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Phanerozoic correlation in Southern South America

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 Phanerozoic Correlation in Southern South America

A. B. França O. Ferreiro
E. J. Milani Petropar
Asunción, Paraguay
R. L. Schneider
Petrobras/NEXPAR E. A. Rossello
Curitiba, Brazil
Buenos Aires, Argentina

O. López P.
H. A. Bianucci
J. López M.
R. F. A. Flores
R. Suárez S.
M. C. Vistalli
YPFB, Gerencia de Exploración
Santa Cruz, Bolivia F. Fernandez-Seveso
YPF, Gerencia de Geologia
H. Santa Ana Buenos Aires, Argentina

ANCAP, Sección Geologica

Montevideo, Uruguay R. P. Fuenzalida
N. Muñoz
F. Wiens Sipetrol–New Ventures
Asunción, Paraguay Santiago, Chile

Abstract

A major characteristic of the oil industry is that geologic data tend to be kept within each company. In
South America, where state-owned companies and exploration monopolies predominate, there are
many datasets and many different interpretations. These “virgin” data constitute a valuable basis for assem-
bling a correlation study across the continent. The authors of this paper are making probably the first attempt
to put together extensive, previously unavailable information and present it to the geologic community.
The geology of Gondwana is strikingly different from the geology of Laurasia. Gondwana basins tend to be
dominated by siliciclastics, whereas northern hemisphere basins are rich in limestones. This largely reflects the
cold climate that predominated in Gondwana during most of the Paleozoic. Thick diamictites and sandstones
deposited during glaciation in the Carboniferous–Permian are widespread in the Gondwana of South
America. These sandstones are the principal reservoirs in the Bolivian and northwestern Argentinian gas
fields. Gas and condensate in these fields are sourced from the underlying Devonian black shales.
A regional unconformity on top of the Devonian shales played an important role in oil migration into
overlying beds in Bolivia and Argentina. Structural traps created during the Hercynian orogeny, and later
during the Andean orogeny, were also important for hydrocarbon accumulation near the Cordillera de Los
Andes. A huge area east of the Andes is still a frontier area. This includes the Paraná and Chaco-Paraná basins
in Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay, and Argentina, covering an area larger than 1.7 million km2. There are fewer
than 200 exploration wells drilled in these basins.

Resumen

U na de las mayores características de la Industría Petrolera es que los datos geológicos son guardados
entre cada compañia. En Sud América donde los estados tienen compañias estatales predomina el
monopolio de la exploración y por supuesto guardan muchos datos e interpretaciones. Estos datos “virgenes”
constituyen una buona base de evaluación para ensamblar estudios y correlaciónes a través del Continente.
Los autores de este trabajo, están problabamente haciendo el primer intento de juntar estos dadtos, que no
estaban disponibles anteriormente a la comunidad geológica.

França, A. B., E. J. Milani, R. L. Schneider, O. López P., J. López M., R. Suárez S., H. Santa 129
Ana, F. Wiens, O. Ferreiro, E. A. Rossello, et al., 1995, Phanerozoic correlation in
southern South America, in A. J. Tankard, R. Suárez S., and H. J. Welsink, Petroleum
basins of South America: AAPG Memoir 62, p. 129–161.
130 França et al.

La geología de Gondwana es muy diferente a la geología de la Laurasia. La cuenca del Gondwana tiende a
ser dominada por silico clásticos que en comparación al hemisferio Norte son dominados por calizas, lo cual
refleja, como el clima frío predomina en Gondwana durante gran parte del Paleozóico. Intervalos gruesos de
diamictitas y areniscas depositadas durante la glaciación en el Pérmico-Carbonífero se ven grandemente
distribuidas en el Gondwana de Sud América. Estas areniscas son los principales reservorios de los campos de
Gas en Bolivia y el N-O Argentino. Gas y condensado en estos campos provienen de las arcillas negras del
Devónico infrayacente.
La discordancia en el tope de las arcillas Devónicas juega un papel importante en la migración del petróleo
hacia las capas suprayacentes en Bolivia y Argentina. Las trampas estructurales creadas durante la Orogenia
Hercínica y más tarde durante la Orogenia Andina tienen también importancia para la acumulación de hidro-
carburos cerca de la cordillera de los Andes. Una área grande al Este de los Andes continúa aún como un área
de frontera. Estas incluyen las cuencas de Paraná y la Cuenca Chaco-Paraná en Brasil, Paraguay-Uruguay y
Argentina cubriendo un área de mas de 1.7 millones de km2. Actualmente existem menos de 200 pozos
perforados en esta cuenca.

INTRODUCTION Several wells drilled in the Paraná basin have also

The aim of this paper is to present a set of time-slice
geologic maps, stratigraphic charts, and geologic cross
sections of southern South America (Figure 1). A team of
South American geologists and geophysicists from oil
companies in six countries (Brazil, Bolivia, Uruguay,
Paraguay, Argentina, and Chile) has been working for
the last 3 years on a project with the main goal of assem-
bling a large amount of geologic information, mostly of
industrial origin. These data include reflection seismic
lines, well logs, and surface and subsurface maps.
Eighteen geologic maps spanning Vendian–Cambrian
to Tertiary time portray the history of sedimentary filling
as well as magmatic events, such as the Andean volcanic
arch, several Paleozoic granitic intrusions, and the largest
flood basalt on earth (Serra Geral and Alto Paraná forma-
tions of Jurassic–Cretaceous age).
Four geologic charts with 32 stratigraphic columns
(Figures 2, 3, 4, 5) show the spatial and age distributions
of the main lithostratigraphic units. The charts also
contain information on oil and gas production as well as
important source rocks. Four cross sections (see foldouts,
Figures 22, 23) illustrate the internal geometry of the
sedimentary basins and their regional arches, basin-
forming faults, and folds. Three of these cross sections
extend from the active margin in Chile to the passive
Atlantic margin of the Brazilian offshore. The fourth
cross section extends north-south across the Pampean
and Chaco plains in Argentina and Paraguay.
VENDIAN–CAMBRIAN GEOLOGIC MAP
The Vendian–Cambrian map (Figure 6) is based
mostly on outcrop information, although a few wells
have been drilled into Vendian–Cambrian units in
Bolivia. In Brazil, three wells have been drilled in the São
Francisco basin (Figure 1), where gas seeps have long
been reported in the Bambuí Group (Figures 2, 6).
According to Dardenne (1978), the Bambuí Group is
composed of shales, sandstones, and stromatolitic lime-
stones believed to be the source rocks. Oil and gas seeps
have also been reported in limestones of the Corumbá
Formation on the Brazil–Bolivia border (Figures 2, 6).
reached Vendian–Cambrian stratigraphy.
Northeast-trending grabens (Figure 6) are filled with
sandstone, conglomerate, and rhyolite assigned to the
Castro and Itajaí groups (Figure 4) (Trein and Fuck, 1967;
Macedo et al., 1984). These and other grabens buried
beneath the central part of the Paleozoic cover were
probably Brasiliano depocenters. They also established
the fundamental fabric along which the Paraná basin
subsided during the Ordovician. Several granitic
emplacements (Figures 2–6) took place in the Cambrian
and Ordovician (510 Ma, K-Ar) , such as the São Vicente
and Subida granites (Figures 2, 4, 6) in Brazil (Almeida,
1954; Schultz et al., 1969), the San Ramón suite in
Paraguay (Figure 3), the Sierra de Animas (Figures 4, 6)
and other granites in Uruguay (Umpierre and Halpern,
1971), and several minor granites in Argentina and
Bolivia.
The upper Proterozoic rocks of eastern Bolivia record
the effects of climate, including glacial diamictites and
tillites (Putatoe Formation), arkosic sandstones of the
Boqui Formation, and shales and limestones of the Pororo
and Corumbá formations (Figures 2, 5, 6) (López, 1982).
Along the Pacific active margin within the Andean
orogen, highly metamorphosed rocks of the Belén and
Limón Verde schists crop out in Arica and Antofagasta,
respectively (Pacci et al., 1980; Mpodozis et al., 1983;
Hervé et al., 1985).
ORDOVICIAN GEOLOGIC MAP
Ordovician rocks (Figure 7) are well exposed in the
eastern Cordillera of Bolivia (Guananuco, Iscayachi,
Cuchupunata, and San Benito formations; Figures 2, 7)
and in northwestern Argentina (Santa Victoria Group;
Figure 3) (Rivas, 1971; Suarez, 1976; Bahlburg et al.,
1990). The Enadere Formation and the fossiliferous
Tarene Formation are present in the Bolivian sub-
Andean region (Canedo Reyes, 1960). In northern Chile,
the Estratos de Sotoca Formation (Figures 2, 7) is
composed of marine sandstone, siltstone, and mudstone.
Ordovician rocks are also present in the Chilean Puna as
the Aguada de la Perdiz Formation (Figures 3, 7) in the
northern Sierra de Almeyda and Sierra de Argomedo.
 Phanerozoic Correlation in Southern South America 131

