Reservoir Petrophysics Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S.

Kadhim)

References
1. J.H. Schon , 2011. (Physical Properties of Rocks), Elsevier, Oxford, UK.
2. Kadhim F.S., and Samsuri A. (2015), Cementation Factor Relationships to Carbonate Rock
Properties, Lambert Academic Publication , Germany
3. Amyx, J.W., Bass, D.M., Jr., and Whiting, R.L.: Petroleum Reservoir Engineering, Physical
Properties, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1960.
4. Towler, B.F.: Fundamental Principles of Reservoir Engineering, SPE Textbook Series Vol. 8
(2202)

5. Reservoir Engineering Handbook, by Tarek Ahmed, 2010.

 Reservoir Petrophysics Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

Introduction
Rocks are naturally occurring aggregates of one or more minerals. In the case of porosity or
fracturing, they also contain fluid phases. With respect to their geological genesis and processes,
rocks are divided into three major groups:
1. Igneous rocks (magmatites);
2. Metamorphic rocks (metamorphites);
3. Sedimentary rocks (sediments).
The following Figure shows the rock cycle. It starts with the magmatic rocks, formed by
crystallization from the magma. Chemical processes and processes of erosion, disintegration, and
transportation create sedimentary rocks of different composition and texture. Both types can be
transformed into metamorphic rocks through the influence of pressure and temperature; a
reworking by melting and recrystallization also occurs.
Reservoir Petrophysics Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)
 Reservoir Petrophysics Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

Sedimentary Rock
Sedimentary rocks are highly important for hydrocarbon exploration; most commercial reservoirs
occur in this rock type characterized by its porosity and permeability. Sedimentary rocks cover
more than 50% of the earth‟s surface and are therefore also of fundamental importance in many
aspects of our lives, from agriculture to the foundation for buildings, and from groundwater
resources to the whole environment. Sedimentary rocks are formed by a sequence of physical,
chemical, and biological processes. Magmatic, sedimentary, and metamorphic source rocks are
disaggregated by weathering to:
1. resistant residual particles (e.g., silicate minerals, lithic fragments);
2. secondary minerals (e.g., clays);
3. water soluble ions of calcium, sodium, potassium, silica, etc.
Weathered material is transported via water, ice, or wind to sites and deposited:
1. mineral grains drop to the depositional surface;
2. dissolved matter precipitates either inorganically, where sufficiently concentrated, or by organic
processes;
3. decaying plant and animal residues may also be introduced into the depositional environment.
 Reservoir Petrophysics Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

There are two major rock classes of sedimentary rocks:

1. clastics (siliciclastics);
2. carbonates.
Siliciclastics are composed of various silicate grains; carbonates consist mainly of only the two
minerals dolomite and calcite. Clastic sediments have been transported over long distances, whereas
carbonates are formed on-site (mostly marine). Clastic sediments are relatively chemically stable;
they form an intergranular pore space. Carbonates on the other hand are chemically instable; their
pore space is very complex and controlled by a variety of influences and pore space geometries.
In addition to the mineral composition for geological characterization of rocks in general and for
sedimentary rocks in particular, the term “lithology” is used. The American Geological Institute
Glossary of Geology defines lithology as “the physical character of a rock.” This character is
influenced mainly by mineral composition (mineralogy) and texture of the solids.

1. Clastic Rocks
Classification: Clastic rocks are formed by:
1. erosion, reworking, and transportation of rock components;
2. deposition and sedimentation of the material;
3. compaction and diagenetic processes.
Typical members of this important group of rocks are conglomerate, sandstone, siltstone, shale, and
claystone. The classification in the main types (sandstone, siltstone, and claystone) follows the grain
size classification for clastic sediments as shown in the following figure. The nomenclature of clastic
sedimentary rock is given by the following rules:
 Reservoir Petrophysics Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)
1. Sandstone is composed of >50% sand-sized particles. The mineral composition is dominated by
quartz and feldspar.
2. Siltstone is composed of >50% silt-sized particles; they are generally less rich in quartz than is
sandstone.
3. Claystone is composed of >50% clay-sized particles; they are generally formed by clay minerals.
 Reservoir Petrophysics Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

Clay minerals are aluminosilicates with a sheet structure. The principal building elements are two
types of sheets or units:
1. a tetrahedral unit of a central Si atom and surrounding O atoms;
2. an octahedral unit of O atoms and OH groups around a central Al atom.
Clay minerals (kaolinite, illite, montmorillonite, chlorite) are characterized by different stacking
combinations or “architecture” of the two building elements as shown in the following Figure.

