Modules in

Advanced Engineering Mathematics

SESSION TOPIC 1: Complex Numbers

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
At the end of the discussion, the student should be able to:
1. understand the concept of complex number
2. find the conjugate and modulus of a complex number
3. perform arithmetic operations on complex numbers
4. convert a complex number from rectangular form to polar form and vice-versa
5. apply complex numbers in solving problems involving vectors
6. compute powers and roots of complex numbers
7. determine the locus of a point

KEY TERMS
complex number modulus polar form Argand diagram exponential form
rectangular De Moivre’s locus
conjugate vector
form Theorems

CORE CONTENT

Complex numbers were originally introduced to provide solutions to equations, such as 𝑥 2 + 1 = 0 , which
do not have solutions in the set of real numbers. It is unfortunate that these numbers have been called
imaginary for these numbers have real geometric meaning and can represent other real things.
Complex numbers have been very useful in physics and engineering, specifically in dealing with the theories
of alternating current, motions of air and liquids, and problems in mechanics.

1.1 Definition and Geometric Representations of a Complex Number

Let 𝑖 be a number such that 𝑖 2 = −1. This number 𝑖 is called the imaginary unit.
A number having the form 𝑥 + 𝑖 𝑦 or 𝑥 + 𝑦 𝑖 where 𝑥 and 𝑦 are real numbers, is called a complex number.
The number 𝑥 is called the real part and the number 𝑦 is called the imaginary part.
We denote a complex number by the letter 𝑧, and the real and imaginary parts by 𝑅𝑒(𝑧) and 𝐼𝑚(𝑧),
respectively.
𝑧=𝑥+𝑦𝑖 𝑅𝑒(𝑧) = 𝑥 𝐼𝑚(𝑧) = 𝑦
Example: 𝑧 = 3 − 4𝑖 𝑅𝑒(𝑧) = 3 𝐼𝑚(𝑧) = −4
Note: The symbol 𝑖 is also used to denote current. So to avoid confusion we sometimes use 𝑗 instead of 𝑖,
and write a complex number as 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 𝑗.

If the imaginary part of a complex number is not zero, that is 𝑦 ≠ 0, then it is called imaginary number.
Example: 𝑧 = 3 − 4𝑖
If the real part is zero, that is 𝑥 = 0, then the complex number is called pure imaginary number.
Example: 𝑧 = −4𝑖 (𝑧 = 0 − 4 𝑖)
If the imaginary part is zero, that is 𝑦 = 0, then the complex number reduces to a real number.

All real numbers are therefore complex.

Example: 𝑧 = 3 (𝑧 = 3 + 0 𝑖 )
A complex number 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 𝑖 may be represented by the point (𝑥, 𝑦) on a plane having a real axis (x-axis)
and an imaginary axis (y-axis). This plane is called Argand diagram or complex plane or z-plane.
It may also be represented by a vector (directed line segment) whose tail lies at the origin and head at the
point (𝑥, 𝑦).
y (imaginary axis)

𝑥 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 𝑖 = (𝑥, 𝑦)

𝑦
x (real axis)
(0,0)
Examples:
Plot the point that represents each of the ff. complex numbers on the complex plane and draw its vector
representation.
𝑧1 = 4 + 3 𝑖 𝑅𝑒(𝑧1 ) = 4 , 𝐼𝑚(𝑧1 ) = 3
𝑧2 = 3 + 4 𝑖 𝑅𝑒(𝑧2 ) = 3 , 𝐼𝑚(𝑧2 ) = 4
1 1
𝑧3 = − 2 + √3 𝑖 𝑅𝑒(𝑧3 ) = − 2 , 𝐼𝑚(𝑧3 ) = √3
3 3
𝑧4 = −6 − 2 𝑖 𝑅𝑒(𝑧4 ) = −6 , 𝐼𝑚(𝑧4 ) = − 2
𝑧5 = −2 𝑖 𝑅𝑒(𝑧5 ) = 0, 𝐼𝑚(𝑧5 ) = −2
𝑧6 =4 𝑅𝑒(𝑧6 ) = 4, 𝐼𝑚(𝑧6 ) = 0
𝑧7 =0 𝑅𝑒(𝑧7 ) = 0, 𝐼𝑚(𝑧7 ) = 0

𝑧2 = 3 + 4𝑖 = (3,4)

𝑧1 = 4 + 3𝑖 = (4,3)

𝑧3

𝑧7 𝑧6

𝑧4
𝑧5

Equality of Complex Numbers

Two complex numbers 𝑧1 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 and 𝑧2 = 𝑐 + 𝑑𝑖 are equal if and only if 𝑎 = 𝑐 and 𝑏 = 𝑑 ,
that is, if the corresponding real parts and imaginary parts are identical.

Example 1: Solve for x and y if 2𝑥 − 3𝑦𝑖 + 4𝑥𝑖 − 2𝑦 − 5 − 10𝑖 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 2 − 𝑖(𝑦 − 𝑥 + 3).

Solution:
2𝑥 − 3𝑦𝑖 + 4𝑥𝑖 − 2𝑦 − 5 − 10𝑖 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 2 − 𝑖(𝑦 − 𝑥 + 3)
(2𝑥 − 2𝑦 − 5) + (4𝑥 − 3𝑦 − 10)𝑖 = (𝑥 + 𝑦 + 2) − (𝑦 − 𝑥 + 3)𝑖 write in the form 𝑥 + 𝑦𝑖
Equating corresponding real parts and imaginary parts, we have
2𝑥 − 2𝑦 − 5 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 2 ⇒ 𝑥 − 3𝑦 − 7 = 0
4𝑥 − 3𝑦 − 10 = −(𝑦 − 𝑥 + 3) ⇒ 3𝑥 − 2𝑦 − 7 = 0
Solving the two equations simultaneously, we get 𝑥 = 1, 𝑦 = −2.