Figure 1—Principal geologic provinces and cross section locations. The correlation charts (Figures 2–5) are located along
the cross sections. Key to structural features: 1–Ponta Grossa arch; 2–Rio Grande arch; 3–Aceguá arch; 4–Tambores arch;
5–Tandilia arch; 6–Camilo Aldao arch; 7–Las Breñas arch; 8–Asunción arch.
132 França et al.
(facing page)
Figure 2—Correlation chart A–B, showing sedimentary columns in Chile, Bolivia, and Brazil. The eastern Cordillera and sub-Andean areas contain most of the
Paleozoic gas production in Bolivia.
KEY to formation names: CHILE (ARICA): 1–Lauca; 2–Oxaya; 3–Chucal; 4–Panjuacha; 5–Blanco; 6–Chusmiza; 7–Camaraca; 8–Caleta Ligate; 9–La Negra; 10–Livilcar;
11–Chocolate; 12–Juan de Morales; 13–Quipisca; 14–Quebrada Aroma; 15–Estratos de Poroma; 16–Estratos de Sotoca; 17–Esquistos de Sierra Morena;
18–Esquistos de Belén. BOLIVIA (ALTIPLANO): 1–Umala/Charanas; 2–Los Frailes/Cuzcos; 3–Caquiaviri/Quehuas; 4–San Vicente/Tambillo/Coniris; 5–Potoco;
6–Berenguela/Tiahuanacos; 7–Cayara/Tusques; 8–Santa Lucia; 9–El Molino; 10–Chaunaca; 11–Mulasi; 12–Aroifilla; 13–Miraflores; 14–Tarapaya; 15–La Puerta;
16–Copacabana; 17–Kasa; 18–Cumana; 19–Colpacucho; 20–Huamampampa; 21–Belen; 22–Vila Vila; 23–Catavi; 24–Uncia; 25–Llallagua; 26–Huanuni; 27–Cancañiri.
BOLIVIA ANDINO (CORDILLERA ORIENTAL): 1–Pailaiviai/Caracoles; 2–Agua Dulce; 3–Mondragon/Bolivars; 4–Potoco; 5–Cayara; 6–Santa Lúcia; 7–El Molino; 8–Toro
Toro; 9–Copacabana; 10–Tarija; 11–Tupambi; 12–Saipuru; 13–Iquiri; 14–Los Mons; 15–Huamampampa; 16–Icla; 17–Vila Vila; 18–Catavi; 19–Uncia; 20–Llallagua;
21–Caliza Sacta; 22–Huanuni; 23–Cancañiri; 24–San Benito; 25–Cuchupunata; 26–Capinota. BOLIVIA (SUB-ANDINO AND PIEDMONTE): 1–San Isidro; 2–Emborozu;
3–Guandacai/Charquis; 4–Ariquia/Quendeques; 5–Tecua; 6–Petaca/Balas; 7–Cajones; 8–Yantata; 9–Ichoa; 10–Castellon; 11–Tapecua; 12–Entre Rios Basalt; 13–San
Diego; 14–Ipaguazu; 15–Copacabana/Vitiacuas; 16–Cangapi/Elviras; 17–San Telmo; 18–Escarpment; 19–Taiguati; 20–Chorro; 21–Tarija; 22–Itacuami; 23–Tupambi;
24–Saipuru; 25–Tobas; 26–Iquiri; 27–Los Monos; 28–Limoncito; 29–Huamampampa; 30–Icla; 31–Santa Rosa; 32–Robore; 33–Catavi; 34–El Carmen; 35–Kirusillas;
36–Caliza Sacta; 37–Cancañiri; 38–Tobas; 39–San Benito; 40–Cuchupunata; 41–Capinota; 42–Guanucunu; 43–Iscayachi; 44–Sama; 45–Torohuayco; 46–Camacho;
47–Cañani Granite; 48–Puncosvicana; 49–Tucavaca; 50–Pororo/Corumbá; 51–Boqui; 52–Putatoe. BOLIVIA (CHACO): 1–Guandacay; 2- Taribuia; 3–Yecua; 4–Petaca;
5–Cajones; 6–Yantata; 7–Ichoa; 8–Castellon; 9–Cangapi; 10–San Telmo; 11–Escarment; 12–Taiguati; 13–Chorro; 14–Tarija; 15–Itacuami; 16–Tupambi; 17–Saipuru;
18–Limoncito; 19–Robore; 20–Kirusillas; 21–El Carmen; 22–Tucava; 23–Pororo/Corumbá; 24–Boqui; 25–Putatoe. BOLIVIA (CHIQUITANA): 1–Tobite; 2–El Porton
Superior; 3–El Porton Inferior; 4–Limoncito; 5–Robore; 6–El Carmen; 7–San Silvestre/Cajon Granite; 8–Tucavaca; 9–Pororo/Corumbá; 10–Boqui; 11–Putatoe.
PARANA BASIN (NORTH): 1–Cachoeirinha; 2–Iporá Granite; 3–Bauru Group; 4–Serra Geral; 5–Botucatu; 6–Pirambóia; 7–Corumbataí (= Rio do Rasto and Teresina);
8–Irati; 9–Palermo; 10–Rio Bonito; 11–Itararé Group/Aquidauana; 12–Ponta Grossa; 13–Furnas; 14–Vila Maria; 15–Iapó; 16–Rio Ivaí Group; 17–Tres Lagoas Basalt;
18–Piranhas; 19–São Vicente Granite; 20–Corumbá; 21–Puga. SÃO FRANCISCO BASIN: 1–Urucuia; 2–Floresta; 3–Bambuí Group. ESPIRITO SANTO BASIN:
1–Barreiras; 2–Rio Doce; 3–Caravelas; 4–Urucutuca; 5–Abrolhos; 6–Regencia Member; 7–São Mateus; 8–Mariricu; 9–Cabiúnas; 10–Jaguaré.

nized.
Paraná basin complex.
(Breitkreutz et al., 1988).

Formation of southern Brazil.

SILURIAN GEOLOGIC MAP

Phanerozoic Correlation in Southern South America

de Afilar Formation (Cingolani et al., 1990) (Figures 4, 7).

Silurian glaciation recorded in the Cancañiri and Zapla

believed to be inherited from Vendian–Cambrian time

abundant (Figure 8). In Brazil and Paraguay, sandstone

3, 7), composed mostly of sandstones, occurs in two

with the Late Ordovician glaciation of the Pakhuis

raphy. The Silurian age for the “Canacañiri glaciation”
the Alto Garças Formation (Assine et al., in press) crop

(Ashgill) based on recent studies in the Argentine

apparently thickens westward from the Paraná basin
toward Paraguay and Bolivia. This suggests that the

and siltstone predominate and shale is subordinate. In

onset of deposition in the Paraná basin was initially
Uruguay, the Ordovician is represented by the Piedras

units are composed of diamictite and sandstone;

out in the northern part of the Paraná basin, in the states

thickness varies from a few meters in outcrops to 1500 m

stones of the Rio Ivai Group in the Paraná and Chaco-
ingly, the shales of the Santa Victoria Group in Argentina
Group (Figures 2, 3, 7) are the oldest known rocks of the

Formation in Bolivia, the Zapla Formation in Argentina,

(Milani, 1992). The Caacupé Group of Paraguay (Figures

and Iapó formations have been used as regional

133

in Bolivian wells (Ahlfeld and Branisa, 1960; Mingramm

Paraná and Chaco-Paraná basin complex. This sequence

that the glaciation lasted from the Ashgillian to Llan-

geologic guides in South American Gondwana stratig-
the area studied in Chile, no Silurian rocks are recog-
(Figure 7) are interpreted as distal facies of the sand-
appears to have developed only at a later stage. Accord-

