CHAPTER 1: Approaches to education

1. Identify the source of knowledge—deductive reasoning, inductive reasoning, or the

scientific approach—most prominently
used in the following examples:
a. After extensive observation of reactions,
Lavoisier concluded that combustion is
a process in which a burning substance
combines with oxygen. His work was the
death blow to the old phlogiston theory
of burning.
b. Dalton, after much reflection, concluded
that matter must consist of small particles called atoms. His early assumptions became
the basis for the atomic
theory.
c. Later scientists took Dalton’s assumptions, made deductions from them, and
proceeded to gather data that confirmed
these assumptions. They found support
for the atomic theory.
d. Knowing that radioactive substances
constantly give off particles of energy
without apparently reducing their
mass, Einstein developed the formula
E = mc 2
for converting matter into
energy.
e. Accepting Einstein’s theory, Fermi carried on experimentation that resulted in
splitting the atom.
f. After studying reinforcement theory,
a teacher hypothesizes that using a
tutorial computer program will lead
to superior achievement in arithmetic. She devises a study in which the
tutorial is used with two sixth-grade
classes, whereas conventional materials are used with two other sixth-grade
classes.
2. What is the role of theory in scientific
inquiry?
3. What is the difference between an inductive theory and a deductive theory?
4. Give examples of the use of authority and
experience as sources of knowledge.
5. Evaluate the following deductive
arguments:
a. All graduating seniors with high GPAs
study Latin. John is a senior with a high
GPA. Therefore, John studies Latin.
b. All vertebrates have backbones. This
animal has a backbone. Therefore, this
animal is a vertebrate.
6. Evaluate the following inductive arguments:
a. This animal has a backbone. Animals
with backbones are vertebrates. I am
reasonably certain that this animal is a
vertebrate.
b. This is a student who studies very hard.
Students who make good grades tend to
study hard. This student probably makes
good grades.
7. Which characteristic attitudes expected
of scientists are violated in the following
statements?
a. This study was undertaken to prove that
the use of marijuana is detrimental to
academic achievement.
b. It proved conclusively that this is the
case.
c. The results show that marijuana is evil.
8. What are the characteristics of a useful
theory?
9. Which of the following would contribute to
theory development in education?
a. Evidence that supports the hypothesis of
a study
b. Evidence that refutes the hypothesis
of a study
c. (a) only
d. (a) and (b)
ANSWERS
1. a. Inductive reasoning
b. Deductive reasoning
c. Scientific approach
d. Deductive reasoning
e. Scientific approach
f. Scientific approach
2. Theory integrates findings, summarizes
information, provides leads for new
research, and enables people to explain
and predict phenomena.
3. An inductive theory serves to explain previous observations, whereas a deductive
theory is developed before extensive observations have been made.
4. Answers will vary.
5. a. The argument is flawed; the major
premise is not valid.
b. The argument is correct.
6. a. The argument is correct.
b. The argument is flawed; cannot state
that because the student studies hard, he
or she makes good grades.
7. a. The scientist is objective and impartial.
b. The scientist is skeptical and regards
findings as tentative.
c. The scientist deals with facts, not values.
8. A useful theory explains the phenomena
in the simplest form possible, is consistent
with observation and the established body
of knowledge, provides means for its verification, and stimulates new investigation.
9. d

CHAPTER 2: Research approaches

1. Based on the title of each study, classify the

following research as basic or applied:
a. The Effect of RNA (Ribonucleic Acid)
Injections on the Transfer of Skills from
Trained Animals to Untrained Animals
b. Outcomes of a Remedial Arithmetic
Program
c. Conditioning as a Function of the
Interval between the Conditioned and
Original Stimulus
d. Teaching Geometry to Cultivate Reflective
Thinking: An Experimental Study
2. In a study designed to determine the effect
of varying amounts of sleep deprivation on
the learning of nonsense syllables, identify
the following:
a. What is the independent variable?
b. What is the dependent variable?
3. Classify the following variables as categorical or continuous:
a. Achievement
b. Phonics method of reading versus look–
say method of reading
c. Spanish speaking, English speaking,
French speaking
d. Muscle prowess
e. Music aptitude
4. The statement “Math achievement will
be measured by the score made on the
mathematics subtest of the Iowa Tests of
Educational Development” is an example of
which of the following?
a. Hypothesis
b. Theoretical principle
c. Constitutively defined construct
d. Operationally defined construct
5. Suggest a research study for which a
mixed methods design would be the most
appropriate.
6. Which research method (experimental,
ex post facto, or survey) would most effectively give you answers to each of the
following questions?
a. Do children who eat breakfast get better
grades in school?
b. Does a unit on proper nutrition change
children’s breakfast-eating habits?
c. How many children in school report
that they do not have breakfast at
home?
d. Does the institution of a free breakfast
program at school make a difference in
the achievement of students?
7. Based on the titles, classify each of the following studies according to the research
methodology most likely used:
a. Gender-Based Differential Item
Performance in Mathematics
b. Improving Math Skills of High School
Students
c. College Students’ Views and Ratings of
an Ideal Professor
d. Effect of Early Absence of Father on
Scholastic Aptitude
e. An Alternative High School: An In-Depth
Study
f. An Analysis of Social Studies Textbooks
Used in Russian Middle Schools to
Determine How America Is Portrayed
8. Give an example of how basic research in
the biological sciences has improved the
practice of medicine.

