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CH 8 Complex Numbers

The number system that is commonly used is the so called "real number" system. The real numbers
include all the decimal numbers, integers, rational and irrational numbers. While adequate for many
purposes, there are mathematical problems for which real numbers are unable to offer any solution.
The simplest problem of this type is

𝑥2 + 1 = 0 Eq 1

Since the square of a real number is necessarily a positive number, no solution exists for x within the
real numbers. In order to overcome the difficulty in solving Eq 1, it is necessary to extend the number
system. This is done by defining a new number 𝑖 defined by

𝑖 = √−1 Eq 2a

with the property

𝑖 2 = −1 Eq 2b

The new number 𝑖 and any number proportional to 𝑖 are called imaginary numbers to distinguish
them from real numbers. The solution of Eq 1 becomes

𝑥1,2 = ± 𝑖

Next consider the solutions of the quadratic equation

𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 13 = 0

Using the quadratic formula, one has

4 ± √−36 4 ± √(−1)(36) 4 ± (√−1)(√36)


𝑥1,2 = = = = 2 ± 3𝑖
2 2 2

This example shows that the general form of a number z in the extended number system is

𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 Eq 3

where x and y are real numbers. The real and imaginary parts of z are denoted by

𝑥 = 𝑅𝑒(𝑧), 𝑦 = 𝐼𝑚(𝑧) Eq 4
Numbers of the form in Eq 3 are called complex numbers. Note that real numbers (y=0) and pure
imaginary numbers (x=0) are subsets of complex numbers.

Integer powers of 𝒊
𝑖 2𝑛 = (𝑖 2 )𝑛 = (−1)𝑛

𝑖 2𝑛+1 = 𝑖 𝑖 2𝑛 = 𝑖 (−1)𝑛 , 𝑛 = 0, 1, 2, 3, …

Thus even powers of 𝑖 are real, equal to 1 while odd powers can be simplified to  𝑖.

e.g.1 𝑖 2 = −1, 𝑖 −1 = −𝑖, 𝑖 3 = −𝑖, 𝑖 −3 = 𝑖, 𝑖 4 = 1, 𝑖 5 = 𝑖, and so on.

Operations with complex numbers


Rules for arithmetic operations for complex numbers closely parallel those of the real numbers.

Let 𝑧1 = 𝑥1 + 𝑖𝑦1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧2 = 𝑥2 + 𝑖𝑦2 be two complex numbers wih x1, y1, x2 and y2 being real
numbers.

Equality: z1 = z2 if and only if both x1 =x2 and y1 =y2

Addition: Adding z1 to z2 gives another complex number z3 = z1 + z2

The real and imaginary parts of z3 = x3 +i y3 are

Re(z3) = Re(z1) + Re(z2), or x3 = x1 + x 2

Im(z3) = Im(z1) + Im(z2), or y3 = y1 + y2

Subtraction is similarly defined.

e.g.2 Let z1 = 2 + 5i, z2 = -3 ─ 8i

(i) z1 + z2 = (2-3) + i(5-8) = -1 ─ 3i


(ii) z1 ─ z2 = (2+3) + (5+8)i = 5 + 13i

Multiplication: z3 = z1z2

The numbers on the right are multiplied using the usual rules of real numbers supplemented by the
relation 𝑖 2 = −1, and the final result is simplified to the standard form z3 = x3 +i y3

e.g.3 z3 =(2 + 5i)(-3 ─ 8i) = -6 - 16i -15i - 40i2 = 32 - 31i

The complex conjugate


Given a complex number z =x + iy, the number obtained from z by replacing i with -i is called the
complex conjugate of z. It is denoted by the symbol z*. Thus z* = x - i y. Note that z* is a different
number from z except when z is a real number (i.e. y=0). Note also that z and z* are mutually
complex conjugates of each other, i.e. (z*)* = z. Consider the product of z and z*

zz* = (x + iy)(x - iy) = x2 + y2 Eq 5a

Since x and y are real numbers both squares on the right are positive so that zz* is a positive real
number for all complex numbers excepting z=0. The modulus (mod) or absolute value of a complex
number is defined as the positive square root of zz*

mod z = |𝑧| = √𝑧𝑧 ∗ = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 Eq 5b

Please note that square of a complex number, z2, is not a positive real number when z is not real (i.e.
if y0). Conversely, when z is a real number (i.e. y=0), z*=z, and only then z2 will be a positive real
number.