Example 2: Find 𝜃, where 𝜃 ∈ [0°, 360°) , given that √2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 √2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 1 − 𝑖.

Solution:
√2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 √2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 1 − 𝑖.
Equating corresponding real parts and imaginary parts,
√2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 1 √2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = −1
1 1
⇒ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = ⇒ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = −
√2 √2
1 1
𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 ( ) 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 (− )
√2 √2
The angle 𝜃 ∈ [0°, 360°) that satisfies both equations above is 𝜃 = 135°

Example 3: Find x and y if (𝑥 + 3)(1 − 𝑦𝑖) = 3 − 𝑖.

Solution:
(𝑥 + 3)(1 − 𝑦𝑖) = 3 − 𝑖
𝑥 − 𝑥𝑦𝑖 + 3 − 3𝑦𝑖 = 3 − 𝑖
(𝑥 + 3) − (𝑥𝑦 + 3𝑦)𝑖 = 3 − 𝑖
This gives us the equations
𝑥+3=3 ⇒𝑥 =0
1
−(𝑥𝑦 + 3𝑦) = −1 𝑦=3
1.2 Conjugate and Modulus of a Complex Number
The complex conjugate or simply conjugate of a complex number 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑦𝑖 is the complex number
𝑧̅ = 𝑥 − 𝑦𝑖 (read: “z bar”)
The conjugate 𝑧̅ = (𝑥, −𝑦) is the reflection of 𝑧 = (𝑥, 𝑦) through the x-axis.

𝑧 = (𝑥, 𝑦)

x
(0,0)

𝑧̅ = (𝑥, −𝑦)
Examples:
𝑧1 = 4 + 3 𝑖 𝑧̅1 = 4 − 3 𝑖
𝑧2 = −2 − 5 𝑖 𝑧̅2 = −2 + 5 𝑖
𝑧3 = 4 𝑧̅3 = 4
𝑧4 = −√2 𝑖 𝑧̅4 = √2 𝑖

The modulus (or magnitude or absolute value) of a complex number 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑦𝑖 is the real number
|𝑧| = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 (read : “modulus of z”)
that is, the square root of the sum of the square of the real part and the square of the imaginary part.
The modulus is the length of the vector representing 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑦𝑖.

y
𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑦𝑖
|𝑧|

x
(0,0)

Examples:
𝑧1 = 4 + 3 𝑖 |𝑧1 | = √(4)2 + (3)2 = √25 = 5
𝑧2 = −2 − 5 𝑖 |𝑧2 | = √(−2)2 + (−5)2 = √29
𝑧3 = 4 |𝑧3 | = |4| = 4 (if real number, just take the absolute value of x)
𝑧4 = −√2 𝑖 |𝑧4 | = |−√2| = √2 (if pure imaginary number, just take the absolute value of y)
Note: |𝑧| = |𝑧̅|
|𝑧|2 = |𝑧̅|2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
|𝑧 2 | = |𝑧|2

Properties of Conjugate and Modulus

1. The conjugate of a sum is equal to the sum of conjugates.
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑧1 + 𝑧2 = 𝑧̅1 + 𝑧̅2
In general,
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑧𝑖 = ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑧̅𝑖
2. The conjugate of a difference is equal to the difference of conjugates.
𝑧1 − 𝑧2 = 𝑧̅1 − 𝑧̅2
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
3. The conjugate of a product is equal to the product of conjugates.
𝑧1 ∙ 𝑧2 = 𝑧̅1 ∙ 𝑧̅2
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
In general,
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
∏𝑛𝑖=1 𝑧𝑖 = ∏𝑛𝑖=1 𝑧̅𝑖
4. The conjugate of a quotient is equal to the quotient of conjugates.
̅̅̅̅̅
𝑧 ̅̅̅
𝑧
( 1) = 1
𝑧2 ̅̅̅
𝑧2
5. Triangle Inequality: The modulus of a sum cannot exceed the sum of their moduli.
|𝑧1 + 𝑧2 | ≤ |𝑧1 | + |𝑧2 |

6. |𝑧1 − 𝑧2 | ≥ ||𝑧1 | − |𝑧2 ||

7. The modulus of a product is equal to the product of moduli.
|𝑧1 ∙ 𝑧2 | = |𝑧1 | ∙ |𝑧2 |
In general,
|∏𝑛𝑖=1 𝑧𝑖 | = ∏𝑛𝑖=1|𝑧𝑖 |
8. The modulus of a quotient is equal to the quotient of moduli.
𝒛 |𝒛 |
| 𝟏 | = |𝒛𝟏 |
𝒛𝟐 𝟐
9. The conjugate of the conjugate of a complex number 𝑧 is 𝑧.
𝑧̿ = 𝑧
10. The product of a complex number and its conjugate is equal to the square of its modulus, or the
square of the modulus of its conjugate.
𝑧 ∙ 𝑧̅ = |𝑧|2 or 𝑧 ∙ 𝑧̅ = |𝑧̅|2

1.3 Operations on Complex Numbers

Like real numbers, the four fundamental operations can be performed on complex numbers and these
are defined as follows:
Let 𝑧1 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 and 𝑧2 = 𝑐 + 𝑑𝑖.