9. Give an example of how basic research

in learning has improved the practice of
teaching.
10. Give an example of applied research completed in your fi eld of interest. List other
areas in which additional research needs to
be done in your fi eld. What variables might
be investigated in such studies?
11. What research methodology do you believe
would be the most appropriate for investigating each of the following research
questions?
a. How do parents conduct home schooling?
b. Does collaborative learning promote
achievement in the college classroom?
c. What is the relationship between vocabulary and reading achievement in the
primary grades?
d. Do parents support character education
in the middle school curriculum?
e. What is the relationship between teachers’
undergraduate background (education
versus liberal arts) and certain measures
of competence in the classroom?
f. How did educational reforms of the
junior high school lead to development of
the middle school?
g. What is the influence of family composition on children’s conformity to the student
role?
h. What kind of education do students
receive in a church-sponsored Christian
high school?
i. What is the extent of drug use among
students in a suburban high school?
12. How would you operationally defi ne science
achievement?
13. The following is an abstract from the journal Exceptional Children (O’Connor, White,
& Swanson, 2007):
Abstract: This research evaluated two methods to improve the reading fluency of
struggling readers. Poor readers in grades 2 and
4 with (n = 17) and without (n = 20) learning
disabilities were randomly assigned to one of
two fluency practice variations or to a control
group. Students in the treatments practiced
reading aloud under repeated or continuous
reading conditions with an adult listener in
15-min sessions, 3 days per week for 14 weeks.
For students in the treatment conditions, growth
curve analyses revealed significant differences
in fluency and reading comprehension over
students in the control. We found no significant
differences between practice conditions.
Consider the following elements in this study:
(1) poor readers, (2) students in grades 2
and 4, (3) students with and without learning disabilities, (4) reading aloud with an
adult listener or not, (5) repeated or continuous reading conditions, (6) reading fluency
growth, and (7) reading comprehension.
a. Which are categorical independent
variables?
b. Which are continuous independent
variables?
c. Which are categorical dependent
variables?
d. Which are continuous dependent
variables?
e. What independent variable did the
researchers actively manipulate?
f. What was the population of interest?
14. Consider the following characteristics of a
research study. Indicate whether each one
is most likely (1) quantitative research or
(2) qualitative research.
a. Researcher is objective and detached
from participants
b. Develops hypotheses after data have
been collected
c. Uses induction to analyze data
d. Uses large representative samples of
individuals
e. Uses narrative description

ANSWERS
1. a. Basic
b. Applied
c. Basic
d. Applied
2. a. Amount of sleep deprivation
b. Number of nonsense syllables learned
3. a. Continuous
b. Categorical
c. Categorical
d. Continuous
e. Continuous
4. d

5. Answers will vary.

6. a. Ex post facto
b. Experimental
c. Survey
d. Experimental
7. a. Ex post facto
b. Experimental
c. Survey
d. Ex post facto
e. Qualitative
f. Qualitative
8. Answers will vary.
9. Answers will vary.
10. Answers will vary.
11. a. Qualitative
b. Experimental
c. Correlational
d. Survey
e. Ex post facto
f. Historical
g. Ex post facto
h. Qualitative
i. Quantitative (survey)
12. Answers may vary; an example: “Science
achievement is the score on the science
subtest of the Iowa Test of Basic Skills.”
13. a. 2, 3, 4, and 5
b. None
c. None
d. 6 and 7
e. 5
f. 1
14. a. 1
b. 2
c. 2
d. 1
e. 2