Complex conjugate of more complicated expressions are obtained similarly: wherever the imaginary
number 𝑖 occurs replace it with - 𝑖.

e.g.4 𝑧 = (2 − 5𝑖)7 (−3 + 2𝑖)−8 , 𝑧 ∗ = (2 + 5𝑖)7 (−3 − 2𝑖)−8

If we wish to find the modulus of z, it is not necessary to obtain Re(z) and Im(z); instead we may use
zz* and simplify it. The usual index rules of real numbers are also valid for complex numbers:
𝑎𝑚 𝑏 𝑚 = (𝑎𝑏)𝑚 Eq 6a

(𝑎𝑚 )𝑛 = (𝑎𝑛 )𝑚 = 𝑎𝑛𝑚 Eq 6b

𝑎𝑚 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚+𝑛 Eq 6c

Using these properties

|𝑧|2 = 𝑧𝑧 ∗ = (2 − 5𝑖)7 (−3 + 2𝑖)−8 (2 + 5𝑖)7 (−3 − 2𝑖)−8


= [(2 − 5𝑖)(2 + 5𝑖)]7 [(−3 + 2𝑖)(−3 − 2𝑖)]−8
= (297 )(13−8 ) = 21.14653

and |𝑧| = 4.5985

From what has been stated about the complex conjugate you should convince yourself about the
following identities

(i) (𝑧1 + 𝑧2 + 𝑧3 + ⋯ )∗ = 𝑧1∗ + 𝑧2∗ + 𝑧3∗ + ⋯ Eq 7

Complex conjugate of a sum is equal to the sum of complex conjugates.

(ii) (𝑧1 𝑧2 𝑧3 … )∗ = 𝑧1∗ 𝑧2∗ 𝑧3∗ … Eq 8

Complex conjugate of a product is equal to the product of complex conjugates.

(iii) 𝑚𝑜𝑑(𝑧1 𝑧2 𝑧3 … ) = 𝑚𝑜𝑑(𝑧1 ) 𝑚𝑜𝑑(𝑧2 ) 𝑚𝑜𝑑(𝑧3 ) … Eq 9

Absolute value of a product is equal to the product of absolute values.

𝑧
Division: 𝑧3 = 𝑧2
1

Result of the division is obtained by converting the right side into multiplication using Eq 5a. Thus
multiply the numerator and the denominator by z1* to obtain

𝑧2 𝑧1∗ 1 ∗
𝑧3 = = |𝑧 2 𝑧2 𝑧1
𝑧1 𝑧1∗ 1|
−3−8𝑖 1 1
e.g.5 𝑧3 =
2+5𝑖
=
29
(−3 − 8𝑖)(2 − 5𝑖) =
29
(−46 − 𝑖) = −1.58621 − 0.03448 𝑖

Graphical representation
Since a complex number is specified by a pair of real numbers, it can be represented by a point in a
two dimensional plane. This plane is called the "complex plane". Real numbers are represented by
points on the horizontal axis called the real axis (Re) while pure imaginary numbers lie on the vertical
imaginary (Im) axis.

Im

II I
y z=x+iy
Complex plane
r 

0 x Re

III IV 

Figure 1 The Roman numerals indicate the four quadrants of the circle.

The distance of point z to the origin is the modulus of z: 𝑟 = |𝑧|

It is seen from the figure that a complex number may also be specified by giving r and θ because
knowing the latter quantities we can easily find the x and y values by

𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃

𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃

So that the polar form of z is obtained:

𝑧 = 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃) Eq 10
The angle θ is called the argument of z: θ = arg z

Note that θ is not unique since the angles θ+2πk (k any integer) are also arguments of the same
complex number. The principal value of the argument is defined as the unique value of θ that lies in
the range

−𝜋 < 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋 Eq 11

By convention the angle θ is measured from the positive Re axis (see Figure 1). For points on the
positive real axis θ = 0. For other points in the plane, if θ is measured in a counterclockwise manner it
is taken as a positive number. One may also measure it in a clockwise sense in which case a minus
sign must be attached to the θ value. Thus if z is located above the Re axis (i.e. quadrants I and II), the
principal θ will have a plus sign whereas if z lies below the Re axis (quadrants III and IV) θ will have a
minus sign. Points along the negative real axis have θ = π.