Addition: 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 = (𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖) + (𝑐 + 𝑑𝑖) = (𝑎 + 𝑐) + (𝑏 + 𝑑)𝑖 (add corresponding real parts and add
corresponding imaginary parts)
Example: Given 𝑧1 = 4 + 2𝑖 and 𝑧2 = 1 + 3𝑖, find 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 and interpret the result geometrically.
Solution:
𝑧1 + 𝑧2 = (4 + 2𝑖) + (1 + 3𝑖) = (4 + 1) + (2 + 3)𝑖 = 5 + 5𝑖 (resultant vector)

(5,5)

(1,3)
𝑧1 + 𝑧2 𝑧2

𝑧2
(4,2)

𝑧1

Subtraction: 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 = (𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖) − (𝑐 + 𝑑𝑖) = (𝑎 − 𝑐) + (𝑏 − 𝑑)𝑖

𝑧1 − 𝑧2 actually means 𝑧1 + (−𝑧2 )
Example: Given the same vectors in the above example, find 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 .
𝑧1 − 𝑧2 = (4 + 2𝑖) − (1 + 3𝑖) = (4 − 1) + (2 − 3)𝑖 = 3 − 𝑖
or
𝑧1 − 𝑧2 = (4 + 2𝑖) − (1 + 3𝑖) = 4 + 2𝑖 − 1 − 3𝑖 = 3 − 𝑖
 (1,3)

(4,2)

(3, −1)

Multiplication: 𝑧1 ∙ 𝑧2 = (𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖) ∙ (𝑐 + 𝑑𝑖) = (𝑎𝑐 − 𝑏𝑑) + (𝑎𝑑 + 𝑏𝑐)𝑖

Example: Given the same vectors, find 𝑧1 ∙ 𝑧2 .
𝑧1 ∙ 𝑧2 = (4 + 2𝑖) ∙ (1 + 3𝑖) = (4 ∙ 1 − 2 ∙ 3) + (4 ∙ 3 + 2 ∙ 1)𝑖 = −2 + 14𝑖 (using the formula)
or
𝑧1 ∙ 𝑧2 = (4 + 2𝑖) ∙ (1 + 3𝑖) = 4 + 12𝑖 + 2𝑖 + 6𝑖 2 = 4 + 12𝑖 + 2𝑖 − 6 = −2 + 14𝑖
( 𝑖 2 = −1)
𝑧1 𝑎+𝑏𝑖 𝑎𝑐+𝑏𝑑 𝑏𝑐−𝑎𝑑
Division: = = + 𝑖
𝑧2 𝑐+𝑑𝑖 𝑐 2 +𝑑 2 𝑐 2 +𝑑 2
In practice, the quotient of two complex numbers is found by multiplying both numerator and denominator
by the conjugate of the denominator.
𝑧1 𝑎+𝑏𝑖 𝑐−𝑑𝑖
= ∙
𝑧2 𝑐+𝑑𝑖 𝑐−𝑑𝑖

Example: Given the same vectors, find 𝑧1 ∙ 𝑧2

𝑧1 4+2𝑖 4∙1+2∙3 2∙1−4∙3 10 −10
= = + 𝑖= + 𝑖 =1−𝑖
𝑧2 1+3𝑖 12 +32 12 +32 10 10
or
𝑧1 4+2𝑖 1−3𝑖 (4+2𝑖)∙(1−3𝑖) 4−12𝑖+2𝑖−6𝑖 2 4−12𝑖+2𝑖+6 10−10𝑖 10 10
= ∙ = (1+3𝑖)(1−3𝑖) = (1)2 −(3𝑖)2
= = = − 𝑖 =1−𝑖
𝑧2 1+3𝑖 1−31 1−9𝑖 2 10 10 10

Example 1: Given the complex numbers 𝑧1 = 1 − 𝑖 , 𝑧2 = −2 + 4𝑖, 𝑧3 = √3 − 2𝑖.

Evaluate each of the following and express the result in the form 𝑥 + 𝑦𝑖.
1. 𝑧1 2 + 2𝑧1 − 3 = (1 − 𝑖)2 + 2(1 − 𝑖) − 3 = 1 − 2𝑖 + 𝑖 2 + 2 − 2𝑖 − 3 = −1 − 4𝑖

2. ̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑧1 𝑧̅2 = 𝑧̅1 𝑧̿2 = 𝑧̅1 𝑧2 = (1 + 𝑖)(−2 + 4𝑖) = −2 + 4𝑖 − 2𝑖 + 4𝑖 2 = −6 + 2𝑖
3. ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
(𝑧2 + 𝑧3 )(𝑧1 − 𝑧3 ) = ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
(𝑧2 + 𝑧3 ) ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
(𝑧1 − 𝑧3 ) =(𝑧̅2 + 𝑧̅3 )(𝑧̅1 − 𝑧̅3 )
=(−2 − 4𝑖 + √3 + 2𝑖)(1 + 𝑖 − √3 − 2𝑖)
=(−2 + √3 − 2𝑖)(1 − √3 − 𝑖)
=(−7 + 3√3) + √3𝑖
4. |𝑧1 𝑧2 | = |𝑧1 ||𝑧2 | = √2 ∙ √20 = √40 = 2√10
2
5. 𝐼𝑚{𝑧3 2 + 5√3 𝑖} = 𝐼𝑚 {(√3 − 2𝑖) + 5√3 𝑖} = 𝐼𝑚{3 − 4√3𝑖 + 4𝑖 2 + 5√3 𝑖}
= 𝐼𝑚{−1 − 4√3 𝑖 + 5√3 𝑖}
= 𝐼𝑚{−1 + √3 𝑖}
=√3
6. 𝑅𝑒{2𝑧1 − 3𝑧2 } = 𝑅𝑒{2(1 − 𝑖) − 3(−2 + 4𝑖)}
= 𝑅𝑒{2 − 2𝑖 + 6 − 12𝑖}
= 𝑅𝑒{8 − 14𝑖}
=8
2 2
7. 𝑧3 𝑧̅3 = |𝑧3 |2 = |√3 − 2𝑖| = (√3) + (−2)2 = 3 + 4 = 7
Example 2: Find 𝑧 such that 𝑧𝑧̅ + 3(𝑧 − 𝑧̅) = 13 − 12𝑖.
Solution:
Let 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑦𝑖.
𝑧𝑧̅ + 3(𝑧 − 𝑧̅) = 13 − 12𝑖
2 2
𝑥 + 𝑦 + 3(𝑥 + 𝑦𝑖 − 𝑥 + 𝑦𝑖) = 13 − 12𝑖
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 6𝑦𝑖 = 13 − 12𝑖
⇒ 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 13
6𝑦 = −12 ⇒ 𝑦 = −2
Substitute this value of y in the other equation, we get
𝑥 2 + (−2)2 = 13
𝑥2 = 9
𝑥 = ±3
Thus, there are two answers: 𝑧 = 3 − 2𝑖 and 𝑧 = −3 − 2𝑖.

