File Systems • Block special files are used to model disks

Essential requirements for long-term information

storage File Access
• Sequential access
1. It must be possible to store a very large amount of
information. • a process could read all the bytes or records in
a file in order, starting at the beginning, but
2. The information must survive the termination of the could not skip around and read them out of
process using it. order

3. Multiple processes must be able to access the • Used with magnetic tapes
information at once.
• Random-access
file system.
• Files whose bytes or records can be read in
• Files are logical units of information created by
any order
processes.
• Used with discs
• Processes can read existing files and create new ones
if need be. • Essential for many applications, such as
database systems
• Files are managed by the operating system.

• The operating system dealing with files is known as

the file system. File Naming

File Systems
• Implement an abstraction for secondary storage (files)

• Organize files logically (directories)

• Protect data from unwanted access (security)

• Permit access of data between processes, people, and

machines (sharing)

Files
• A file is data with some properties

• A file can also have a type

• A file’s type can be encoded in its name or contents

File Types
a) An executable file

b) An archive

• Regular files are the ones that contain user

information

• Directories are system files for maintaining the file

system structure

• Character special files are related to input/output

File Attributes • Entries usually sorted by program that reads
directory

• Directories typically stored in files

Directory Operations
• System calls for managing directories:

• Create

• Delete

• Opendir

• Closedir

• Readdir

• Rename

• Link

Directories • Uplink
• Directories serve two purposes
File System Layout
• For users, they provide a structured way to • File systems define a block size (e.g., 4KB)
organize files
• Disk space is allocated in granularity of blocks
• For the file system, they provide a convenient
naming interface that allows the • A “Master Block” determines location of root
implementation to separate logical file directory
organization from physical file placement on the
• Always at a well-known disk location
disk
• Often replicated across disk for reliability
• Most file systems support multi-level directories
• A free map determines which blocks are free,
• Naming hierarchies (/, /usr, /usr/local/, …)
allocated
• Most file systems support the notion of a current
• Usually a bitmap, one bit per block on the disk
directory
• Also stored on disk, cached in memory for
• Relative names specified with respect to
performance
current directory
• Remaining disk blocks used to store files (and dirs)
• Absolute names start from the root of
directory tree • There are many ways to do this

Directory Internals Disk Layout Strategies

• A directory is a list of entries
• <name, location>
• Name is just the name of the file or directory
• Location depends upon how file is
represented on disk
• List is usually unordered (effectively random)
• Files can span multiple disk blocks
• How do you find all of the blocks for a file?
1. Contiguous allocation
2. Linked structure
3. Indexed structure (indirection, hierarchy)
Data Communication Under serial communication
• The term telecommunication means communication
at a distance.

• The word data refers to information presented in

whatever form is agreed upon by the parties creating
and using the data.

• Data communications are the exchange of data

between two devices via some form of transmission
medium such as a wire cable.

Data Flow Layering

 Simplex – one directional flow of data
 Half-Duplex – directional flow of data at a time
 Full-Duplex – directional flow of data all the
time
Data Transfer
Parallel Communication
• Break complexity of communication protocol into
pieces easier to design and understand
Wireless communication
• No physical connection needed for transport at
physical layer

 Parallel interfaces transfer multiple bits at the Networking

same time. • A network is a set of devices (often referred to as
 They usually require buses of data - transmitting nodes) connected by communication links.
across eight, sixteen, or more wires.
 It’s fast, straightforward, and relatively easy to
Characteristics of a Network
implement.
• Topology
 But requires many more input/output (I/O)
lines. • Physical topology – arrangement of the
cables, network devices, and end systems
Serial Communication
• Logical topology –how the network devices
 Serial communication is the process of
appear connected to network users
sending/receiving data in one bit at a time.
 Serial interfaces stream their data, one single • Speed
bit at a time.
 These interfaces can operate on as little as one • measure of the data rate in bits per second
wire, usually never more than four. (b/s) of a given link

• Cost

• general expense for purchasing of network

components as well as installation and maintenance of
the network

• Security
 • indicates how protected the network is, Wide Area Network (WAN)
including the information that is transmitted over the
network • Long distances

• Provide connectivity over large areas

• Availability

• refers to the likelihood that the network is Personal Area Network (PAN)
available for use when it is required • Network organized around an individual
• Scalability person within a single building

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

• indicates how easily the network can
accommodate more users and data transmission • Provide connectivity over areas such as a city,
requirements as they increase a campus
• Reliability

• indicates the dependability of the The Internet

components that make up the network including the • The Internet is a communication system that has
routers, switches, PCs, and servers; often measured as brought a wealth of information to our fingertips and
MTBF (mean time between failures) organized it for our use.

Type of Connection
• Point to Point - single transmitter and receiver

• Multipoint - multiple recipients of single transmission

Type of transmission
 Unicast
 Multicast
 Broadcast

Physical Topology

Categories of Networks
Local Area Network (LAN)

• Short distances

• Designed to provide local interconnectivity