We also need to know how to find r and θ when initially z is given in Cartesian form: z = x + i y. From
the known x and y values we can obtain r and the principal value of θ by

𝑟 = |𝑧| = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 Eq 12a

𝑦
𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑥 ) 𝑖𝑓 𝑧 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝐼 𝑜𝑟 𝐼𝑉

𝑦
𝜃 = arg 𝑧 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑥 ) + 𝜋 𝑖𝑓 𝑧 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐼𝐼 Eq 12b

−1 𝑦
{𝑡𝑎𝑛 (𝑥 ) − 𝜋 𝑖𝑓 𝑧 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐼𝐼𝐼

The reason for the corrections by π is due to the fact that values of 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑥) from your calculator
will be either in quadrant I or IV, and hence one has to manually adjust θ when z lies in quadrants II
or III.

e.g.6 Find r and θ for z = -1 - 3i.

𝑟 = √10 = 3.162
The point lies in third quadrant. Hence

−3
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( ) − 𝜋 = −1.8926 𝑟𝑎𝑑 = −108.4°
−1

Exponential function of a complex variable

The exponential function 𝑒 𝑧 with z being any complex number is of utmost importance in working
with complex numbers. The reason for this is; as will be shown below, any complex number can be
expressed in a form involving the exponential function as a factor, and thus we may use the index
rules Eqs 6a,b,c in reaching useful conclusions.

The function 𝑒 𝑧 is defined by the power series

𝑧2 𝑧3 𝑧𝑛
𝑒𝑧 = 1 + 𝑧 + + + ⋯ = ∑∞
𝑛=0 Eq 13
2! 3! 𝑛!

The series is known to converge for all z in the complex plane. It satisfies the index rules Eqs 6a,b,c

𝑒 𝑧1 𝑒 𝑧2 = 𝑒 𝑧1 +𝑧2 Eq 14a

(𝑒 𝑧 )𝑛 = 𝑒 𝑛𝑧 Eq 14b

(𝑧1 𝑒 𝑧2 )𝑛 = 𝑧1𝑛 𝑒 𝑛𝑧2 Eq 14c

Consider the special case where z= i θ with θ being a real number. Thus we are talking about the
exponential function of a pure imaginary argument. From Eq 13 we have:

(𝑖𝜃)2 (𝑖𝜃)3 (𝑖𝜃)4 𝜃2 𝜃4 𝜃3 𝜃5


𝑒 𝑖𝜃 = 1 + (𝑖𝜃) + + + + ⋯ = (1 − + − ⋯ ) + 𝑖 (𝜃 − + − ⋯)
2! 3! 4! 2! 4! 3! 5!

The real and imaginary parts on the right are the well-known power series expressions of cos(θ) and
sin(θ), respectively. Hence we have the important result:

𝑒 𝑖𝜃 = cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃 Eq 15
Value of the exponential function for a pure imaginary argument, 𝑖𝜃, is calculated by this relation.

e.g.7 Find the complex number 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑖 11.3

Using Eq 13 with θ = 11.3

z = cos (11.3) + i sin (11.3) = 0.299745 - i 0.95402

In such calculations make sure your calculator is in radian mode.

In the complex plane, the numbers obtained from 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑖 𝜃 for any value of θ lie on a circle of radius
r=1, with center at the origin. The complex conjugate of z is (replacing i by -i in the exponent)

𝑧 ∗ = 𝑒 −𝑖 𝜃

Square of modulus of z is

|𝑧|2 = 𝑧𝑧 ∗ = 𝑒 𝑖 𝜃 𝑒 −𝑖 𝜃 = 𝑒 𝑖 𝜃−𝑖 𝜃 = 𝑒 0 = 1

Hence mod z = 1, independent of the value of θ. This fact could also be seen using the trigonometric
expression on the right side of Eq 15.

e.g.8 Find all real numbers  that are solutions of 𝑒 𝑖 𝜆 = 1.


Replacing the variable symbol θ with  in Eq 14

𝑒 𝑖 𝜆 = cos 𝜆 + 𝑖 sin 𝜆

Since the result is 1 which is a real number, sin 𝜆 must must have zero value. We know that sin 𝜆 = 0
at =0, and any integer multiple of 𝜋. However, at the same time cos 𝜆 must be +1. This occurs if we
take multiples of 2π. Hence the allowed values of  are

𝜆 = 2𝜋𝑘, 𝑘 = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, …

In other words

𝑒 𝑖 2𝜋𝑘 = 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑘 = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, … Eq 16

This is a simple but important result to keep in mind, especially in finding roots of complex numbers
as will be discussed below.
Value of the exponential function for an arbitrary complex number z is obtained by using the index
rule Eq 14a

𝑒 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑥+𝑖 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑒 𝑖 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 (cos 𝑦 + 𝑖 sin 𝑦) Eq 17

Note that the absolute value, mod (𝑒 𝑧 ) = 𝑒 𝑥 , depends only on the real part of z.

e.g.9 What is the value of 𝑒 𝑧 when x is a very large negative number?