CHAPTER 3: Research problem

1. The following is an abstract taken from

an article in The Clearing House (Springer,
Pugalee, & Algozzine, 2007):
In U.S. schools, students must pass statewide competency tests to graduate from high
school. In this article, the authors summarize
the development and testing of a program
implemented to improve the skills of students
failing to “make the grade” on these highstakes tests. District personnel randomly
assigned 28 students who previously failed
the math test to participate in an experimental (Arizona Instrument to Measure
Standards
[AIMS]) or to a control math class. The AIMS
group used a computerized tool to generate multiple-choice problems for students
to practice the content of the state’s competency test. Eight AIMS students (57 percent)
and two control students (14 percent) passed
the retest. The outcomes offer promise for
schools looking for evidence-based solutions
to problems related to increasing numbers of
students experiencing difficulties with highstakes assessments.
a. What was the independent variable in
this study?
b. What was the dependent variable?
c. What was the population?
2. Find a quantitative research report published in a journal, and answer the following
questions based on your reading:
a. What problem is investigated in the
study?
b. What are the independent and dependent variables?
c. Where did you find the problem stated in
the report?
d. Was the problem stated with sufficient
clarity so that you knew exactly what
was being investigated in the study?
e. Did the author suggest further research
on this question?
3. Find a qualitative research report published in a journal and identify the
a. Problem
b. Methodology
c. Findings
d. Conclusions
4. Select a broad area in which you might be
interested in doing research and then identify
a research problem in that area. State this
problem in an acceptable form for research.
What was the source of this problem?
5. The following examples are inadequate
statements of research problems. Restate
each so that it becomes a specifIc question
suitable for research.
a. A later morning start for the high school
b. Parental involvement and elementary
school achievement
c. Self-concept of children with learning
disabilities
d. Home-schooled adolescents
e. Gender differences and logical thinking
skills of talented preadolescents
f. Teaching students with attention deficit/
hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
g. Predicting achievement in a graduate
education program
6. Evaluate the following research
problems:
a. Should learning-disabled students be
mainstreamed in middle school English
classes?
b. Has No Child Left Behind legislation
been good for U.S. education?
c. Would it be wise to have a dress code for
the city’s high schools?
d. What is the relationship between verbal
aptitude scores and reading test scores?
7. State the most likely independent and
dependent variables in the following studies:
a. Peer interactions in children with autism
b. The effect of participation in school
sports on the social skills of mentally
challenged adolescents
c. The effect of an early intervention program on the academic achievement of
children from low-income families
d. The influence of an antismoking program on the attitudes of middle school
students toward smoking
8. A principal wants to know if it is beneficial to keep class sizes small in kindergarten
to grade 2. Write an appropriate
research question designed to answer this
question.
9. Classify the following studies as most likely
being quantitative or qualitative:
a. Life of an Adolescent with HIV Infection
b. High School Principals’ Perspectives on
Student Expulsion
c. The Effect of Ability Grouping on
Academic Outcomes for Gifted Students
d. Racial Stereotypes in Middle School
Literature Textbooks
e. Teaching in an Alternative High School
10. There has been an increase in the number
of elementary school children diagnosed
with attention deficit disorder. Based on
your observation and experience, formulate
a theory to explain this finding. Evaluate
your theory according to the characteristics
of a “good” theory. State a research problem based on your theory.

ANSWERS
1. a. Computerized program to practice math
content versus control math class
b. Performance on a repeat of a state math
competency test
c. Students who had failed the math competency test
2. Answers will vary.
3. Answers will vary.
4. Answers will vary.
5. a. What is the effect of a later morning
start time on the achievement of students at Eastern High School?
b. What is the effect of a program to increase
parental involvement on the achievement
of their elementary school children?
c. How do children with learning disabilities perceive themselves socially and
academically?
d. How do students who have been
home schooled perform academically during the freshman year at Central State U.?
e. What is the relationship between gender
and logical thinking skills in talented
preadolescents?
f. What is it like to teach students with
ADHD?
g. What are the best predictors of achievement in a graduate education program?
6. a. This question involves a value judgment that is impossible to investigate
empirically.
b. This question as stated involves a value
judgment and cannot be investigated
empirically.
c. Research cannot answer questions of
value; it can only provide information on
which decisions can be based.
d. This question has been thoroughly investigated in previous research; it would not
contribute to the body of knowledge.
7. a. Independent: having autism; dependent:
peer interactions
b. Independent: participation in school
sports; dependent: social skills of mentally challenged adolescents
c. Independent: experiencing an early
intervention program or not; dependent:
academic performance
d. Independent: antismoking program;
dependent: students’ attitudes toward
smoking
8. What is the effect of class size in
grades K–2 on students’ academic
performance?
9. a. Qualitative
b. Quantitative
c. Quantitative
d. Qualitative
e. Qualitative
10. Answers will vary.

