquiry
 Action Research
Question generated by the organization.
Research Process Research controlled and conducted by
Researcher.

Researcher asks for participation as

Degree of Participation needed.

Knowledge Generation Problem-solving

Knowledge Utilization Improve system. Advance knowledge.

Power Held by researcher

Solution to organizational problem.

Outcomes Scientific knowledge.

Association with Social Possible

Change
 Participatory Action Research
Question generated by community. Research
Research Process Process controlled by researcher.

Degree of Participation High

Knowledge Generation Transform and advance scientific

knowledge

Knowledge Utilization Community action. Advance knowledge.

Power Shared

Outcomes Empowerment. Generation of scientific

knowledge.

Association with Social Strong

Change
 Participatory Research

Research Process Community generates and is in control

of the process.

Degree of Participation High

Knowledge Generation Transformational

Social action. Development of critical

Knowledge Utilization consciousness.
Power Egalitarian

Outcomes Empowerment of Community

Association with Social Strong

Change
Methods/ Techniques of Data Collection

• Interviews
• Participant observation (field notes)
• Focus Groups
Data collection techniques

• Interview
 Interview
• Interview
– Usually, interviewing is defined simply as a conversation with
a purpose
– Specifically, the purpose is to gather information
• The extensive literature on interviewing contains
numerous descriptions of the interviewing process
• In some cases, being a good interviewer is described
as an innate ability or quality possessed by only some
people (and not by others)
• Interviewing, from this perspective, has been described
as an art rather than a skill or a science.
 Interviewing
• Purpose of interviews
– Elicit feelings
– Thoughts
– Opinions
– Previous experiences
– The meaning people give to certain events
 Interview..
• In other instances, interviewing has been
described as a technical skill you can learn in the
same way you might learn to change a flat tire
• In this case, the interviewer is like a laborer or a
hired hand
• In many sources, interviewing is described as some
sort of face-to-face interaction, although exactly
what distinguishes this type of interaction from
others is often left to the imagination
 Interview…
• Research, particularly field research, is sometimes
divided into two separate phases—namely, getting in
and analysis
• Getting in is typically defined as various techniques and
procedures intended to secure access to a setting, its
participants, and knowledge about phenomena and
activities being observed
• getting in means learning the ropes of various skills and
techniques necessary for effective interviewing
• Analysis makes sense of the information accessed during
the getting-in phase.
 Interviewing…
• Interviewing, as an "encounter“ or as a "face-to-face
interaction“
• Creative interviewing involves using a set of techniques
to move past the mere words and sentences
exchanged during the interview process. It includes
creating an appropriate climate for informational
exchanges and for mutual disclosures.
• Active interviewing: this interview is not arbitrary or
one-sided. Instead, the interview is viewed as a
dynamic, meaning-making occasion where the actual
circumstance of the meaning construction is important
 Types of Interviews
• “The family of qualitative interviews"
– Some sources mention only two—namely, formal and
informal
– Other sources refer to this research process as either
structured or unstructured
• However, at least three major categories may be
identified:
– The standardized (formal or structured) interview,
– the unstandardized (informal or non-directive) interview, and
– the semistandardized (guided-semistructured or focused)
interview.
 Probing…
• Probing Questions. Probing questions, or simply
probes, provide interviewers with a way to draw out
more complete stories from subjects. Probes
frequently ask subjects to elaborate on what they
have already answered in response to a given
question
• Several problems arise when constructing interview
questions. Among the more serious ones are
affectively worded questions, double-barreled
questions, and overly complex questions
 Questions…
• Affectively Worded Questions:
– arouse in most people some emotional response, usually negative
• The Double-Barreled Question:
– This type of question asks a subject to respond simultaneously to
two issues in a single question
• Complex Questions:
– When researchers ask a long, involved question, the subjects may
not really hear the question in its entirety. Their response, then,
may be only to some small portion of a greater concern woven
into the complex question
– Thus, keeping questions brief and concise allows clear responses
and more effective analysis of the answers
 Questions…
• Question Sequencing
– The arrangement or ordering of questions in an
interview may significantly affect the results
– Interviews typically begin with mild, nonthreatening
questions concerning demographic matters
• Interviewer Roles and Rapport
– One dominant theme in the literature on interviewing
centers on the interviewer‘s ability to develop rapport
with an interview subject
 The Ten Commandments of Interviewing

• 1. Never begin an interview cold

– Remember to spend several minutes chatting & making small
talk with the subject
• 2. Remember your purpose
– Try to keep the subject on track
• Present a natural front
– Be relaxed, affirmative, and as natural as you can.
• 4. Demonstrate aware hearing
– Be sure to offer the subjects appropriate nonverbal responses
• 5. Think about appearance
– Remember to think about how you look to other people
 Ten Commandments…
• 6. Interview in a comfortable place
– Be sure that the location of the interview is somewhere the
participants feels comfortable
• 7. Don't be satisfied with monosyllabic answers
– Be aware when participants begin giving yes-&-no answers
• 8. Be respectful
– Be sure the participants feels that he or she is an integral part of your
research
• 9. Practice, practice, and practice some more
– The only way to actually become proficient at interviewing is to
interview
• 10. Be cordial and appreciative
– Remember to thank the participant when you finish
Data collection techniques

• Observation
 Participant Observation
• Participant observation
– Gains insight into understanding cultural patterns
to determine what’s necessary and needed in tool
development (complementary to interviews)
 Observation
• Purpose of observation
– Describe the setting
– First-hand experience – assists with analysis
– See what is normally taken for granted or not easily
spoken about
– Confirm perceptions of respondents
• Requires training, preparation and discipline
• Develop an observation checklist
 Types of observation
• Observer as outsider - unobtrusive
• Participant observation
• Mystery client technique
 Sources of observational data
• The setting
• The human and social environment
• Historical information
• Planned activities
• Informal interactions and unplanned activities
• ‘Native’ language
• Nonverbal communication
• Unobtrusive observations
• Documents
• What does not happen
• Oneself
Data collection techniques

• Focus Group Discussion

 Focus Group Discussion
• Purpose of FGD
– Get a variety of perspectives/reactions to a certain
issue
– In a short time
– Mainly for eliciting opinions, values, feelings
 Holding a FGD
• Homogenous
• Strangers
• 6-10 people
• 1-2 hours
• 2 FGD per type of respondent
• Moderator and note taker
• Prepare discussion guide
 Advantages
• Cost-effective
• Quality of data enhanced by group
participants
• Can quickly assess the extent to which there is
agreement or diversity on an issue
• Enjoyable for participants
 Limitations
• Restricts number of questions that can be asked
• Responses by each participant may be constrained
• Requires group process skills
• Silences the minority view
• Confidentiality not assured
• Explores major themes, not subtle differences
• Outside of natural setting