Example 3: Show that (a) |𝑧| = |𝑧̅|

(b) |𝑧|2 = |𝑧 2 |
(c) 𝑧 ∙ 𝑧̅ = |𝑧|2
Proof:
(a) Let 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑦𝑖.
|𝑧| = |𝑥 + 𝑦𝑖| = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 =√𝑥 2 + (−𝑦)2 = |𝑥 − 𝑦𝑖| = |𝑧̅|
Thus, |𝑧| = |𝑧̅|.

(b) Let 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑦𝑖.

2
|𝑧|2 = (√𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ) = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
|𝑧 2 | = |(𝑥 + 𝑦𝑖)2 |
= |𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑦𝑖 + 𝑦 2 𝑖 2 |
= |𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑦𝑖 − 𝑦 2 |
= |(𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 ) + (2𝑥𝑦)𝑖|
= √(𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 )2 + (2𝑥𝑦)2
=√𝑥 4 − 2𝑥 2 𝑦 2 + 𝑦 4 + 4𝑥 2 𝑦 2
= √𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 2 𝑦 2 + 𝑦 4
= √(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 )2
= 𝑥2 + 𝑦2

(c) Let 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑦𝑖. Then 𝑧̅ = 𝑥 − 𝑦𝑖.

𝑧 ∙ 𝑧̅ = (𝑥 + 𝑦𝑖)(𝑥 − 𝑦𝑖) = (𝑥)2 − (𝑦𝑖)2 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 𝑖 2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
2
|𝑧|2 = (√𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ) = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2

Positive-Integer Powers of 𝑖
If 𝑛 is a positive integer, then
𝑖 4𝑛 = 1
𝑖 4𝑛+1 = 𝑖
𝑖 4𝑛+2 = −1
𝑖 4𝑛+3 = −𝑖
𝑖 23 −2𝑖 41 −𝑖 82 +3𝑖 44
Example: Simplify the expression and write the result in the form 𝑥 + 𝑦𝑖
4𝑖 45 +𝑖 35 +3𝑖 28 −𝑖 101
Solution:
𝑖 23 = 𝑖 4(5)+3 = −𝑖
𝑖 41 = 𝑖 4(10)+1 = 𝑖
𝑖 82 = 𝑖 4(20)+2 = −1
𝑖 44 = 𝑖 4(11) = 1
𝑖 45 = 𝑖 4(11)+1 = 𝑖
𝑖 35 = 𝑖 4(8)+3 = −𝑖
𝑖 28 = 𝑖 4(7) = 1
𝑖 101 = 𝑖 4(25)+1 = 𝑖

𝑖 23 −2𝑖 41 −𝑖 82 +3𝑖 44 −𝑖−2𝑖−(−1)+3(1) 4−3𝑖 3−2𝑖 12−17𝑖+6𝑖 2 6−17𝑖 6 17

4𝑖 45 +𝑖 35 +3𝑖 28 −𝑖 101 = 4(𝑖)+(−𝑖)+3(1)−𝑖
=
3+2𝑖
∙
3−2𝑖
=
32 +22
=
13
=
13
−
13
𝑖
SELF-ASSESSMENT
PROBLEM SET 1
(Complex Numbers)

Name: ________________________ Score: ______________

Section: ________________________ Date: ______________

Solve the following problems as directed. Show complete solutions and box your final answers.
Solutions and answers should be handwritten. Use short bond papers. (3 pts each)

Problem 1:
(a) Solve for x and y: (𝑥 + 𝑦𝑖)(4 + 3𝑖) = 5 − 𝑖
(b) Solve for x and y: 3 − 𝑥𝑖 + 2𝑦 = 9𝑥𝑖 + 6 − 4𝑦
(c) Solve for x and y:(𝑥 + 𝑦𝑖)(6 − 5𝑖) = 3 + 2𝑖
(d) Find 𝜃 , where 𝜃 ∈ [0°, 360°): √2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 √2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 1 − 𝑖
(e) Find 𝜃 , where 𝜃 ∈ [0°, 360°): 5 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑖 5 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = −5𝑖

Problem 2: Given 𝑧1 = 2 + 𝑖 , 𝑧2 = 1 + 3𝑖, 𝑧3 = −4𝑖 and 𝑧4 = 2 − 3𝑖.Evaluate

𝑧1 𝑧2
(a) (f) ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑧̅4 − 𝑧1
𝑧3
𝑧2
(b) |𝐼𝑚{𝑧4 − 𝑧3 }| (g)| |
𝑧3
2}
(c) 𝑅𝑒{𝑧1 (h) |1 − 𝑧1 + 𝑧4 |
(d) ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑧1 𝑧3 𝑧4 (i) 𝑧2 2 − 𝑧3 + 6𝑖
(e) −3𝑧1 + 2𝑧4 − 𝑧3 (j) |𝑧1 𝑧2 − 𝑧3 𝑧4 |
1.4 Polar Form of a Complex Number
The form 𝑥 + 𝑦𝑖 of a complex number is called its rectangular or algebraic form.
A complex number may be expressed in the form 𝑟(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) or 𝑟 𝑐𝑖𝑠𝜃 which is called the
polar or trigonometric form.