Silurian rocks are well known in Bolivia and

trending grabens. A shelf open toward the proto-Pacific
(hemipelagic–turbidite facies) and tholeiitic pillow lavas

doverian time. This glacial interlude could also correlate

and the Iapó Formation in Brazil (Figure 8). These three
this part of South America is recorded in the Cancañiri
Argentina, where fossiliferous shales and diamictites are
controlled (Alto Garças Formation) by northeast-
These sequences consist mainly of silicic and volcani-

formations of Argentina and Bolivia and in the Iapó

the Ocloyic diastrophism, which preceded the Early
Garças Formation is also present in deep wells in the

Precordillera by Buggisch and Astini (1993). It is likely

has been contested in favor of a Late Ordovician age
The first known Paleozoic glaciation documented in
wells and in outcrops near Asunción (Wiens, 1989). In
Paraná basin where it fills northeast-trending grabens
Upper Ordovician sandstones and conglomerates of

et al., 1979; Crowell et al., 1980). The Cancañiri, Zapla,

of Mato Grosso and Goiás, Brazil (Figure 7). The Alto

The Ordovician rocks were partially eroded during

clastic sandstone and siltstone with graptolitic fauna

The sandstones and conglomerates of the Rio Ivaí

134 França et al.
 Phanerozoic Correlation in Southern South America 135

Formation in South Africa (Visser, 1992).

20–Lizoite; 21–Puncoviscana; 22–Canani Granite; 23–Tienditas; 24–Sancha Flysch. ARGENTINA (SANTA BARBARA SYSTEM): 1–Lumbrera; 2–Maiz Gordo; 3–Mealla;
10–Mendieta; 11- Almt. Colorado; 12–Cachipunco; 13–Zapla; 14–Centinela; 15–Cel. Labrado; 16–Zanjon; 17–Capillas/Mojotoro; 18–Chalhaualmayoc; 19–Campanario;
KEY to formation names: CHILE (ANTOFAGASTA): 1–Gravas de Atacama; 2- La Portada; 3–El Loa; 4–Chojfitas; 5–San Pedro; 6–Augusta Victoria; 7–Quebrada Mala;

Group. ARGENTINA (CORDILLERA ORIENTAL): 1–Lumbrera; 2–Maiz Gordo; 3–Mealla; 4–Yacoraite; 5- Lecho; 6–Los Blanquitos; 7–La Yesera; 8–Tarija; 9–Tupambi;
Bolivia has the best preserved Silurian sequence in

12–Furnas; 13–Cariy; 14–Vargas Peña; 15–Eusebio Ayala; 16–Caacupé Group; 17–San Ramón Suite; 18–Itapucumi. PARANA BASIN (CENTRAL): 1–Bauru; 2–Serra
17–Agua Dulce; 18–Peine; 19–Estratos del Salar de Navidad; 20–El Toco; 21–Lila; 22–Quebrada Lenitas; 23–Aguada de la Perdiz; 24–Complejo Metamorfico Limón

ARGENTINA (CHACO, SALTA, AND WESTERN FORMOSA): 1–Lumbrera; 2–Maiz Gordo; 3–Mealla; 4–Olmedo; 5–Lecho/Yacoraites; 6–Pirgua Group; 7- San Telmo;
Figure 3—Correlation chart C–D, showing sedimentary columns in Chile, Argentina, Paraguay, and Brazil. Salta and western Formosa areas produce gas and oil in

8–Las Penas; 9–Tarija; 10–Itacuami; 11–Tupambi; 12–Tonono; 13–Michicola; 14–Rincon; 15–Cabure; 16–Copo; 17–Zapla; 18–Las Brenas. PARAGUAY ORIENTAL:
southern South America. All formations are fossiliferous,

Verde. ARGENTINA (PUNA): 1–Casa Grande; 2–Lumbrera; 3–Maiz Gordo; 4–Mealla; 5–Lecho; 6–Yacoraite; 7–Cerro Oscuro; 8–Salar del Rincon; 9–Santa Victoria

1–Alkaline rocks; 2–Acaray; 3–Alto Paraná; 4–Missiones; 5–Cabacua; 6–Tapyta; 7–Tacuary; 8–San Miguel; 9–Coronel Oviedo; 10–Aquidaban; 11–Ponta Grossa;
8–Purilactis; 9–Lomas Negras; 10–El Way; 11–Guacate; 12–Llanura Colorada; 13–La Negra; 14–Sierra El Codre; 15–Caracoles; 16–Posada de Los Hidalgos Fm.;
containing brachiopods, trilobites, and graptolites

4–Olmedo; 5–Lecho/Yacoraites; 6–Pirgua Sub Group; 7–Michicola; 8–Rincon; 9–Arroyo Colorado; 10–Cachipunco; 11–Zapla; 12–Centinela; 13–Meson Group.

Geral; 3–Botucatu; 4–Pirambóia; 5–Rio do Rasto; 6–Teresina; 7–Serra Alta; 8–Irati; 9–Palermo; 10–Rio Bonito; 11–Taciba; 12–Campo Mourão; 13–Lagoa Azul;
(Suarez, 1989; Ciguel, 1991). The Kirusillas Formation,

14–Ponta Grossa; 15–Furnas; 16–Vila Maria; 17–Rio Ivai Group. CAMPOS BASIN: 1–Emborê; 2–Grussal; 3–Campos; 4–Macaé; 5–Lagoa Feia; 6–Cabiunas.
composed of black shales and thin sandstone bodies, is
believed to be one of the source rocks for the gas
produced in the sub-Andean along the Chaco basin. The
thickness of the Kirusillas Formation is about 615 m in its
type area at Sucre-Camiri road (Ahlfeld and Branisa,
1960).
The Llandoverian Vargas Peña Formation in Para-
guay (Ciguel, 1988; Gordon and Miller, 1991) and the
Llandoverian Vila Maria Formation in Brazil (Gray et al.,
1985) are the only fossiliferous Silurian sequences in
these two countries. Both units consist of shale and
siltstone with thicknesses varying from a few meters in
outcrop to 60 m in deep wells.
The erosive Pojo phase at the end of the Silurian
(Cordillerano cycle) was an important event in Bolivia. A
major unconformity is present on top of the Kirusillas,
Catavi, Tarabuco, and El Carmen formations (Figure 2).
This unconformity is not obvious in the Cachipunco and
Copo formations in Argentina. The Pojo phase in Brazil
may have eroded more deeply, to the extent that it may
correlate with the unconformity above the Vila Maria
Formation (Figures 2, 3).

DEVONIAN GEOLOGIC MAPS

The Devonian is recognized worldwide as a period of
major flooding. As a consequence, several anoxic basins
and thick black shales developed during Frasnian–
Famennian time and are responsible for about 8% of the
world’s original petroleum reserves (Klemme and
Ulmishek, 1991).
The Devonian record in Chile is variable (Figures 9,
10). In the Copiapó area, it is represented by the Chañaral
melange (sandstone, shale, and limestone); in northern
Chile by a suite of turdiditic sandstones and volcanic
rocks that are intensively folded; and in the coastal
Cordillera by the El Toco and Las Tortolas formations,
consisting of thin-bedded and fine-grained turbidites
and hemipelagic clays (Bahlburg, 1985; Bahlburg et al.,
1988). In Bolivia, the Los Monos, Limoncito, and Icla
Carboniferous and Devonian sequences.

formations (Barrett and Isaacson, 1988; Isaacson and

Sablock, 1988) of Early–Middle Devonian age (Figure 9)
are over 2000 m thick. They are the source rocks for
about 90% of the gas, oil, and condensate produced in
Bolivia.
The Huamampampa Formation (Figure 2), a 770-m-
thick sandstone unit (Isaacson and Sablock, 1988) in the
sub-Andean and eastern Cordillera of Bolivia and
Argentina, is a prolific oil and gas reservoir interval. In
Brazil, the Devonian is represented by the sandy Furnas
Formation and shales of the Ponta Grossa Formation
(facing page)

