972 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON NUCLEAR SCIENCE, VOL. 40, NO.

4, AUGUST 1993

A Ring Compton Scatter Camera for Imaging Medium Energy Gamma Rays*
J.B. Martin, G.F. Knoll, D.K. Wehe, N. Dogan, V. Jordanov, N. Petrick
The Universtiy of Michigan, Dept. of Nuclear Engineering, 2355 Bonisteel Blvd, Ann Arbor, MI 48109
M. Singh
University of Southern California, Radiology and Biomedical Engineering, 3560 McClintock, Los Angeles, CA 90089

Abstract A. Angular Resolution

Characteristics of a new ring Compton scatter camera are In addition to the model adapted here, models for the
described. This camera is designed to image medium energy angular resolution of Compton scatter cameras[2] and
(0.5 to 3 MeV) gamma-ray fields. It consists of two position telescopes[3] have been proposed by others. Each model
sensitive detector arrays: a 4x4 planar array of high purity describes the total angular resolution, A€+, as the
germanium ( W e ) crystals and a ring array of up to 64 combination of independent energy and geometric
NaI(T1) crystals. Past evaluations of Compton cameras have components, AOe and AOg.
employed a planar second detector, which is subjected to a
large flux of gamma rays that either pass directly through or tan2(A8,)= tan2(AOe)+ tan2(AOg) (2)
undergo small angle scatter in the first detector. A ring array
significantly reduces direct and small angle scattered events
A8e is proportional to A%e, the energy resolution with which
in the second detector. An analytical model for ring camera
Ere is measured, when % is known, and it represents the
systems has been developed to predict angular resolution and
efficiency, and has been benchmarked against measurements uncertainty in the scattering and thus the 'One
made with a prototype system consisting of the 4x4 HPGe for locating the incident gamma ray*
array and an 8 element ring. Predictions are made for a
system with 64 crystals in the second detector ring.
(3)
I. INTRODUCTION
A Compton scatter camera employs two position sensitive de mOc2
-- -
gamma-ray detectors. The direction of a gamma ray
incident on the camera can be localized to a conic surface if
it scatters in the first detector, and the scattered gamma ray
dEE [sin(8)(Ey - E%)']
(4)

deposits its full energy in the second. The cone's apex is the
point of interaction in the first detector, and its axis is a back
projection of the direction of the scattered gamma ray.
When the incident gamma-ray energy, % is known (or can
otherwise be determined), the cone angle, 8, can be found
from the recoil electron energy, %e, deposited in the first
detector using the Compton scattering relation.
r 1
L J
The relationship between AEre and A8e is a highly nonlinear
function of the scattering angle. As a result of the sin(8)
term in Eqn. (4), gamma rays scattering through the smallest
or largest angles in the first detector are imaged with poorer
resolution than those events scattering at intermediate angles.
A similar analysis can be applied when is unknown.
The geometric component, AQg, is a function of the
position resolutions of the two detectors, and represents an
angular uncertainty in the cone axis.
tan2(AOg)= tan2(AQw1)+tan2(AOL,)+tan2(AORz) (5)

11. ANALYTICAL
MODELING The three components are functions of: the half width,
W1, of an element in the first detector, perpendicular to the
A has been to the camera's ring axis; the half thickness, L1, of a first detector
resolution and efficiency of Com ton scatter cameras element dong the ring axis; and position resolution in the
a second detector.fi1 We have adapted second detector, R2. Expressions for Aew1 and AeL1 follow
this model for a ring array as the second detector. The model
the previous modelill, but AOE was modified for a ring
is valid for point sources on the symmetry axis of the camera.
array as the second detector.
*This work suppotted in part under DOE Grant DEFG02-8SER12932.

0018-9499/93$03.00 Q 1993 IEEE

 973

second detector.
According to the Klein-Nishina relation embedded in Pc,
small angle Compton scattering is most probable for gamma
rays exceeding 0.5 MeV in energy. In the planar second
detectors used for previous evaluations of Compton cameras,
these poor1 resolved events contribute significantly to the
count rate[z576]. A ring shaped second detector provides an
improved geometry to reject chance and background events
where, from small angle scattered and unscattered gamma rays,
while maintaining good angular resolution. Because the ring
d’ = d[cos(e)], tan(@) = w, /s subtends a smaller range of Compton scattering angles than a
planar detector, it suffers from lower efficiency.
The geometry is illustrated in Fig. 1, showing a single
element from both of the detectors.
111. CAMERA HARDWARE

A diagram of the ring Compton scatter camera geometry is

shown in Fig. 2 below. The first detector is a 4x4 planar
array of HPGe. Each element has a square face, 5 mm on a
side, and a depth of 6 mm. ( S e e references [6,7] for a more
detailed description of this detector.) The second detector is
a ring of up to 64 NaI(T1) crystals. Each NaI element is a
Source right circular cylinder, 19.1 mm in diameter and 50.8 mm in
length. There are presently 8 elements equally spaced in
azimuthal angle around the ring, with each having the same
central scattering angle, €Ic, and center-to-center distance, d,
Fig. 1. Geometric factors used to model angular resolution from the HPGe array. A larger number of detectors in the
of the ring Compton scatter camera. ring array can be simulated by rotating the NaI crystals
azimuthally. The camera geometry allows 8, to be varied
B. Eficiency from 15O to 60° and d to range from 15 cm to 70 cm.