Every point (𝑥, 𝑦) on the plane except (0,0) lies on some circle with center at the origin and radius 𝑟,
where 𝑟 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2. 𝑦
y
𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) = (𝑟, 𝜃) (𝑥, 𝑦) are called rectangular or Cartesian coordinates
(𝑟, 𝜃) are called polar coordinates
𝑟 𝑦
𝜃
𝑥
(0,0) 𝑥

Let 𝜃 be the angle in standard position with the terminal side OP. Then
𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑟 ⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑦
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = ⇒ 𝑦 = 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑟
So it follows that
𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 = 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑟(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) or 𝑧 = 𝑟 𝑐𝑖𝑠𝜃 (abbreviated form)
where 𝑟 = |𝑧| = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 is called the modulus or radius vector of 𝑧
and 𝜃 or arg(𝑧) is called the amplitude or argument of 𝑧
Note: 𝑟 is always positive
𝜃 may be positive or negative; positive when measured in counterclockwise direction
negative when measured in clockwise direction
We may also write 𝑟 𝑐𝑖𝑠𝜃 in the form 𝑟∠𝜃 (read: “r angle 𝜃”)

A complex number may also be expressed in the exponential form using Euler’s Formula.

𝑒 𝑖𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 = 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑟(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃

𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃
From Euler’s formula, obtain Euler’s identity.
Let 𝜃 = 𝜋: 𝑒 𝑖𝜋 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋 = −1 + 𝑖 ∙ 0 = −1
𝑒 𝑖𝜋 = −1
𝑒 𝑖𝜋 + 1 = 0 (considered the most remarkable equation in mathematics)

Conversion from Rectangular to Polar Form:

To express 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 in polar form,
To allow negative values for 𝜃, we apply the ff. formulas:
𝑟 = |𝑧| = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
𝑦
𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑥 ) 𝑖𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑄 𝐼 𝑜𝑟 𝑄 𝐼𝑉
𝑦 𝜋 𝑦 𝜋
𝜃= 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑥 ) + 𝜋 𝑖𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑄 𝐼𝐼 , where − 2 < 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑥 ) < 2
𝑦
{ 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑥 )
− 𝜋 𝑖𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑄 𝐼𝐼𝐼
To keep 𝜃 > 0, we use
𝑟 = |𝑧| = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
𝑦
𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑥 ) 𝑖𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑄 𝐼
𝑦 𝜋 𝑦 𝜋
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑥 ) + 𝜋 𝑖𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑄 𝐼𝐼 𝑜𝑟 𝑄 𝐼𝐼𝐼 , where − 2 < 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑥 ) < 2
𝑦
{ 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑥 ) + 2𝜋 𝑖𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑄 𝐼𝑉
 𝜋
𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 > 0
Note: 𝜃 = {32
𝜋 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 < 0
2

Examples: Express the following complex numbers in polar form.

1. 1 + 𝑖
(1,1)
Solution:
𝑥 = 1, 𝑦 = 1 (1,1) ∈ 𝑄 𝐼
𝑟 = √(1)2 + (1)2 = √2 45°
1 𝜋
𝜃= 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (1) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 (1)
= 45° 𝑜𝑟 4

𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
⇒ 1 + 𝑖 = √2 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 4 ) = √2 𝑐𝑖𝑠 4 𝑜𝑟 √2 𝑐𝑖𝑠 45° 𝑜𝑟 √2∠45°

𝜋
In exponential form, 1 + 𝑖 = √2 𝑒 4 𝑖

2. −1 + √3𝑖
Solution: (−1, √3)
𝑥 = −1, 𝑦 = √3 (−1, √3) ∈ 𝑄 𝐼𝐼
2 𝑟=2
𝑟 = √(−1)2 + (√3) = 2 120°
√3
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (−1) + 180° = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (−√3) + 180° = −60° + 180° = 120°
⇒ −1 + √3𝑖 = 2 𝑐𝑖𝑠120° or 2∠120°

3. −2 − 2𝑖
Solution:
𝑥 = −2, 𝑦 = −2 (−2, −2) ∈ 𝑄 𝐼𝐼𝐼
𝑟 = √(−2)2 + (−2)2 = 2√2
−2
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (−2) + 180° = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (1) + 180° = 45° + 180° = 225°
⇒ −2 − 2𝑖 = 2√2 𝑐𝑖𝑠225° or 2√2 ∠225°

4. 𝑖 = 0 + 1𝑖
Solution:
𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 1 (0,1) lies along +y-axis
𝑟 = |1| = 1
1 𝜋
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (0) = 90° 𝑜𝑟 2
⇒ 𝑖 = 1 𝑐𝑖𝑠 90° or 𝑐𝑖𝑠90° or 1 ∠90°

5. 6 = 6 + 0 𝑖
Solution:
𝑥 = 6, 𝑦 = 0 (6,0) lies along +x-axis
𝑟 = |6| = 6
0
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (6) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (0) = 0°
⇒ 6 = 6 𝑐𝑖𝑠0° or 6∠0°