(Assine et al., in press) (Figure 9). Noncommercial gas

and condensate shows occur locally in the Ponta Grossa
Formation (about 500 m thick) and in the overlying
Itararé Group, both sourced from the Ponta Grossa
136 França et al.
 Phanerozoic Correlation in Southern South America 137

shales. The Lower Devonian in Sierra de La Ventana in

KEY to formation names: CHILE (COPIAPO): 1–Gravas de Atacama; 2–Complejo Vulcánico La Coipa; 3–Calderas de Cel. Puquios; 4–Cerrillos; 5–Quebrada Monardes;

12–Lavalleja/Rocha Group. PARANA BASIN (SOUTH): 1–Alkalines of Lages; 2–Serra Geral; 3–Nova Prata Member; 4–Botucatu; 5–Pirambóia; 6–Rosário do Sul; 7–Rio
(MESOPOTAMIA): 1–Ituzaingo; 2–Entre Rios; 3–Paraná; 4–Fray Bentos; 5–Puerto Yerua; 6–Serra Geral; 7–Tacuarembó; 8–Buena Vista. URUGUAY (NORTH): 1–Salto;
2–Camacho; 3–Fray Bentos; 4–Ascencio; 5–Mercedes; 6–Guichon; 7–Arapey; 8–Tacuarembó; 9–Buena Vista; 10–Yaguari; 11–Passo Aguiar; 12–Mangrulo; 13–Frayle
6–Chañarcillo Group; 7–Água Helada; 8–Lautaro; 9–Cifuncho; 10–La Ternera; 11–Estratos Las Represas; 12–Pantanoso; 13–Chinches; 14–Las Tortolas; 15–Melange
Chañaral. ARGENTINA (PRE-CORDILLERA): 1–Araucanense; 2–Calchaquence; 3–Saladillo; 4–Upper Patiquia de La Cuesta; 5–Lower Patiquia de La Cuesta; 6–Tupe;
eastern Argentina is represented by the Lolén Formation

18–Subida and Dom Feliciano Granites; 19–Maricá Group. SANTOS BASIN: 1–Sepetiba; 2–Iguape; 3–Marambaia; 4–Santos; 5–Juréia; 6–Upper Itajaí; 7–Lower Itajaí;
Figure 4—Correlation chart E–F showing sedimentary columns for Chile, Argentina, Uruguay, and Brazil. This chart has few hydrocarbon shows, probably because

(SIERRAS PAMPEANAS): 1–Estratos de Los Llanos; 2–Cosquin; 3–Cerro Raiado; 4–Los Colorados; 5–Ischigualastro; 6–Los Rastros; 7–Ischichuca; 8–Talampaya;

Muerto; 14–Tres Islas; 15–San Gregório; 16–La Paloma; 17–Cordobes; 18–Cerrezuelo; 19–Lavalleja Group. URUGUAY (PUNTA DEL ESTE/SANTA LUCIA): 1–Salto;
(Cobbold et al., 1986), a folded and low-grade metamor-

do Rasto; 8–Teresina; 9–Serra Alta; 10–Irati; 11–Palermo; 12–Rio Bonito; 13–Itararé Group ; 14–Ponta Grossa; 15- Furnas; 16–Camaquã Group; 17–Itajaí Group;
7–Cuandacol; 8–; 9–Talacasto; 10–Los Espejos; 11–La Chilca; 12–La Cantera; 13–Qualcamayo; 14–San Juan; 15–San Roque/Zondas; 16–La Laja. ARGENTINA

9–Tupe Sandstones. ARGENTINA (CUENCA CHACO PARANENSE): 1–Entre Rios; 2–Paraná; 3–Fray Bentos; 4–Mariano Baedo; 5–Serra Geral; 6–Tacuarembó;
phic shale with apparently no source potential. In

2–Camacho; 3–Fray Bentos; 4–Ascencio; 5–Mercedes; 6–Guichoa; 7–Migues; 8–Puerto Gomez; 9–Piedras de Afilar; 10–Sierra de Animas; 11–Barriga Negra;
Uruguay, the Devonian record is represented by the
Durazno Group, about 280 m thick. It consists of

7–Buena Vista; 8–Victorino Rodrigues; 9–Ordonez; 10–Rincón; 11–Cabure; 12–Las Breñas; 13–Arbol Blanco; 14–Pirane; 15–Puncoviscana. ARGENTINA
sandstone, siltstone, and fossiliferous shale of Early
Devonian age (Porta et al., 1985).
The Upper Devonian (Frasnian–Famennian) succes-
sion is well documented in Bolivia (Figure 10), where a
considerable part of the Iquiri (700–1100 m thick) and
Colpacucho formations were preserved from the erosive
Tatarenda event (Figure 2). In Brazil, however, the
erosive Early Carboniferous Tararenda event was
intense. The upper part of the Ponta Grossa Formation
(Melo, 1988) was almost completely eroded (Figures 2, 3,
4, 10), and reworked Frasnian–Famennian fossils are
commonly found in the lowermost units of the Carbonif-
erous–Permian Itararé Group in the Paraná basin. Recent
seismic lines, well log correlations, and field data from
the Paraná basin show the presence of deep erosion of
there is very little Devonian shale, which is the most important source rock in the South American Gondwana.

the Ponta Grossa Formation. This suggests that glaciers

could have been an important erosive factor during the
Tatarenda event.

CARBONIFEROUS GEOLOGIC MAP

Undoubtedly the most important geologic event in
the Carboniferous of southern South America was the
Gondwana glaciation. This glacial period lasted about 50
m.y., spanning Visean (Carboniferous) to Artinskian–
Kungurian (Permian) time (González, 1990). The
geologic record of this glaciation includes glaciomarine
diamictite, turbiditic sandstone, and rare shale (Reyes,
1972; González, 1982; Gravenor and Rocha-Campos,
1983; López-Gamundi, 1989; Limarino and Gutierrez,
8–Florianópolis; 9–Guarujá; 10–Ariri; 11–Guaratiba; 12–Camboriú.

1990; Campos, 1992; González Bonorino, 1992; Eyles et

al., 1993). Fossil assemblages are dominated by pollen,
spores, and marine microplankton (Suarez, 1989; R.
Daemon, 1993, personal communication).
Turbiditic channel-filling sandstones of the Tupambi,
Tarija, Chorro, Escarpment, and San Telmo formations
are the most important reservoir rocks in Bolivia and
northern Argentina. These units were deposited in
Visean–Westphalian time. The seal rocks are diamictites
and subordinate shales of the Saipuru and Taiguati
formations. More than 80% of the gas and condensate
produced in Bolivia comes from Carboniferous
glaciomarine rocks sourced from the Devonian black
shales of the Los Monos and Icla formations (Sempere,
1995). Carboniferous rocks in Brazil (Figure 11) are
restricted to the lowermost Lagoa Azul Formation of
Westphalian age (Figure 3), which has the best gas show
in the Paraná basin (França and Potter, 1991), the
Aquidauana Formation red beds (Figures 2, 11), and
possibly the Floresta Formation (Figures 2, 11) in the São
(facing page)

Francisco basin (Campos, 1992). Carboniferous red beds

are also present in the Aquidaban Formation of Para-
guay and the Paganzo Group of Argentina (Fernandez-
Seveso et al., 1993).
138 França et al.
 Phanerozoic Correlation in Southern South America 139

Chile has no record of the Carboniferous–Permian

4–Chacabuco; 5–Charata; 6–Sachayoj; 7–Rincon; 8–Cabure; 9–Copo; 10–Zapla; 11–Las Breñas; 12–Arbol Blanco; 13–Pirane; 14–Puncoviscana. ARGENTINA (SALTA

3–Mealla; 4–Olmedo; 5–Palo Santo; 6–Yacoraite; 7–Palmar Largo; 8–Lecho; 9–Berta. PARAGUAY OCCIDENTAL: 1–Upper Chaco; 2–Lower Chaco; 3–Santa Bárbara;
glaciation. The Carboniferous succession in Chile

24–Boqui; 25–Putatoe. BOLIVIA (CHIQUITANA): 1–Tobite; 2–El Porton Superior; 3–El Porton Inferior; 4–Limoncito; 5–Robore; 6–El Carmen; 7–San Silvestre/Cajon
consists of shelf carbonates, clastic deposits, and volcanic

4–Palo Santo; 5–Berta; 6–Cabrera; 7–San Jose; 8–Upper San Alfredo; 9–Lower San Alfredo; 10–Santa Rosa; 11–La Paz; 12–Itapucumi Group; 13–Boqui. BOLIVIA