The absolute efficiency for measuring valid events in the n

camera can be expressed as the product of four terms.
HPGe
Detector
Array

01 is the solid angle subtended by the first detector array

relative to the source location. Pc is the probability that a
gamma ray incident on the fust detector undergoes a U
Compton scatter and escapes into the angular range a) Front View
subtended by the face of the second detector (from em. to
em=). This factor has been defined in derail el~ewhere.fl5~1 Crystal
Separation Distance
The fractional area of the angular scattering range, &at,
Central
actually covered by N discrete elements in the second Scattering Angle
detector each with area, A2, is given by f2.
Source
.- Ring
Axis

f2 = N{-&} Detector
Array Nal(TI) Ring
Array Elements

b) Side View -
Fig. 2. Geometry of prototype ring Compton scatter camera.
Finally, &ip2is the intrinsic full energy peak efficiency of the
974

--
Dgz:er
I Constant
L
1st Nal Pulso Height
,+ I---
I Fmction Delay
L1st- Nal - - - - - _ - _ - - _ _ _ _ _ _
- Channel
Discn". ;
m" L

+
C
3

- - _ - - -
Delay .-
c
._
n
a
E
1 U
3 U
Preamp 9
st HPG
Y .-
I
o
c
a

I 1
1st HPGe Pulse Height
I 1st HPGe Channel I

Fig. 3. Schematic diagram of ring Compton scatter camera electronics.

Fig. 3 illustrates the electronics used to process events in A€+, to variations in e,, and predictions are compared to the
the 16 HPGe elements and 8 NaI elements of the ring measurements. There is little variation in AOt over the
Compton scatter camera. (The system is designed to measured range of 8,. The model reflects this flat angular
facilitate up to 64 NaI channels.) Each element in both resolution curve. Predicted values are dominated by the 3.7O
detectors has an electronics channel consisting of timing and
position resolution of the NaI crystals, A O E . Eqn. (8) shows
pulse height digitizing circuits. Events are stored in the
system when one (and only one) of the HPGe elements is that AOm is only a function of d and the NaI crystal radius,
triggered and one or more NaI elements fire within a fixed R2, neither of which were varied in these measurements.
time coincidence window. Digital data from each event
consists of a code identifying the HECe element, the HFGe
pulse height channel number, and an identification code and
pulse height channel number for each NaI that fited. The
data are first stored in a buffered memory of our data
acquisition board and then transferred to a microcomputer's
memory on an event by event basis. This allows each event
to be processed individually during image reconstruction.

Iv. COMPARISON OF MODELTO MEASUREMENTS

Measurements were made to determine the sensitivity of
the camera's angular resolution and efficiency to two
parameters: the central scattering angle, €Ic, and the center-
to-center distance, d. Comparisons were made to the
analytical model to see how well it predicted the camera's
sensitivity to these important parameters.
A 4.8 mm diameter, disk shaped, 100 pCi 137Cs source
was used. It was placed on the ring axis, in front of the
camera with s = 10 cm, and concentric with the NaI ring, as
shown in Fig. 1. Data were recorded with d fixed at 30 cm
for three values of 8,: 30°, 45O and 60°. For 8, = 45O two
additional measurements were made with d set at 17.5 and 45
cm.
A. Angular Resolution from a Single Nal Element
Fig. 4 shows the sensitivity of the total angular resolution,
Fig. 4. Variation with central scattering angle of measured
and predicted angular resolution to 662 keV 137Cs gamma
rays. Fixed values of s = 10 cm and d = 30 cm were used.
Measured resolutions are shown with and with out correction
for finite source size.
The predicted values are consistently 20% lower than the
measured values, when the measurements are not corrected
for the 4.8 mm source diameter. Measured values of AOt
range from 4.7O to 5.4O FWHM corresponding to position
resolutions from 8.3 to 9.4 mm FWHM at 10 cm. The
measured position resolutions are assumed to be equal to the
quadrature sum of the source diameter and the position
resolution of a"truepoint source". By correcting for the