We have

lim 𝑒 𝑥 =0
𝑥 −∞

This means mod (𝑒 𝑧 ) is zero at x=. It follows that

lim 𝑒 𝑥+𝑖 𝑦 =0 Eq 18
𝑥 → −∞

whatever the value of y is.

This limit occurs in many integrals of interest, so keep it in mind.

e.g.10 Calculate the value of 𝑧 = 𝑒 1.3−𝑖 2.6

𝑧 = 𝑒 1.3 [cos(2.6) + 𝑖 sin(−2.6)] = 3.669 ( −0.857 − 𝑖 0.517 ) = −3.144 − 𝑖 1.892

The logarithmic function of a complex variable

In working with complex numbers we also need the inverse function, natural logarithm, of the
exponential. It has the same properties familiar from real numbers

𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑙𝑛 𝑧 Eq 19a

𝑙𝑛(𝑒 𝑧 ) = 𝑧 Eq 19b
ln (z1z2) = ln z1 + ln z2 Eq 19c

ln zn = n ln z Eq 19d

In the last equation, the exponent n does not have to be an integer; in fact, it may be any complex
number.

e.g.11. Calculate ln z for 𝑧 = 2𝑒 5𝑖 .


Using Eq 19c,d

𝑙𝑛(2𝑒 5𝑖 ) = 𝑙𝑛 2 + 𝑙𝑛(𝑒 5𝑖 ) = 𝑙𝑛 2 + 5𝑖 = 0.693147 + 5𝑖

Complex numbers in exponential form

The polar form of z in Eq 10 is combined with the identity in Eq 15 to express z in terms of the
exponential function as

𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 Eq 20

The exponential form of a complex number is very useful especially in calculations which contain
powers since the index rules Eq 14 may be used to simplify the calculations.

Evaluating powers of z

e.g.12 Find the real and imaginary parts of (2 + 3i)0.2

The given quantity has the form: zn where z = 2 + 3i, and n = 0.2

We first convert z into the polar exponential form.


𝑟 = (4 + 9)1/2 = 131/2

3
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( ) = 0.982794 𝑟𝑎𝑑
2

Now we can evaluate


0.2
𝑧 0.2 = (𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 ) = 𝑟 0.2 𝑒 𝑖(0.2)𝜃 = 130.1 𝑒 𝑖 0.1966 = 1.292 [cos(0.1966) + 𝑖 sin(0.1966)]
= 1.267 + 𝑖 0.252

Powers with imaginary exponents

e.g.13 Find the real and imaginary parts of (−3 − 5𝑖)1+𝑖

Here z = -3 -5i, and n =1+i.

Converting z into the polar exponential form:

𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖 𝜃

where (noting that z is in quadrant III)

𝑟 = 341/2

−5
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( ) − 𝜋 = −2.1112 𝑟𝑎𝑑
−3

The major difference from the previous example is that now the exponent, n=1+i, is an imaginary
number. This causes problems in evaluating the rn part. Such problems are avoided if we use
identities Eq 19a,d before doing the calculations.

Thus
𝑛)
𝑧 𝑛 = 𝑒 ln(𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑛 ln 𝑧

Now

ln 𝑧 = 𝑙𝑛(𝑟𝑒 𝑖 𝜃 ) = ln 𝑟 + 𝑙𝑛(𝑒 𝑖 𝜃 ) = ln 𝑟 + 𝑖 𝜃

So that

𝑧1+𝑖 = 𝑒 (1+𝑖)(ln 𝑟+𝑖 𝜃) = 𝑒 (ln 𝑟−𝜃)+𝑖(ln 𝑟+𝜃)


ln r ─ θ = ln 341/2 ─ (-2.1112) = 3.8744

ln r + θ = -0.348

Finally,

(−3 − 5𝑖)1+𝑖 = 𝑒 3.8744 𝑒 −𝑖 0.348 = 48.154(cos 0.348 − 𝑖 sin 0.348) = 45.267 − 𝑖 16.423