6. −4 = −4 + 0𝑖
Solution:
𝑥 = −4, 𝑦 = 0 (−4,0) lies along −x-axis
𝑟 = |−4| = 4
0
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (−4) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (0) = 180° 𝑜𝑟 𝜋
⇒ −4 = 4 𝑐𝑖𝑠180° or 4∠180°
 1
7. + 5𝑖
4
Solution:
1 1
𝑥 = 4,𝑦 = 5 (4 , 5) ∈ 𝑄 𝐼
1 2
𝑟 = √(4) + (5)2 ≈ 5
5
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( 1 ) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (20) ≈ 87°
4
1
⇒ + 5𝑖 = 5 𝑐𝑖𝑠 87° or 5∠ 87°
4

Conversion from Polar to Rectangular Form:

To express 𝑧 = 𝑟 𝑐𝑖𝑠𝜃 in rectangular form, we use the ff. formulas:
𝑥 = 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑦 = 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
Example 1: 𝑧 = 6 𝑐𝑖𝑠 30°
Solution:
𝑟 = 6 , 𝜃 = 30°
√3
𝑥 = 6 𝑐𝑜𝑠30° = 6 ( 2 ) = 3√3
1
𝑦 = 6 𝑠𝑖𝑛30° = 6 (2) = 3
𝑧 = 6 𝑐𝑖𝑠 30° = 3√3 + 3𝑖
5𝜋
Example 2: 𝑧 = 4 𝑐𝑖𝑠 4
Solution:
5𝜋
𝑟 = 4 ,𝜃 = 4
5𝜋 √2
𝑥 = 4 𝑐𝑜𝑠 = 4 (− ) = −2√2
4 2
5𝜋 √2
𝑦 = 4 𝑠𝑖𝑛 = 4 (− 2 ) = −2√2
4
5𝜋
𝑧 = 4 𝑐𝑖𝑠 = −2√2 − 2√2 𝑖
4

Example 3: 𝑧 = 2 𝑐𝑖𝑠 72°

Solution:
𝑟 = 2 , 𝜃 = 72°
𝑥 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠72° ≈ 0.62
𝑦 = 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛72° ≈ 1.90
𝑧 = 2 𝑐𝑖𝑠 72° = 0.62 + 1.90𝑖

1.5 De Moivre’s Theorems

Let 𝑧1 = 𝑟1 𝑐𝑖𝑠𝜃1 and 𝑧2 = 𝑟2 𝑐𝑖𝑠𝜃2 .

Product: 𝑧1 ∙ 𝑧2 = (𝑟1 𝑐𝑖𝑠𝜃1 )(𝑟2 𝑐𝑖𝑠𝜃2 ) = 𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑐𝑖𝑠(𝜃1 + 𝜃2 )

In general, 𝑧1 ∙ 𝑧2 ∙ … ∙ 𝑧𝑛 = 𝑟1 𝑟2 … 𝑟𝑛 𝑐𝑖𝑠(𝜃1 + 𝜃2 + ⋯ + 𝜃𝑛 )

𝑧1 𝑟1 𝑐𝑖𝑠𝜃1 𝑟1
Quotient: = = 𝑐𝑖𝑠(𝜃1 − 𝜃2 )
𝑧2 𝑟2 𝑐𝑖𝑠𝜃2 𝑟2

Power: 𝑧 𝑛 = (𝑟 𝑐𝑖𝑠 𝜃)𝑛 = 𝑟 𝑛 𝑐𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝜃 , 𝑛 is a positive integer

Roots: The n 𝑛𝑡ℎ roots are given by

𝑛 𝑛
√𝑧 = √𝑟 𝑐𝑖𝑠𝜃 = √𝑟 𝑐𝑖𝑠 (
𝑛 𝜃+𝑘∙360°
𝑛
) , 𝑘 = 0,1,2, … , 𝑛 − 1
French math’n Abraham De Moivre
(1667-1754)
(De Moivre is pronounced “de mwav”)
 Perform the indicated operations and express the result in rectangular form 𝑥 + 𝑦𝑖.
𝜋 𝜋
Example 1: Find the product (6 𝑐𝑖𝑠 2 ) (2 𝑐𝑖𝑠 4 ).
Solution:
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋 3𝜋 3𝜋 √2 √2
(6 𝑐𝑖𝑠 2 ) (2 𝑐𝑖𝑠 4 ) = 6 ∙ 2 𝑐𝑖𝑠 ( 2 + 4 ) = 12 𝑐𝑖𝑠 = 12 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 ) = 12 (− + 𝑖) = −6√2 + 6√2𝑖
4 4 4 2 2
1
Example 2: Compute (√2𝑐𝑖𝑠 60°) (2 𝑐𝑖𝑠30°) (4 𝑐𝑖𝑠 − 45°).
Solution:
1 1
(√2𝑐𝑖𝑠 60°) (2 𝑐𝑖𝑠30°) (4 𝑐𝑖𝑠 − 45°) = √2 ∙ 2 ∙ 4 𝑐𝑖𝑠(60° + 30° + (−45°))
= 2√2 𝑐𝑖𝑠 45°
= 2√2(𝑐𝑜𝑠45° + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛45°)
√2 √2
= 2√2 ( 2 + 𝑖 )
2
= 2 + 2𝑖

6 𝑐𝑖𝑠 90°
Example 3: Find the quotient 3 .
𝑐𝑖𝑠45°
2
Solution:
6 𝑐𝑖𝑠 90° 6 √2 √2
3 = 3 𝑐𝑖𝑠 (90° − 45°) = 4 𝑐𝑖𝑠45° = 4 ( +𝑖 ) = 2√2 + 2√2𝑖
𝑐𝑖𝑠45° 2 2
2 2

Example 4: Evaluate (2 𝑐𝑖𝑠 30°)10 .

