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which represents the distance from the origin of figure 1c or from two complex numbers as
shown in figure 1d.
▪ The complex conjugate, or just conjugate of x + iy is the complex number x − iy with the
sign of the imaginary part reversed. Denote the conjugate of z as z .
▪ Figure 2 shows the conjugate as a reflection across the real axis.
1
Figure 2: Complex conjugate
2
▪ Some properties of conjugates are |z|=|z̄| and |z| =z z̄ which can be verified by figure 2
since both points has the same distance from the origin. This properties are used to
compute quotients,
▪ Example I.iii.1. Solve the left most side of the equation below.
▪ Property (1) is verifiable by Pythagorean, (2) by figure 2 summation and (3) by solving for z
then reverse property (3). Note that w is a vector.
2
Solution: We can identify z with the point (1,1) which has polar coordinates (√2,π/4 +2nπ) for
any integer n. Any number π/4 + 2nπ with n an integer is an argument of 1 +i. The polar form of z is
III. Powers
i. mth Roots
▪ Using the polar form of a complex number taking all arguments (see the broken-line boxed
equation above),
i(θ +2 n π )
z=r e
▪ where n is an integer. Taking the mth derivative or raise by 1/m,
z 1/ m=r 1 /m e i(θ +2 n π )
▪ When when n=0,1,2,3...
▪ the series repeats at every m times since 0=2π=4π in cyclic sense. Thus then mth root of a
complex number z is
3
(θ +2 k π )
i
1 /m m
r e for k=0 ,1 , ..., m−1 (ln formula)
▪ or in trigonometric form by Euler’s formula,
[ (
r 1 /m cos
θ +2 k π
m
+i sin
θ + 2k π
m ) ( )] for k=0 , 1 ,... , m−1
▪ Example III.1. Find the fourth root of 1+i.
iπ iπ
Solution: Determine the polar form, with positive exponent √ 2e 4 =s1 /2 e 4
. Note that
negative exponent is also possible.
Using the root formula,
or in trigonometric form
▪ Example III.2. The mth root of 1 are called the nth root of unity, This has many
applications such as in fast Fourier transform. Find the fifth root of unity.
Solution: Determine the polar form 1=( 1) e i0 .
Using the root formula,
or in trigonometric form
Plotting the point in the plane produces a regular polygon having one vertex at (1,0) as
shown below.
4
z w =e w ln z (root formula)
w
iii. end