CHAPTER 4: Reviewing the literature

1. Which of the following are recommended

strategies for organizing a literature
search?
a. Organize studies by topic.
b. Begin with early articles and work forward in time.
c. Read the abstract or summary sections
of a report first.
d. Skim the report to find those sections
that are related to the chosen questions.
e. Write out a complete bibliographic reference for each work.
2. According to the text, what are three
important roles of incorporating related
literature in a research project? In your
opinion, which role seems most important
to you in your current or future research?
3. Conduct a search on the same general
topic in both ERIC and Education Index.
Compare the usefulness of ERIC and
Education Index in finding related research
on your topic. Compare and contrast two of
the following: the quality of abstracts, the
journals covered, and the subject terms or
descriptors used by the index. Which index
do you predict would be the most useful in
finding research on your topic?
4. Explain the organization and the purpose
of the Mental Measurements Yearbook.
5. What purposes might searching the Social
Science Citation Index serve? In addition to
information about an article’s citation record,
what conclusions might the SSCI help you
draw about an author or about a journal?
6. What conclusion could be drawn regarding
a work, published in 1966, that was cited in
20 articles listed in the 2009 Source Index
of SSCI?
7. If you were interested in the effect of teachers’
stereotyping on the achievement of girls in
math classes, what are some terms for which
you might search? Illustrate how you might
combine them into online search statements
with Boolean operators AND, OR, or NOT.
8. How do indexing and abstracting periodicals,
databases, and aggregate databases differ?
9. Find two web resources on an educationrelated topic of your choice, one from a
commercial (.com) site and one from an
educational (.edu) site. Evaluate them using
the criteria of authority, accuracy, and
timeliness. Are there notable differences
between the sources? Explain.

ANSWERS
1. a, c, d, and e
2. Knowledge of related research enables the
researcher to defi ne the frontiers of the
fi eld, place the question in perspective, and
avoid unintentional replication of previous
studies. Defining the frontiers of research is
especially important for a relatively inexperienced researcher, but any well-reasoned
choice is acceptable.
3. Both provide a means to locate relevant
journal articles. Education Index covers
journals from 1929 to the present. ERIC
includes more journals. Begun in 1966, it
indexes articles using the ERIC thesaurus
of subject descriptors and provides annotations. Education Index does not index
unpublished literature. There are some
periodicals that only Education Index covers, which tend to be newsletters and so
on. Because Wilson Selected Databases,
the electronic version of the index, tends
to have shorter abstracts and also uses a
controlled vocabulary that is less specific
than the ERIC descriptors, most students
will consider ERIC more useful, unless a
student is doing historical research.
4. The editions of MMY provide the most
comprehensive listing and description of
standardized tests available, given its long
publication history and the length and
authority of its reviews. The critical reviews
of the tests assist one in selecting an appropriate test.
5. SSCI provides a way to see what subsequent research has followed a particular
article. You can draw tentative conclusions
about the influence of an author by looking at how often his or her work has been
cited, and in turn, you can draw conclusions about the influential journals in a
fi eld by seeing how often those articles that
are heavily cited seem to come from a cluster of important journal titles.
6. If an older article becomes heavily cited
several years later, there may be several
explanations: The research may have been
treated by a noted scholar in a new way,
a seminal piece of research may have
recently been disproved, or the fi eld of
study may be experiencing a surge of interest because of a news event or finding.
7. Answers will vary, but terms mentioned
would include Females (not Girls) AND
Teacher Attitudes (not Teacher Stereotypes,
which refers to stereotypes of teacher
behavior and attributes) AND Mathematics
Instruction, Mathematics Education, or
Mathematics. Sex Discrimination or Sex
Stereotypes might also be used successfully.
8. Indexing and abstracting periodicals subscribe to journals and sometimes other
sources in a fi eld. Their staff read and
index them and usually produce abstracts
that are published on a regular basis.
This content is incorporated into an
electronic database that makes searching much more precise, complete, and
convenient. Aggregating databases combine single-topic individual databases to
make searches even more convenient and
through.
9. Answers will vary.