13–Chorro; 14–Tarija; 15–Itacuami; 16–Tupambi; 17–Saipuru; 18–Limoncito; 19–Robore; 20–Kirusillas; 21–El Carmen; 22–Tucavaca; 23–Pororo/Corumbá Group;
7–Naposta; 8–Bravard; 9–Hinojo; 10–Trocadero; 11–Mascota; 12–La Lola. Argentina (Chaco-Paranense): 1–Tacuarembó; 2–Buena Vista; 3–Vitoriano Rodrigues;

9–Tarija; 10–Itacuami; 11–Tupambi; 12–Tonono; 13–Michicola; 14–Rincon; 15–Cabure; 16–Copo; 17–Zapla; 18–Las Breñas. PIRITY: 1–Lumbrera; 2–Maiz Gordo;

(CHACO): 1–Guandacay; 2–Taribuia; 3–Yecua; 4–Petaca; 5–Cajones; 6–Yantata; 7–Ichoa; 8–Castellon; 9–Cangapi; 10–San Telmo; 11–Escarpment; 12–Taiguati;
KEY to formation names: ARGENTINA ( SIERRAS AUSTRALES–LA VENTANA): 1–Tunas; 2–Bonete; 3–Piedras Azul; 4–Sauce Grande; 5–Lolen; 6–Providencia;

AND WESTERN FORMOSA): 1–Lumbrera; 1–Lumbrera; 2–Maiz Gordo; 3–Mealla; 4–Olmedo; 5–Lecho/Yacoraites; 6–Pirgua Group; 7–San Telmo; 8–Las Penas;
rocks. Fossiliferous shallow water limestones have been
Figure 5—Correlation chart G–H showing sedimentary columns for Argentina, Paraguay, and Bolivia. Oil and gas shows in frontier Occidental Paraguay is a

correlated with the Copacabana Formation, which is

exposed in the Andes of Bolivia (Figures 2, 11, 12).
The Subandino cycle started in the Westphalian (Late
Carboniferous) and lasted until the end of the Triassic. In
southern South America, the Subandino cycle is
expressed in partial erosion of the Carboniferous rocks of
sub-Andean Bolivia and Argentina (Figures 2, 3, 4). Low
rates of subsidence and local uplift resulted in a thin
Permian cover (Figures 2, 3, 4).

PERMIAN GEOLOGIC MAPS

Permian rocks are important in the Paraná basin,
where good reservoirs, coal beds, and bituminous black
shales were deposited. These are presented in three
Permian maps (Figures 12, 13, 14). The Early Permian
(Sakmarian–Artinskian) map shows a widespread distri-
bution of glacially related deposits, including diamictite,
sandstone, and shale. The Sakmarian–Artinskian interval
contains the best reservoirs that were deposited during
glaciation in the Paraná basin (França and Potter, 1991).
The Campo Mourão Formation (Figure 12) is a sandy
unit that was deposited mostly in a glaciomarine envi-
ronment where turbiditic and channelized sandstones
were interbedded with diamictites and rare shales (Eyles
et al., 1993). The formation contains most of the gas and
condensate shows in the Paraná basin.
The end of the glacial period is marked by a thick,
widespread rain-out diamictite, the Chapéu do Sol
Member of the Taciba Formation, and shales of the Rio
Granite; 8–Tucavaca; 9–Pororo/Corumbá Group; 10–Boqui; 11–Putatoe.

do Sul Formation in southern Paraná basin (Schneider et

al., 1974; França and Potter, 1991; Eyles et al., 1993).
Permian glacial rocks are also present in Uruguay as
the San Gregório Formation (Ferrando and Andreis,
1986; Santa Ana, 1989; Santa Ana and Veroslavsky, 1993)
and in Argentina as the Chacabuco Formation and the
red beds in the Paganzo basin (Russo and Archangelsky,
1987; Fernandez-Seveso et al., 1993).
Bolivia has few Permian deposits. Coral reefs with
brachiopods, fusulinids, and gastropods of the Copaca-
bana Group (Wilson, 1990) crop out near Lake Titicaca
on the Peruvian border (Figures 12, 13, 14). In south-
eastern Bolivia, the Permian record is composed of
sandstone and limestone of the Vitiacua-Cangapi
Formation, which produces gas in the sub-
Andean–Piedmont area (Figures 2, 12, 13, 14).
The Kungurian–Kazanian map (Figure 13) shows the
development of shoal water deltas of the Rio Bonito
Formation in the Paraná basin. Overlapping delta lobes
locally ponded the Paraná basin (Figure 13). The Rio
Bonito Formation is the best studied unit in the basin
promising area.

because of its commercial coal mines along the eastern

(facing page)

margin and its subcommercial oil shows (França and

Caldas, 1983; Popp, 1983; Castro, 1991). The sandstones
of the upper Rio Bonito Formation are the best reservoir
rocks in the Paraná basin. Porosity varies up to 20%, even
140 França et al.

Figure 6—Cambrian–Vendian geologic map. This map shows a rare event in Gondwana: the widespread occurrence of lime-
stones. These are the last until the Permian. (Legend also applies to Figures 7–21.)
 Phanerozoic Correlation in Southern South America 141

Figure 7—Ordovician geologic map. A series of northeast-trending grabens apparently formed in the early stages of the
Paraná and Chaco-Paraná basins. They were dominated by continental deposits. See Figure 6 for map symbols.

at depths as great as 4000 m (França, 1984). Noncommer-
cial oil production and several oil shows sourced from
the Irati Formation have made the Rio Bonito Formation
the focus of exploration activities in the Paraná basin.
The seal rock for the Rio Bonito play is the Palermo
Formation, a drape of siltstone and subordinate shale
(Schneider et al., 1974; Perinotto, 1992).
In Uruguay, the Tres Islas Formation (Santa Ana et al.,
1990) is the correlative of the Rio Bonito Formation
(Figures 3, 13).
The Tatarian map (Figure 14) shows the distribution
of one of the most important stratigraphic units in the
Gondwana succession, the Irati Formation. Its impor-
tance is both geologic and historical. The Irati Formation
in Brazil and the White Hill Formation in South Africa
are the only two units bearing mesosaurids (Oelofsen
and Araujo, 1983; Oelofsen, 1987), a small aquatic reptile
that originally supported Du Toit’s (1927) continental
drift reconstruction. The geologic importance of the Irati
Formation is twofold. First, in the southern area (Figure
14), it is composed of bituminous black shale, with total
organic carbon (TOC) content as high as 23 wt. %, which
forms an important oil-prone source rock. Petrobras, the
Brazilian national oil company, operates an oil shale
plant in southern Brazil with an average daily produc-
tion of 4000 bbl. Second, in the northern area (Figure 14),
dolomitic limestones predominate. These are used by
farmers to buffer the acidic soil of the central Brazilian
Plateau, an important soy bean plantation area.
The sub-Andino cycle spanning the Carboniferous–
Triassic is the main reason for the absence of a good
Permian record in the sub-Andean areas of Bolivia and
142 França et al.

Figure 8—Silurian geologic map. Shales of the Kirusillas, Vargas Peña, and Vila Maria formations are the oldest potential
source rocks deposited in this area. Diamictites of the Cancañiri and Iapò formations record a major glaciation in Gondwana
in Silurian time. See Figure 6 for map symbols.

Argentina (Figures 13, 14). In contrast, the Paraná basin
has the best Permian record in southern South America.
The intracratonic Paraná basin was actively extending
while the proto-Andes formed a belt of compressional
deformation along the margin of the continental plate,
and it even received sediment from the rising orogen.
The linked relationship between compressional deforma-
tion and extension within the Paraná basin suggests that
the two phenomena are related in a single dynamic
system. This interpretation is reminiscent of the
Pannonian basin system (Royden, 1988), although there
are differences.
It was also during the Subandino cycle at the end of
the Permian that the Sierras Australes or Sierra de la
Ventana foldbelt developed (Cobbold et al., 1986; Ramos,
1988). Paleozoic clastic sediments that were deposited in
extensional basins underwent intense folding and low-
grade metamorphism. The Sierras Australes foldbelt is
the South American counterpart of the Cape foldbelt of
South Africa (Cobbold et al., 1986; Hervé et al., 1987;
Uliana and Biddle, 1987; Gosen et al., 1990; Riglos, 1990;
Milani, 1992). Tankard et al. (1995) have attributed the
Cape–Australes–Pintada foldbelt system to selective
inversion of a tract of extensional basins that were
systematically offset and linked by NNE-SSW accommo-
dation zones.
 Phanerozoic Correlation in Southern South America 143

Figure 9—Early Devonian (Emsian–Givetian) geologic map. The Los Monos shale is an important source rock for gas in
Bolivia and Argentina. The Ponta Grossa shale is the source rock for gas shows in the Paraná basin. See Figure 6 for map
symbols.