Roots of complex numbers

Consider the equation

wn = z Eq 21

where n is a given positive integer, and z is a given complex number. Hence w is the only unknown
quantity. Values of w that satisfy Eq 21 are called the nth roots of z. For n=1, there is just one value,
w=z. For n=2, it is quadratic in w, and we know there are two solutions: w = √𝑧. It is easy to show
that for any positive integer n, there are exactly n values for w that satisfy Eq 21. The proof uses the
fact given in Eq 16 that for all integers k, 𝑒 𝑖 2𝜋𝑘 = 1. Therefore, before taking the 1/n power, Eq 21
may be written as

𝑤 𝑛 = 𝑧𝑒 𝑖 2𝜋𝑘 , 𝑘 = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, …

Now we take the 1/n power of both sides to get,

𝑤 = 𝑧1/𝑛 𝑒 𝑖 2𝜋𝑘/𝑛 , 𝑘 = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, … Eq 22

Since z is a given number, 𝑧1/𝑛 is a fixed number. Hence different values of w will arise from different
values of the factor 𝑒 𝑖 2𝜋𝑘/𝑛 corresponding to different values of k. All of them have modulus 1.
When k=0,1,2,... is taken in this order, the angles of distinct complex numbers are 0, 2π/n, 4π/n, ...,
(n-1)2π/n. There are exactly n different angles within 2π; i.e. there are exactly n different complex
numbers. They are located on a circle of radius 1. Instead of taking k=0,1,2,...,(n-1), one may take any
n consecutive integers for k. For example, if we had taken k=0,-1,-2,...,-(n-1), the same set of points
would have been generated (in a clockwise manner, with negative angles).

An example for n=5 is shown in Figure 2. If we take k=0,1,2,3,4 in this order, the five complex
numbers are generated in the anticlockwise sense. The same set of five values are obtained in the
clockwise sense when k values are taken in the order k=0,-1,-2,-3,-4. The five complex numbers lie at
the vertices of a regular pentagon.

Im
k=1
(k= -4)

k=2 r=1
(k= -3)
2/5 k=0

0 Re

k=3
(k= -2)
k=4
(k= -1)

Figure 2 The fifth roots of 1

In general, the n distinct values of 𝑒 𝑖 2𝜋𝑘/𝑛 lie at the corners of a regular polygon with n vertices.

e.g.14 Find all solutions of


𝑥 3 + 1 − 2𝑖 = 0

𝑥 3 = −1 + 2𝑖 = √5𝑒 𝑖 2.0344 = √5𝑒 𝑖 2.0344 𝑒 𝑖 2𝜋𝑘 , 𝑘 = 0, 1, 2, ….

𝑥𝑘 = 51/6 𝑒 𝑖 2.0344/3 𝑒 𝑖 2𝜋𝑘/3 = 1.308𝑒 𝑖(2.0344+2𝜋𝑘)/3 , 𝑘 = 0,1,2

𝑥0 = 1.308𝑒 𝑖 2.0344 = 1.308(cos 2.0344 + 𝑖 sin 2.0344) = 1.0186 + 𝑖 0.8206

𝑥1 = 1.308𝑒 𝑖 2.7725 = 1.308(cos 2.7725 + 𝑖 sin 2.7725) = −1.2199 + 𝑖 0.4719

𝑥2 = 1.308𝑒 𝑖 4.8669 = 1.308(cos 4.8669 + 𝑖 sin 4.8669) = 0.2013 − 𝑖 1.2924


e.g.15 Find the solutions of
𝑥2 + 𝑥 − 𝑖 = 0

Using the quadratic formula

−1 ± √1 + 4 𝑖
𝑥1,2 =
2

−1 4 1/2 1 −1 4
√1 + 4 𝑖 = (171/2 𝑒 𝑖 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ) = 171/4 𝑒 𝑖2𝑡𝑎𝑛 = 2.03𝑒 𝑖 0.663 = 1.60 + 𝑖 1.25

𝑥1 = 0.30 + 𝑖 0.62

𝑥2 = −1.30 − 𝑖 0.62
Applications of complex numbers
Consider the rotation of a point P around the z axis by an angle θ to give point P' (see Figure
3a). The angle θ has a plus sign for anticlockwise rotation, and a minus sign if the rotation is
clockwise. By definition, during the rotation the distance of the point to the origin does not
change so that both the initial and the final points lie on a circle of radius r.