Solution:
(2 𝑐𝑖𝑠 30°)10 = 210 𝑐𝑖𝑠 300° = 1024 (𝑐𝑜𝑠300° + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛300°) = 512 − 886.81𝑖

5
Example 5: Find the value of (√3 + 𝑖) .
Solution:
Convert √3 + 𝑖 to polar form. √3 + 𝑖 = 2 𝑐𝑖𝑠 30°.
By De Moivre’s Theorem,
5 √3 1
(√3 + 𝑖) = (2 𝑐𝑖𝑠 30°)5 = 25 𝑐𝑖𝑠150° = 32(cos 150° + 𝑖 sin 150°)=32 (− + 2 𝑖) = −16√3 + 16𝑖
2

Example 6: Find the four 4th roots of −1 − √3 𝑖 .

Solution:
Converting −1 − √3 𝑖, we get −1 − √3 𝑖 = 2 𝑐𝑖𝑠 240°.
By De Moivre’s formula, the roots are:
4 240°+𝑘∙360°
√2 𝑐𝑖𝑠 ( 4
) , 𝑘 = 0,1,2,3
4 4 1 √3
For 𝑘 = 0: 𝑧 = √2 𝑐𝑖𝑠 60° = √2 (2 + 𝑖) = 0.59 + 1.03𝑖
2

4 4 √3 1
𝑘 = 1: 𝑧 = √2 𝑐𝑖𝑠 150° = √2 (− + 2 𝑖) = −1.03 + 0.59𝑖
2

4 4 1 √3
𝑘 = 2: 𝑧 = √2 𝑐𝑖𝑠 240° = √2 (− 2 − 𝑖) = −0.59 − 1.03𝑖
2

4 4 √3 1
𝑘 = 3: 𝑧 = √2 𝑐𝑖𝑠 330° = √2 ( 2 − 2 𝑖) = 1.03 − 0.59𝑖

These roots are “evenly” spaced on the circumference of a circle of radius 2 units.

Example 7: Solve the equation 𝑧 5 = −32 .

Solution:
1
To solve for 𝑧, raise both sides of the equation to 5 or take the fifth root of both sides, to get
5
𝑧 = √−32
Converting −32 to polar form, we have −32 = 32 𝑐𝑖𝑠180°.
Using De Moivre’s formula for roots, the roots are given by
5 5 5 180°+𝑘∙360°
𝑧 = √−32= √32 𝑐𝑖𝑠180° = √32 𝑐𝑖𝑠 ( ) , 𝑘 = 0,1,2,3,4
5

180°+𝑘∙360°
= 2 𝑐𝑖𝑠 ( ) , 𝑘 = 0,1,2,3,4
5
There are five 5th roots.
For 𝑘 = 0: 𝑧 = 2 𝑐𝑖𝑠36° = 1.62 + 1.18𝑖
𝑘 = 1: 𝑧 = 2 𝑐𝑖𝑠108° = −0.62 + 1.90𝑖
𝑘 = 2: 𝑧 = 2 𝑐𝑖𝑠 180° = −2
𝑘 = 3: 𝑧 = 2 𝑐𝑖𝑠252° = −0.62 − 1.90𝑖
𝑘 = 4: 𝑧 = 2 𝑐𝑖𝑠324° = 1.62 − 1.18𝑖

Example 8: A man travels 12 miles northeast ,20 miles 30°west of north, and then 18 miles 60° south of west.
Determine how far and in what direction he is from his starting point.
Solution:
Let 𝑂 be the starting point. Then we can represent the displacements by the vectors ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
𝑂𝐴 , ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ .
𝐴𝐵 and 𝐵𝐶
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ .
The result of the three displacements is the sum represented by the vector 𝑂𝐶
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ = ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
𝑂𝐶 𝑂𝐴 + ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝐶
𝑁 𝑦
𝑊 𝐸
60°

⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
𝐵𝐶
18 𝑚𝑖 ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
𝐴𝐵
20 𝑚𝑖
30°𝑁

scale: 2 miles ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ 𝑟

𝑂𝐶 𝐸

𝑃 𝑄
𝛼 12 𝑚𝑖
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
𝑂𝐴
𝜃
𝑊 45°
𝐸
𝑥
𝑂
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ = 12 𝑐𝑖𝑠45°=12(𝑐𝑜𝑠45° + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛45°) = 6√2 + 6√2𝑖
𝑂𝐴
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
𝐴𝐵 = 20 𝑐𝑖𝑠(90° + 30°) = 20 𝑐𝑖𝑠120° = −10 + 10√3𝑖
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ = 18 𝑐𝑖𝑠(180° + 60°) = 18 𝑐𝑖𝑠240° = −9 − 9√3𝑖
𝐵𝐶
So, 𝑂𝐶⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ = (6√2 + 6√2𝑖) + (−10 + 10√3𝑖) + (−9 − 9√3𝑖) = (6√2 − 19) + (6√2 + √3)𝑖
Thus,
2 2
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ | = √(6√2 − 19) + (6√2 + √3) ≈ 14.66 𝑚𝑖
𝑟 = |𝑂𝐶
6√2 − 19
𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 ( ) ≈ 135.83°
14.66
Therefore, the man is 14.66 mi from his starting point in the direction 𝛼 = 135.83° − 90° = 45.83°
west of north.
1.6 Loci in the Complex Plane
A locus is the set of all points, commonly, a curve (line, line segment, circle) or a surface, whose location
satisfies or is determined by one or more specified conditions.
Let 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑦𝑖. Then 𝑧̅ = 𝑥 − 𝑦𝑖. Solving these equations for 𝑥 and 𝑦, we obtain

𝑧+𝑧̅ 𝑧−𝑧̅
𝑥= 𝑦=
2 2𝑖
An equation in complex conjugates 𝑧 and 𝑧̅ can be expressed in terms of rectangular coordinates 𝑥 and 𝑦,
and vice -versa using the above equations.