TRIASSIC GEOLOGIC MAPS
The Early–Middle Triassic map (Figure 15) shows that
the Paraná and Chaco-Paraná basin complex was still an
important depositional basin after the Permian. The
Teresina Formation (considered to be Permian by some
authors, e.g., Rohn, 1989) is composed of siltstone,
limestone, and sandstone (Schneider et al., 1974). Its
maximum thickness is about 800 m in the central part of
the basin. Its fossils include marine bivalves, Glossopteris
flora, and freshwater shark remains (Ragonha, 1984). The
tapering southern part of the Teresina Formation and the
Yaguari Formation in Uruguay consist mostly of shales.
The upper part of the Teresina Formation records the
slow, final withdrawal of the sea from the Paraná and
Chaco-Paraná basins. The contact with the reddish conti-
nental deposits of the Rio do Rasto Formation is transi-
tional. Marine, lacustrine, and fluvial rocks interfinger
across the contact zone. The subsurface contact is thus
difficult to map.
The Vitiacua and Cangapi formations of southern
Bolivia are the only Lower Triassic rocks in the sub-
Andean area. Both units are gas producers (Figure 2).
The only Lower Triassic rocks in Chile are the La Ternera
Formation in the Copiapó area, which consists largely of
conglomerates (Figures 4, 15).
The Late Triassic map (Figure 16) shows that the
Paraná and Chaco-Paraná basin complex was particu-
larly sandprone where continental depositional systems
were present. Fluvial and lacustrine depositional facies
144 França et al.

Figure 10—Late Devonian (Frasnian–Famennian) geologic map. Little of the Upper Devonian section remained after the
Tatarenda erosive phase (see Figures 2, 3). See Figure 6 for map symbols.

are common in the Rio do Rasto, Pirambóia, and
Rosário do Sul formations of Brazil and in the Buena
Vista Formation in Uruguay and Argentina (Soares,
1972).
Large reptiles inhabited southern Brazil in the Late
Triassic. The Rosário do Sul Formation (Figure 16) has
yielded many species of Rhynchosauridae, such as
Prestosuchus chiniquensis von Huene (5 m long by 1 m
high) and Stahleckeria potens von Huene (3 m long by 1 m
high) (von Huene, 1942). Dinosaurs had their first known
appearance in Argentina. Eoraptor, a small biped reptile
that lived in northwestern Argentina, may have been the
most primitive dinosaur; this beast has been recently
popularized by Gore (1993).
Tar sands of the Pirambóia Formation cropping out in
the northeastern Paraná basin (Figure 16) contain about
38 million m3 of oil-impregnated sandstones and about
40–60 million bbl of oil. Geochemical analyses suggest
that the oil is sourced from the Irati Formation and that
maturation was driven by the vast intrusion of Jurassic–
Cretaceous magmas.
The Ipaguazu and San Diego formations in Bolivia
contain anhydrite and halite interbedded with sandstone
and shale (Figure 2). These two units record a restricted
marine environment that is the last evidence of this
epicontinental sea before the Cretaceous transgression.
 Phanerozoic Correlation in Southern South America 145

Figure 11—Carboniferous geologic map. Glaciation was the main factor controlling deposition of Carboniferous rocks in
Gondwana. Sandstones and diamictites predominate. The Machareti Group is the principal gas-producing unit in Bolivia.
See Figure 6 for map symbols.

JURASSIC GEOLOGIC MAP Formation in Paraguay, and the Tacuarembó Formation

During the Jurassic (Figure 17), a large desert covered
the Paraná and Chaco-Paraná basins and much of south-
western Gondwana. Eolianites form the Botucatu
Formation in Brazil (Salamuni and Bigarella, 1967;
Soares, 1972; Leonardi and Lima, 1990), the Missiones
in Uruguay and Argentina (Sprechmann et al., 1981;
Lavina et al., 1985). The average thickness of the
Botucatu Formation is about 150 m. It is an excellent
aquifer and supplies groundwater for many cities in the
southern Brazilian states. Its hydrocarbon potential is
low, mainly because it is too far from potential source
146 França et al.

Figure 12—Early Permian (Sakmarian–Artinskian) geologic map. Glaciation was still important in the Paraná and Chaco-
Paraná basins. In Bolivia, however, climate had improved, favoring the deposition of limestones (Copacabana Formation).
See Figure 6 for map symbols.

rocks and because it is a freshwater flushing zone; any
hydrocarbons would have been subjected to biodegrada-
tion. However, because of its superb reservoir quality
and because tar sand deposits do occur in the underlying
Pirambóia Formation, the Botucatu cannot be entirely
ruled out for oil exploration.
A system of magmatic arc and back-arc basins that
developed along the western margin of South America
was drowned by several marine advances during the
Jurassic and Early Cretaceous. Deposits of this age are
widely exposed in northern Chile and are preserved in
the subsurface of the sub-Andean basins. Jurassic–Lower
Cretaceous sequences are of considerable economic
importance because they provide the source and reser-
voirs for the largest accumulations of hydrocarbon on the
western margin of the continent. This composite system
of arc and back-arc basins remained active until the
middle Cretaceous, when regional tectonic processes
inverted some of them (Vicente, 1981; Coira et al., 1982;
Mpodozis and Ramos, 1990; Charrier and Muñoz, 1994).
In northern Chile, remnants of the Jurassic–Early
Cretaceous magmatic arc are preserved in the La Negra
Formation. Andesitic lavas (2500 m thick) with at least
two intercalations of marine calcareous sandstone and
limestone are exposed along the present coast line
(Figure 17). To the east, a suite of back-arc basins that are
filled with limestone, sandstone, and shale span the
Atapasca–Lautaro tract of formations (Figure 17).
 Phanerozoic Correlation in Southern South America 147

Figure 13—Late Permian (Kungurian–Kazanian) geologic map. Climate was much warmer and probably more humid than
during the glaciation age. Deltas and coal beds are common in the Rio Bonito Formation. Oil shows in the Paraná basin are
present in the Rio Bonito Formation as well. See Figure 6 for map symbols.

A paleogeographic interpretation of the Jurassic–
Lower Cretaceous sequences exposed along the Coastal
Range, Precordillera, and western edge of the Altiplano
between 18˚ S and 21.5˚ S lat shows a clear deepening
toward the east, from shallow water calcareous deposits
in the west to deeper water terrigenous clastics in the
east. Pillow lavas interbedded with fossiliferous lime-
stones in the present Coastal Range change to calcareous
marine sequences toward the east. Still farther east, the
facies equivalents are turbidite flow deposits (Lira, 1989).
The facies distribution suggests that the back-arc and its
marine sediments extended as far as the Altiplano.
By the end of the Jurassic, Gondwana had started to
break up. Tholeiitic basalts erupted along extensional
structures to form the largest lava flood on earth, the
Serra Geral basalt.
CRETACEOUS GEOLOGIC MAPS
Three events demonstrate the importance of the
Cretaceous in this part of Gondwana. First, new sedi-
mentary basins formed along the new eastern seaboard
of South America as the Atlantic opened. Second, marine
inundation again affected the Andean and sub-Andean
parts of Bolivia and Argentina. Third, extrusion of almost
148 França et al.

Figure 14—Late Permian (Tatarian) geologic map. The Irati Formation, probably deposited in a hypersaline basin, contains
dolomitic limestone and bituminous black shale that has been used in the oil shale industry. It is also the source for oil
found in tar sand deposits and in the oil shows of the Rio Bonito Formation (Figure 12). See Figure 6 for map symbols.