1
 975

10
finite source size in this way, we find an estimate of the
h -- 0 McasuredT0ta.l angular resolution for a "true point source". Note that there
3 8--
.-
A ucpsurrd Tdnl~
- F"dToW
Commd

Rcdiced GcomctryCrmpolcnt
is no systematic offset between the predicted and corrected
measured values. Variation of angular resolution with d,
B
'U 6--
Rcdickd Encrgy Compmnt
both measured and predicted is shown in Fig. 5. As in Fig. 4,
fi 1: AOt is dominated by A€&. The calculation diverges from

i:1
0
- _ _- -A - _ _ the measurements for large d, but correcting for the source
size brings the two into good agreement.
Measured angular resolutions shown in Fig. 4 and Fig. 5
01 I I I
were determined from back projected event data from a
10 20 30 40 50 single NaI element in the second detector. The gray-scale
Crystal SeparationDistance, d (cm) image shown in Fig. 6a is a back projection of data from a
NaI crystal positioned in the horizontal plane (rotation angle,
Fig. 5. Variation with d of measured and predicted angular 4 = Oo) with 8, = 45O. (Back projection is described in
resolution for 662 keV I3'Cs gamma rays. Fixed values of section V.) In Fig. 6b, relative intensity of horizontal and
s = 10 cm and 8, = 45O were used at each d. Measured vertical slices through the source position in the back
resolutions are shown with and with out correction for finite projected data are plotted versus distance from the ring axis.
source size. The FWHM in the horizontal slice is 8.3 mm
corresponding to an angular resolution of 4.7O. The width of
the horizontal slice represents the angular resolution without
any blurring due to the reconstruction algorithm. While any
such algorithm will cause blurring, the analytical model can
not account for it, and the slice width allows direct
'

comparison of predicted and measured resolutions.

B . Eficiency

Fig. 7 gives the absolute efficiency, of Compton

scattering events measured with the 8 element NaI array (in
terms of the valid events per gamma ray emitted by the
source) for a range of 8, values. For any given event, its
total deposited energy was computed by summing calibrated
pulse heights from the HPGe-NaI pair in which it interacted.
Those events having a total deposited energy within +/- 60
keV of the 0.662 MeV, 137Cs gamma ray energy were kept
as valid events. The sensitivity of €CC to variation in d is
120

10Oi
I

--.--
-
Venial
Horizontal A I
I
shown in Fig. 8. Our model closely follows the variation in
1.OE-6 I
---e M ~ s u I ~ ~
___ Predicted

-8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8
I . . I . . I . . I . . I . .
Distance from Camera Axis (em) 1 . ' I . . I . " " I . .

0 15 30 60 75
45 90
b) Central Scattering Angle (deg)

Fig. 6. a) Gray-scale image of back projected 137Cs events
in one NaI detector with 8, = 45O, 4 = Oo. The point source
was located on the ring axis 10 cm from the HPGe array
center. Pixels are 2 mm wide. b) Horizontal and vertical
slices through the image with 4 mm width.
Fig. 7. Variation with central scattering angle of measured
and predicted absolute efficiencies to 662 keV 137Cs gamma
rays. Fixed values of s = 10 cm and d = 30 cm were used at
each scattering angle.
976
&ccwith both 8, and d, but over predicts the magnitude by
2.5E-6 I , 1 25%. The difference indicates that the model overestimates
--e Measured
& 2.0I -Predicted the intrinsic peak efficiency of the second detector.
The camera's intrinsic efficiency is the absolute efficiency
1e 1.9 divided by the geometry factor [Q1/4n]. For 8, = 45O and d
= 30 cm,the measured intrinsic efficiency is 1 . 5 ~ 1 0 ~ .

V. POINTSPREAD
FUNCTIONS

Discrete planar images of the point source were

10 20 30 40 50 reconstructed using a back projection algorithm. First,
Crystal Separation Distance, d (an) histograms of Ere were generated for valid events in each
HPGe-NaI pair. Event cones corresponding to the energy of
Fig. 8. Variation with crystal separation distance of every bin in the histograms were projected into a source
measured and predicted absolute efficiencies to 662 keV space perpendicular to the camera's ring axis. The
137Cs gamma rays. Fixed values of s = 10 cm and 8, = 4 5 O appropriate source space pixels were weighted by the number
were used at each d. of counts in the histogram bin, and corrected for the solid
angle of the HPGe element relative to the center of the pixel.
Finally, an image is produced by summing contributions
from each bin of every W e - N a I histogram. The
reconstructed image of a point source forms a point spread
function or psf.
Fig. 9a is a gray-scale image of the 137Cs disk source on
the ring axis, 10 cm from the HPGe array. The NaI elements
were positioned so that d was 30 cm and 8, was 45O. The
array was rotated 22S0 to simulate a 16 element array. Fig.
9b shows horizontal and vertical slices through the source
position. The FWHM is 16 mm in the horizontal and vertical
directions, giving angular resolutions of 9.1° for both.
These resolutions are larger than indicated by Fig. 4. The
slice data in Fig. 6b illustrates how peak broadening is
caused by summing back projected cones from the 16 NaI
a) elements. For example, back projected data from the NaI
element rotated 90° from the one used in Fig. 6 would be
120
- Vertical
broad in the horizontal direction and narrow in the vertical at
the source position. Adding these two data sets yields peaks
much wider than the narrow peaks in both directions.