The problem is: Given the coordinates x and y of P, and the angle of rotation θ; find the
coordinates x' and y' of the rotated point P'.

y Im
P'(x', y') z'(x', y')
r r
 P(x, y)  z(x, y)


0 x 0
Re

a b

Figure 3

Because of the one to one correspondance between the physical xy plane and the complex
plane, the point P may be regarded as a complex number z as shown in Figure 3b. The
rotated point P' corresponds to z'. Since mod z = mod z' = r, these two complex numbers
differ only in their angles. From Figure 3, the angle of z' is θ+α. Hence

𝑧′ = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖 (𝜃+𝛼) = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖 𝛼 𝑒 𝑖 𝜃 = 𝑧𝑒 𝑖 𝜃

Expressing this relation in terms of cartesian variables

𝑥′ + 𝑖 𝑦′ = (𝑥 + 𝑖 𝑦)𝑒 𝑖 𝜃 = (𝑥 + 𝑖 𝑦)(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)


Equating the real and imaginary parts gives the desired relation between the cartesian
coordinates of the initial and the rotated points

𝑥′ = 𝑥 cos 𝜃 − 𝑦 sin 𝜃
Eq 23
𝑦′ = 𝑥 sin 𝜃 + 𝑦 cos 𝜃

e.g.16 The triangle shown on the left is rotated around the z axis clockwise by 35. Find the
coordinates of the vertices of the rotated triangle on the right.

y B(3,4) y

B'
A(1,2)
C(4,1) A'

0 x 0 x

C'

All points of the triangle undergo the same rotation. Since the rotation is clockwise θ=-35 in
Eq 23. Set your calculator to degree mode.

A': x' = cos(-35) - 2 sin(-35) = 1.97


y' = sin(-35) + 2 cos(-35) = 1.06

B': x' = 3 cos(-35) - 4 sin(-35) = 4.75


y' = 3 sin(-35) + 4 cos(-35) = 1.56

C': x' = 4 cos(-35) - sin(-35) = 3.85


y' = 4 sin(-35) + cos(-35) = -1.48
Evaluation of certain special types of integrals

Consider the integral

𝑒 (𝑎+𝑖 𝑏)𝑥
∫ 𝑒 (𝑎+𝑖 𝑏)𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎+𝑖 𝑏
Eq 24

where the constants a, b, and the integration variable x are all real quantities. This integral
can also be found by expanding the integrand first

∫ 𝑒 (𝑎+𝑖 𝑏)𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝑒 𝑖 𝑏𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 cos 𝑏𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖 ∫ 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 sin 𝑏𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Comparing this result with Eq 24

𝑒 (𝑎+𝑖 𝑏)𝑥
∫ 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 cos 𝑏𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑅𝑒 𝑎+𝑖 𝑏
Eq 25a

𝑒 (𝑎+𝑖 𝑏)𝑥
∫ 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 sin 𝑏𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐼𝑚 𝑎+𝑖 𝑏
Eq 25b

e.g.17 Evaluate the integral.


𝐼 = ∫ 𝑒 −2𝑥 cos 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0

This integral is of the form in Eq 25a. Identifying a=-2 and b=3


𝑒 (−2+3𝑖)𝑥
𝐼 = 𝑅𝑒 [ ]
−2 + 3𝑖 0
Value of the exponential function above at x= is zero (see Eq 18) so that only the lower
limit contributes to I.

1 2 + 3𝑖 2
𝐼 = 𝑅𝑒 (− ) = 𝑅𝑒 ( )=
−2 + 3𝑖 13 13

Note that if cos 3x in I is replaced with sin 3x then the value of the integral will be the
imaginary part of the result above, i.e. 3/13.

Integrals of the form

∫ 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛 𝑏𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑜𝑟 ∫ 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛 𝑏𝑥 𝑑𝑥 Eq 26

where n=2,3,4... can be expressed as a sum of integrals each of which has the form in
Eq 25a,b, and thus evaluated relatively easily. For example, if n=2

1 1
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑏𝑥 = (cos 2𝑏𝑥 + 1), 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑏𝑥 = (1 − cos 2𝑏𝑥)
2 2

so that integrals in Eq 26 for n=2 may be found by evaluating two integrals of the type in Eq
25a.