2000 m of lavas and intrusion of hundreds of meters of
diabase sills completely changed the character of the
Paraná and Chaco-Paraná basins.
Sedimentary basins in the Early Cretaceous (Figure
18) offshore of southern Brazil were largely restricted
and filled with volcanics, shales, coquinas, sandstones,
and evaporites (Figures 2, 3, 4, 18). Shales of the Lagoa
Feia Formation are the main source rock for the prolific
Campos basin. Important reservoirs such as the ooidal
limestones of the Macaé and Guarujá formations were
also deposited during the Early Cretaceous. Important
references for southern offshore Brazilian basins include
Ojeda y Ojeda (1981), Biassussi et al. (1990), Figueiredo
and Martins (1990), Gabaglia and Milani (1990), Pereira
and Macedo (1990), and Peres (1993).
Early Cretaceous volcanism in the Paraná and Chaco-
Paraná basins lasted from 144 to 119 Ma. Extrusion of
nearly 2000 m of tholeiitic basalt resulted in sudden
subsidence of the Paraná basin. The bituminous shales of
the Irati Formation, which were only shallowly buried
before this, were suddenly lowered into the oil window.
Additional heating from intrusives may have triggered
maturation and contributed to overmaturation of this
source rock.
Lower Cretaceous rocks in Bolivia and northwestern
Argentina rest disconformably on Carboniferous and
locally on Devonian–Permian strata. Cretaceous sand-
stones of the Castellon Formation are gas producers in
sub-Andean Bolivia. In Chile, the Lower Cretaceous is
represented by conglomerates and sandstones of the

Figure 15—Early–Middle Triassic geologic map. The Teresina and Corumbataí formations record the slow retreat of the sea
from the Paraná basin. See Figure 6 for map symbols.
Chusmiza Formation and some of the Blanco limestones
in the Arica area of northern Chile. The Quebrada
Monardes sandstones and the Chañarcillo Group of
volcanics, limestones, and sandstones are the most
important Lower Cretaceous rocks in the Copiapó area
of Chile (Figures 4, 18).
The Late Cretaceous was characterized by a vast
amount of sandstones and conglomerates in the Paraná
and Chaco-Paraná basins (Figure 19). These are the conti-
nental deposits of the Bauru Group (Fernandes, 1992)
and Puerto Yerua Formation. The Bauru Group directly
overlies the lava flows. They locally contain dinosaur
bones and dinosaur footprints (Suguio and Barcelos,
1983). Deposition of shales and interbedded turbiditic
sandstones dominated the offshore basins.
The Late Cretaceous basins of Bolivia, Chile, and
northwestern Argentina contain substantial marine and
Phanerozoic Correlation in Southern South America 149
terrestrial sediments (Figure 19). In the Altiplano, these
are believed to be more than 2500 m thick. Shale,
limestone, and sandstone interbedded with lava flows
are the principal lithologies. Sandstones of the Yantata
and Cajones formations in Bolivia produce gas that was
probably sourced from Devonian shales. Dinosaur bones
are found in the Cajones Formation and dinosaur foot-
prints in the El Molino Formation.
During the Late Cretaceous, the Tarapaca basin was
thrust eastward (Muñoz et al., 1989). Inversion and uplift
of this basin is expressed in topographic relief such as the
Domeyko Cordillera. Thrusting along the eastern margin
resulted in subsidence of an asymmetric north-south
trending foreland basin (Figure 19). The Salar de
Atacama and the Pedernales are two such basins that
have been explored as potential reservoirs for oil and gas
(Townsend, 1988). Coarse continental clastics poured
150 França et al.

Figure 16—Late Triassic geologic map. Continental deposits predominate in the Paraná and Chaco-Paraná basins, whereas
Chile was the site of impressive Mesozoic volcaniclastic sedimentation. See Figure 6 for map symbols.

into the foreland basin. The Upper Cretaceous comprises
reddish shale, sandstone, and conglomerate with
interbedded evaporites and minor volcanics. The Puri-
lactis Formation in the Antofagasta area is a 3000-m-thick
red bed sequence with locally interbedded marine
calcareous deposits. Its hydrocarbon potential is low
because of the absence of good source rocks.
Alkaline magmatism was common in the Late Creta-
ceous Paraná and Chaco-Paraná basins (Guimarães et
al., 1968; Comin-Chiaramonti et al., 1990). Circular
intrusive domes and minor volcanics following
northwest-trending structural lineaments occur in Brazil
and Paraguay. Most of the Brazilian alkaline rocks occur
in the basement around the northern rim of the Paraná
basin. Alkali gabbros, trachytes, dacites, carbonatites,
and kimberlites are the principal types of intrusives.
TERTIARY GEOLOGIC MAPS
The sedimentary history of the intracratonic Paraná
basin was over by the end of the Cretaceous, after which
moderate uplift and erosion prevailed. In contrast, the
sub-Andean foreland and Atlantic offshore basins
remained active. The development of the Cordillera de
Los Andes fold and thrust belt played a seminal role in
the Tertiary evolution of South America. Encroachment
of the Andean overthrust load created several flexural
foreland basins. In Argentina, the Sierras Pampeanas is a
tilted fault block province similar to the Wyoming and
Colorado Laramide foreland province (Fielding and
Jordan, 1988). These tilt block basins have been largely
explored.
Between Arica and Antofagasta, the continental shelf
 Phanerozoic Correlation in Southern South America 151

Figure 17—Jurassic geologic map. The Paraná and Chaco-Paraná basins together formed an immense desert depositing
sand dunes. Volcanic arc and back-arc basins are important in Chile. The onset of Gondwana break-up is marked by
volcanic activity in continental areas (Serra Geral Formation) and in the new ocean floor (Camboriu Formation). See Figure 6
for map symbols.

of Chile is 50–150 km wide. The terrace is underlain by a
prism of Tertiary deposits that range in thickness from
300 to 7000 m. Sedimentation in this area began in the
Paleocene–Eocene (Figure 20) above a Mesozoic
basement of plutonic, volcanic, and calcareous marine
rocks. Basins beneath the Peruvian continental margin
apparently contain generating, reservoir, and sealing
facies. The lack of exploratory wells and water depths as
great as 900–1200 m discourage an economic evaluation.
Volcanic activity continued during the Oligocene
(Figure 21), emplacing several stocks along the north-
south Domeyko wrench fault system west of the
foreland basin. Hydrothermal alteration related to these
bodies formed the huge porphyry copper deposits of
northern Chile following a belt west of the Salares basin.
In the Chilean Altiplano, Oligocene–Miocene lacus-
trine sediments with volcaniclastic and pyroclastic inter-
calations built the Chucal Formation (Figures 2, 21). Also
interbedded are organic-rich black shales, locally with a
petroliferous odor. Geochemical analyses confirm a
source potential of mixed gas and oil-prone kerogens.
This is another area lacking exploration wells.
Volcanic activity continues to the Recent, forming part
of the present volcanic arc. The foreland basins persist as
depositories of continental clastic deposition. Most of the
clastics have been eroded from the western Cordillera
and shed eastward (Ramirez, 1979).
Pliocene lacustrine and evaporitic deposits complete
the sedimentary section, which in some areas is covered
by modern intermontane salt flats. A major sea level
152 França et al.

Figure 18—Early Cretaceous (Berriasian–Albian) geologic map. This is probably the most active geologic time in Gondwana.
There was substantial volcanic activity in the Paraná and Chaco-Paraná basins; deposition of shale, limestone, sandstone,
evaporite, and volcanics in offshore Brazil; and subduction, volcanic arc, and foreland deposition along the western side of
South America. See Figure 6 for map symbols.

drop in the Eocene resulted in deep scouring of the
Brazilian offshore basins (Figures 2, 3, 4, 20). The subse-
quent sea level rise filled the canyons with Oligocene
shale and sandstone (Figure 21). Interesting arrays of
stratigraphic traps resulted from these submarine cut-
and-fill processes (Peres, 1993). Much of the oil reserves
in the Campos basin have been discovered in such strati-
graphic traps.
A thin veneer of mudstone and sandstone of the
Cachoeirinha Formation (Schneider et al., 1974) covers
Mesozoic and Paleozoic rocks in the northern part of the
Paraná basin.
A downwarping area with occasional seismic activity
is present in central South America called the Pantanal
(Figure 1). It has been filled with sediments sourced
mainly from sedimentary rocks of the Paraná basin and
Precambrian basement along the northwestern rim of the
Paraná basin. Seismic lines and wells have shown an
average thickness of about 150 m (maximum about 350
m). Huge alluvial fans up to 72,000 km2 in area and river
deposits predominate in the Pantanal basin fill. The
Pantanal, which is only about 100 m above sea level, is
geologically interesting because it represents the early
stage of formation of a new intracratonic basin. It also
 Phanerozoic Correlation in Southern South America 153