CAPABILITIES
VI. PREDICTED

Measurements done to date are intended to provide a bench

mark for the model and demonstrate gamma ray imaging
with a ring Compton camera. The planned system consists of
the same 4x4 W e array, but with 64 of the NaI crystals
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 I5 with a separation distance held at 85 cm. For a 137Cs point
Distance from Camera Axis (an) source 30 cm from the camera, the total angular resolution of
this system will be between 1.3O and 2.0°, over the range of
8, shown in Fig. 4, with the energy component as low as
0.3O. We predicted total resolutions between 1.3O and 1.6O
Fig. 9. a) Gray-scale image of back projected events from 16 for the 1.33 MeV gamma rays from a 6oCo point source also
NaI detectors, spaced evenly about the ring with 8, = 45O. 30 cm from the camera. Improvements in resolution over the
1 3 7 ~ source
s was on the ring axis 10 cm from m e array prototype are largely due to the increased crystal separation
center. Pixel width is 4 mm. b) Horizontal and vertical distance. If the ratio between predicted and image resolution
slices through the image with 8 mm width. holds from the demonstration system, image resolutions for
the full system will be as IOW as 30.

7
 977

VII. BACKPROJECTION IMAGES With the same camera geometry that was used to measure
the two 137Cs sources, measurements were made of a "U"
A back projected image of two 137Cs sources is shown in shaped 6oCo source located in a plane perpendicular to the
Fig. 10. A 20 pCi point source was placed on the ring axis camera axis, 10 cm from the HPGe center. A back projected
with s = 10 cm, and the 100 pCi disk source used for all the gray-scale image of the 1.33 MeV gamma rays is shown in
previous measurements was placed 30° off the ring axis. Fig. 11. The source itself is less than 1 pixel (4 mm) wide;
Both sources were positioned in the same plane the width of the image is largely due to the back projection.
perpendicular to the ring axis, separated by 5.8 cm. The NaI The center of the image corresponds to the ring axis; note
ring was rotated 22S0 to simulate a 16 element array, and that the sections of the source closest to the axis have the
the NaI elements were configured with d = 30 cm and 8, = best resolution. This is consistent with the image of the two
45O. The image was generated with the same algorithm used 137cs sources.
to generate the psf in Fig. 9. The 20 pCi source is easily
distinguishable from the tails of the 100 pCi; however, VIII. CONCLUSIONS
distortions and artifacts from the larger source are clearly
visible at the edge of the image plane. The distortion and Using a single element in the second detector of the ring
Compton scatter camera, we have measured total angular
elongation of the larger source's image in the horizontal
resolutions as low as 4.50 FWHM for a point 1 3 7 ~ source.
direction, result from our simple back projection algorithm.
s
In point spread functions generated with a simple back
projection algorithm, the angular resolution is worse by a
factor of 2.
An analytical model of the ring Compton camera predicts
angular resolutions and efficiencies that are within 25% of
the measured values. More importantly, this model closely
follows the shape of the measured data versus central
scattering angle and crystal separation distance. For a system
employing 64 NaI crystals with a crystal Separation distance
of 85 cm, the angular resolution is predicted to be between
1.3O and 2.0°.
Back projected images of simple 137Cs and %o source
geometries were generated. The back projection algorithm
degrades the resolution and introduces artifacts for sources
off of the cameras axis of symmetry. Presently, a maximum
likelihood reconstruction algorithm is being developed for
Fig. 10. Gray-scale image of two 137Cs sources using a 16 the ring Compton scatter camera. The maximum likelihood
and other iterative reconstruction techniques have
NaI element ring. Pixel width is 4 mm in both directions.
See text for geometry. successfully been used to generate images with good
resolution and low distortion for a planar Compton
camera. From the improved reconstruction algorithm,
[8991

we exwct image resolutions approaching those measured

Fig. 11. Gray-scale image of " U shaped source using t31 V. Schonfelder, U. Graser and R. Diehl, "Properties and
a 16 N ~ Ielement ring. pixel width is 4 111111 in both Performance of the MPI Balloon Borne Compton Telescope",
directions. See text for geometry. Astron. Astrophys., vol. 110, pp. 138-151, 1982.
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