In general, for any value of n=2,3,4,... the desired expression for cosn x and sinn x can be
obtained by using the binomial expansion. Changing the variable symbol θ to x in Eq 15

𝑒 𝑖𝑥 = cos 𝑥 + 𝑖 sin 𝑥

Complex conjugate of this expression is

𝑒 −𝑖𝑥 = cos 𝑥 − 𝑖 sin 𝑥

It follows from these two equations that


1
cos 𝑥 = (𝑒 𝑖 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑖 𝑥 ) Eq 27a
2

1
sin 𝑥 = 2𝑖 (𝑒 𝑖 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑖 𝑥 ) Eq 27b
Thus we may write

1
cos𝑛 𝑥 = 2𝑛 (𝑒 𝑖 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑖 𝑥 )𝑛 Eq 28a

1 𝑛
sin𝑛 𝑥 = (2𝑖)𝑛 (𝑒 𝑖 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑖 𝑥 ) Eq 28b

Expansion of (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑛 yields a sum consisting of powers of a and b in the special form
𝑎𝑛−𝑘 𝑏 𝑘 where k ranges from 0 to n. Each term, 𝑎𝑛−𝑘 𝑏𝑘 , is multiplied by a cofficient given by
𝑛!
(𝑛−𝑘)!𝑘!
, and addition is performed. As an example, for n=3,

3! 3 0 3! 2 1 3! 1 2 3! 0 3
(𝑎 + 𝑏)3 = 𝑎 𝑏 + 𝑎 𝑏 + 𝑎 𝑏 + 𝑎 𝑏
3! 0! 2! 1! 1! 2! 0! 3!

= 𝑎3 + 3𝑎2 𝑏 + 3𝑎𝑏 2 + 𝑏 3 Eq 29

e.g.18 Express sin3 x in sines of multiple angles.


Applying Eq 29 to Eq 28b with n=3, and using the index rules 14 a,b

1 3
𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝑥 = 3 (𝑒 𝑖 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑖 𝑥 )
(2𝑖)

𝑖
= (𝑒 3𝑖𝑥 − 3𝑒 𝑖𝑥 + 3𝑒 −𝑖𝑥 − 𝑒 −3𝑖𝑥 )
8
𝑖
= (2𝑖 sin 3𝑥 − 6𝑖 sin 𝑥)
8
3 1
= 4 sin 𝑥 − 4 sin 3𝑥 Eq 30

e.g.19 Evaluate the integral


𝐼 = ∫ 𝑒 −2𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 4𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0

Using Eq 30 in which x is replaced by 4x


3 1
𝐼 = 𝐼1 − 𝐼2
4 4

where
∞ ∞

𝐼1 = ∫ 𝑒 −2𝑥 sin 4𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼2 = ∫ 𝑒 −2𝑥 sin 12𝑥 𝑑𝑥


0 0

These integrals have the same form as in Eq 25b. After inserting the limits of the integrals
one obtains

1 1
𝐼1 = 𝐼𝑚 =
2 − 4𝑖 5
1 3
𝐼2 = 𝐼𝑚 =
2 − 12𝑖 37

and hence

3 1 1 3 24
𝐼 = ( )− ( )= = 0.12973
4 5 4 37 185

Expressing cos nx and sin nx in powers of cos x and sin x

From the identities


𝑛
cos 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑖 sin 𝑛𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑥 = (𝑒 𝑖𝑥 ) = (cos 𝑥 + 𝑖 sin 𝑥)𝑛

it follows that

cos 𝑛𝑥 = 𝑅𝑒 (cos 𝑥 + 𝑖 sin 𝑥)𝑛 Eq 31a

sin 𝑛𝑥 = 𝐼𝑚 (cos 𝑥 + 𝑖 sin 𝑥)𝑛 Eq 31b

e.g.20 Express cos 5x and sin 5x in powers of cos x and sin x.


Let a = cos x, and b = i sin x.

For cos 5x, the real terms in the expansion of Eq 31a with n=5 contain only the even powers
of b: a5b0 with coefficient 1, a3b2 with coefficient 5!/3!2!=10, and ab4 with coefficient
5!/1!4!=5.
Hence

cos 5x = cos5x - 10 cos3x sin2x + 5 cos x sin4x

For sin 5x we use Eq 31b. The imaginary terms of the expansion contain odd powers of b: a4b
with coefficient 5!/4!1!=5, a2b3 with coefficient 5!/2!3!=10, and a0b5 with coefficient 1.

Thus

sin 5x = 5 cos4x sin x - 10 cos2x sin3x + sin5x

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