Figure 19—Late Cretaceous (Cenomanian–Maastrichtian) geologic map. This map shows the return of the sea to Bolivia,
northern Argentina, and probably western Paraguay. The Cajones Formation produces oil and condensate in Bolivia. A
series of alkaline intrusions is widespread in Brazil, Paraguay, and Argentina. See Figure 6 for map symbols.

has an amazing array of wildlife: birds, caymans, tapirs,
jaguars, and fish species, including the piranhas. The
area becomes almost completely flooded during the
rainy season from September to April when inflowing
rivers provide maximum sediment load into the basin.
Its counterpart in Bolivia is known as the Bañados del
Izozoq. Together they form an internal drainage system.
GEOLOGIC CROSS SECTIONS
Four structural cross sections summarize the geologic
architecture of the study area (Figures 22, 23). These cross
sections traverse the same area as the stratigraphic
charts. Three of them (Figure 22, A–B and C–D; Figure
23, E–F; see Figure 1 for location) strike east-west from
the Pacific coast to the Atlantic margin. The geologic
contrast between the tectonically active margins and the
eastern passive margin is clearly shown, as well as the
highly stable deeply eroded cratonic areas of central
Brazil. The fourth cross section (Figure 23, G–H) is north-
south and spans the sub-Andean basins of Bolivia and
Argentina.
Cross Section A–B
Cross section A–B (Figure 22) extends approximately
along 18˚ S lat from the northern Chile trench to the
Espirito Santo basin on the eastern Brazilian continental
154 França et al.

Figure 20—Early Tertiary (Paleocene–Eocene) geologic map. Most important is the volcanic arc in Chile and deep canyon
carving in offshore basins in Brazil. See Figure 6 for map symbols.

margin. The western part of the cross section shows the
Bolivian Andes and Chaco plain, the latter being an
important oil and gas province. North-south trending
anticlines form the most important trap style in the sub-
Andean region. Hydrocarbons were generated from the
Devonian Los Monos shale and reservoired in Carbonif-
erous glaciomarine and glaciofluvial sandstones. A
Cenozoic cover of sediments eroded from the Andes
builds a wide, flat area from northern Bolivia to southern
Argentina.
The Chiquitos basin, east of the Chaco plain, is a
Paleozoic half-graben where hydrocarbon shows occur
in Vendian stromatolitic limestones of the Pororo-
Corumbá Group (Figure 5).
The Cenozoic Pantanal basin is located in the crestal
collapse of a large forebulge arch that was generated by
the flexural response of the lithosphere to the Andean
load. We believe that in a pre-arch configuration, the
Paleozoic sequences on either side of the bulge were
yoked together to form a westward-thickening wedge
from central Brazil to western Bolivia. The Pantanal is
being filled chiefly with fluvial deposits derived from the
Brazilian craton. The central part of this cross section
shows the northern part of the Paraná basin, the largest
intracratonic basin in South America. Numerous oil and
gas shows have been detected in the Paraná basin, both
in wells and outcrops. However, no commercial discov-
eries have been made. This basin is filled with Ordovi-
cian–Jurassic sedimentary rocks and is partially covered
by Cretaceous lava flows.
The São Francisco basin in central Brazil contains
widespread Vendian carbonate, sandstone, and shale.
 Phanerozoic Correlation in Southern South America 155

Figure 21—Late Tertiary (Oligocene–Pliocene) geologic map. The Pantanal intracratonic basin began its history in central
South America. The Pampas in Argentina and in part of Uruguay are covered by a thin veneer of continental sandstones.
Volcaniclastic sedimentation predominates in the Altiplano of Bolivia and in the Chilean Andes. See Figure 6 for map
symbols.

The basin margins suffered compressional deformation
during the latest Proterozoic Brasiliano cycle. Several gas
shows have been reported in the São Francisco basin.
The eastern end of cross section A–B shows the
passive margin Espirito Santo basin, which produces oil
and gas in onshore and offshore fields. Traps are both
structural and stratigraphic. The main source beds are
Lower Cretaceous lacustrine shales.
Cross Section C–D
Cross section C–D is located approximately along
25˚ S lat (Figure 22). The Santa Barbara system located in
the Andes foothills comprises a fold and thrust belt
within the basins in northwestern Argentina. It produces
hydrocarbons sourced from Devonian, Cretaceous, and
Paleogene rocks. The main reservoirs are Devonian,
Carboniferous, and Cretaceous sandstones. The eastern
margin of these basins is defined by the Las Breñas high.
The Las Breñas and Asunción highs form a prominent
arch that correlates with the Pantanal arch in cross
section A–B (Figure 22). Normal faults at the top of the
Las Breñas–Asunción arch confine the Pilar basin, a
Mesozoic depocenter.
The Paraná basin in the central part of the cross
section has several hydrocarbon shows, including a
subcommercial gas discovery in Carboniferous sand-
stones that was sourced from Devonian shales. Oil
shows and tar sand deposits are also present in this part
of the Paraná basin. The source beds for the oil shows
156 França et al.
and tar sands are bituminous black shales of Late
Permian age. Two-thirds of the Paraná basin is covered
by 2-km-thick lava flows. The easternmost part of the
cross section covers the Campos basin, the richest hydro-
carbon province in Brazil. An efficient oil kitchen
affecting Lower Cretaceous shale has fed a series of reser-
voirs, including Cretaceous carbonates, turbiditic sand-
stones, and giant deep-water turbidite bodies. This is the
most prolific passive margin basin in the world.
Cross Section E–F
Cross section E–F (Figure 23) is located approximately
along 28˚–30˚ S lat. It shows the great sedimentary and
volcanic complexity that dominates the Chilean realm of
the Cordillera de Los Andes. Volcanics interbedded with
continental and marine sedimentary rocks and plutonic
rocks have been obducted by collisional tectonics on the
active margin of South America.
The Paganzo basin, located east of the Andes, was a
major depository for diamictites during Carboniferous
glaciation. The diamictites are covered by a thick Tertiary
clastic sequence sourced by Andean denudation.
The Chaco-Paraná basin in northern Argentina consti-
tutes a vast sedimentary area where the Carboniferous–
Permian sequence is similar to that of the Paraná basin in
Brazil. The Paleozoic succession is covered by Cretaceous
lava flows and Tertiary clastics. Devonian black shales
and sandstones are present in Uruguay, both in subsur-
face and outcrop.
The southern part of the Paraná basin shown in cross
section E–F has most of its Permian rocks overlying crys-
talline basement. The Permian bituminous shale of the
Irati Formation is the potential source rock for this area,
and the Rio Bonito Formation is its main reservoir rock.
The easternmost edge of cross section E–F shows the
Santos basin in offshore Brazil. This basin is the newest
oil province in the country, where oil has been produced
from Albian calcarenites. Source rocks are Cretaceous
marine shales. The most important traps are a series of
roll-over anticlines related to intense salt diapirism,
typical of this part of the continental shelf.
Cross Section G–H
Cross section G–H is a submeridional cross section
(Figure 23) running approximately north-south along
60˚ W long and showing the geology of sub-Andean
basins. The southernmost basin in this cross section is the
Colorado. The northern limit of the Colorado basin is the
Ventania Hills, an Early Triassic orogenic belt that origi-
nated from collision of the Patagonian plate with the
South American plate.
Most of the central part of this cross section traverses
the Pampean and Chaco zones. A thick Tertiary cover
sequence blankets several ancient basins. Few of these
ancient basins have been explored for hydrocarbons. The
Pirity and Carandaity basins in Paraguay are Mesozoic
grabens whose petroleum potential is not yet evaluated.
This cross section ends on the Proterozoic terranes of the
Guaporé craton.
Acknowledgments—The authors would like to thank
Petobras, YPF, YPFB, ANCAP, Sipetrol, and Petropar for
financial support, as well as permission to publish this paper.
We thank Elmo Fernandes de Oliveira, who drafted the figures;
Anthony Tankard for review of and suggestions for the manu-
script; and A. Boucot and M. De Wit for theirs reviews.
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