Example 1: Express the equation |𝑧 − 𝑖| = 1 in terms of rectangular coordinates 𝑥 and 𝑦, and sketch its
graph.
Solution:
|𝑧 − 𝑖| = 1 means “the distance of point z from 𝑖 is 1”
|𝑥 + 𝑦𝑖 − 𝑖| = 1
|𝑥 + 𝑖(𝑦 − 1)| = 1
√𝑥 2 + (𝑦 − 1)2 = 1
𝑥 2 + (𝑦 − 1)2 = 1 circle with C(0,1) and r=1

Example 2: Identify and sketch the graph of 𝑧 + 𝑧̅ = 4.

Solution:
𝑧 + 𝑧̅ = 4
𝑥 + 𝑦𝑖 + 𝑥 − 𝑦𝑖 = 4
2𝑥 = 4
𝑥 = 2 vertical line

Example 3: Express the equation 𝐼𝑚{𝑧̅ − 𝑖} = 1 in terms of x and y, and sketch the graph.
Solution:
𝐼𝑚{𝑧̅ − 𝑖} = 1
𝐼𝑚{𝑥 − 𝑦𝑖 − 𝑖} = 1
𝐼𝑚{𝑥 + (−𝑦 − 1)𝑖} = 1
−𝑦 − 1 = 1
𝑦 = −2 horizontal line

Example 4: Express the equation 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑥 − 4𝑦 − 4 = 0 in terms of complex conjugates 𝑧 and 𝑧̅.

Solution:
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑥 − 4𝑦 − 4 = 0
(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥) + (𝑦 2 − 4𝑦) = 4
(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1) + (𝑦 2 − 4𝑦 + 4) = 4 + 1 + 4
(𝑥 + 1)2 + (𝑦 − 2)2 = 9
√(𝑥 + 1)2 + (𝑦 − 2)2 = 3
|(𝑥 + 1) + (𝑦 − 2)𝑖| = 3
|𝑥 + 1 + 𝑦𝑖 − 2𝑖| = 3
|(𝑥 + 𝑦𝑖) + 1 − 2𝑖| = 3
|𝑧 + 1 − 2𝑖| = 3

1.7 Trigonometric, Logarithmic and Exponential Functions (optional)

 IN-TEXT ACTIVITY

1. Complex Numbers https://www.mathsisfun.com/numbers/complex-numbers.html

2. Imaginary Numbers https://www.mathsisfun.com/numbers/imaginary-numbers.html
3. Additional Lecture

SESSION SUMMARY

In this session, we learned the notion of a complex number which is a number of the form 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑦𝑖,
where x and y are real numbers , and 𝑖 = √−1 . A complex number may be represented geometrically as
a point or as vector (directed line segment). The conjugate of a complex number is the number 𝑧̅ = 𝑥 + 𝑦𝑖
which is the reflection through the axis of the point representing 𝑧. The modulus of z is the real number
|𝑧| = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 which represents the length of its vector representation. The conjugate and modulus have
properties that can be used to simplify computations involving arithmetic operations on complex numbers.
A complex number can be expressed in the rectangular form 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑦𝑖 and polar form 𝑧 = 𝑟 𝑐𝑖𝑠𝜃.
Further, we also learned about De Moivre’s formulas which are useful specifically in finding powers and
roots of complex numbers.

REFERENCES

O’Neil, P. 2012. Advanced Engineering Mathematics.7th Edition. Cengage Learning.

Kreyszig, E.2011. Advanced Engineering Mathematics. 10th Edition. John Wiley and Sons.
Pennisi,L.1976 .Elements of Complex Variables.2nd Edition. Holt, Rinehart and Winston
Rainville,P. & Bedient,E.1989. Elementary Differential Equations.7th Edition.New York: Macmillan
Publishing Company
SELF-ASSESSMENT
PROBLEM SET 2
(Complex Numbers)

Name: ________________________ Score: ______________

Section: ________________________ Date: ______________

Solve the following problems as directed. Show complete solutions and box your final answers.
Solutions and answers should be handwritten. Use short/long bond papers. (3 pts each)

Problem 1:
Convert from rectangular to polar form:
(a) 2 + 2√3𝑖
(b) 3 − 4𝑖
(c) √3 − 𝑖
(d) −√6 − √2𝑖
(e) −8𝑖
Convert from polar to rectangular form:
(a) √2 𝑐𝑖𝑠 325°
𝜋
(b) 8 𝑐𝑖𝑠 6
2 4
(c) 𝑐𝑖𝑠 3 𝜋
3
(d) 10 𝑐𝑖𝑠 48°
(e) 12 𝑐𝑖𝑠 1080°

Problem 2: Use De Moivre’s formulas to perform the indicated operations, and express the result
in rectangular form.
(a) (3 𝑐𝑖𝑠 45°)(2𝑐𝑖𝑠 30°)(4 𝑐𝑖𝑠 − 60°)
𝜋 3𝜋
(6 𝑐𝑖𝑠 )(3 𝑐𝑖𝑠 )
2 4
(b) 7𝜋
4 𝑐𝑖𝑠
2
(c) (2 𝑐𝑖𝑠 60°)4 (3 𝑐𝑖𝑠 30°)5
(d) Solve the equation 𝑧 3 = 2 + 2𝑖. (There are three cube roots.)

Problem 3:
Express the equation in terms of rectangular coordinates, and sketch the locus on the complex plane.
(a) 𝑅𝑒{2𝑧̅ + 3} = 1
(b) |𝑧|2 + 𝐼𝑚{𝑧} = 16

Problem 4:
Express the ff. equations in terms of complex conjugates.
(c) (𝑥 − 3)2 + 𝑦 2 = 9
(d) 2𝑥 − 3𝑦 = 5