The effect of clay minerals in the rock depends on the mineral properties and the type of clay
distribution. There are three fundamental types:
1. Dispersed: clay is formed within the sediment when clay crystals precipitate from pore fluids.
2. Laminated: clay is of detrital origin, that is, formed outside the sandstone framework.
3. Structural: clay is of diagenetic origin, that is, formed within the sandstone framework as a deposit
of clay clasts.
Reservoir Petrophysics Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)
 Reservoir Petrophysics Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

Grain-Size Parameters
The term texture encompasses particle size and size distribution, and shape and packing of the solid
particles in clastic sediments. Grain size is the classifying and defining parameter for clastic rocks.
In general, particles are of non-spherical shape; thus the “grain diameter”, depends on the
technique of its determination:

1. sieve analysis gives an estimate closed to the minimum cross-sectional axis (corresponding to the
used mesh size) or a sphere equivalent measure following Stokes‟ law (sedimentation analysis);

2.image or laser scanned techniques allow the application of numerical algorithms for a
representative size description. Grain size d frequently is given in millimetres or in micrometres
(1 μm = 1 micron = 10^-3 mm). Rocks show a distribution of grain sizes. This is described normally
by a cumulative distribution curve (grain size distribution curve). The following Figure gives an
example.
Reservoir Petrophysics Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)
 Reservoir Petrophysics Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

2. Carbonate Rocks
Carbonate rocks are classified according to depositional texture as shown in the following Figure.
The classification of carbonates depends on the presence or absence of lime mud and the type and
abundance of grains form. A bound stone consists of original skeletal components bound together
during deposition. Grain stones consist of packed carbonate grains with the texture being grain-
supported and very little lime mud. Packstones are grain-supported but contain very substantial
amounts of lime mud. Wackestones have a larger amount of lime muds. Mudstones consist of
essentially lime muds only. The presence of lime mud may be most important in the development of
porosity in carbonates because under the right conditions, lime mud may be preferentially
dolomitized and may also be more readily leached out than the grains.

Carbonates are characterized by different types of porosity and other complex pore size
distributions, which result in wide permeability variations for the same porosity, making it difficult
to predict their reducibility. The key link in understanding carbonate reservoirs is recognizing the
critical link between geological heterogeneity and reservoir quality and performance.

There are two main rock types limestone and dolomite, Limestone: composed of more than 50%
carbonates, of which more than half is calcite and Dolomite: composed of more than 50%
carbonates, of which more than half is dolomite. Dolomite can precipitate directly from a solution
containing Mg, Ca, and carbonate ions or by chemical alteration of limestone or calcareous mud
(dolomitization). Dolomite frequently forms larger crystals than the calcite it replaces and forms
good reservoir properties
Reservoir Petrophysics Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)
 Reservoir Petrophysics Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)
Petrophysical Properties of Rocks
The term “petrophysics” was created for physics of reservoir rocks. “„Petrophysics‟ is suggested as
the study of the physical properties of rock which are related to the pore and fluid distribution.
Rocks in most cases are heterogeneous composite materials; only monomineralic rocks like rock salt
or anhydrite contain only one mineral type. Heterogeneity becomes more contrasted if pores and
fractures, filled with fluids, are present. Mineral composition, porosity/fracturing, and internal rock
structure therefore influence the physical rock properties as shown in the following Figure.

physical rock properties (e.g., elastic, electrical, nuclear properties) can be used to characterize
rocks with respect to properties and parameters of interest (e.g., reservoir properties, geomechanical
properties). This leads to a classification of rock properties into the following two main groups:

1. Properties of direct interest for application: reservoir properties (porosity, saturation,

permeability), geo-mechanical properties (deformation, strength), mineralogical characteristics
(shale content, fractional mineral composition), content of substances of interest (ore content);

2. Properties relevant to the various geophysical methods (elastic/seismic properties, density,

electrical properties, nuclear properties, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) response).
Reservoir Petrophysics Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)
 Reservoir Petrophysics Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

Pore Space Properties

Introduction
Pore space characterization is based on defined reservoir properties (e.g., porosity and
permeability). Pore space properties are important for the description and characterization of pore
volume and fluid flow behaviour of reservoirs. Laboratory techniques (Routine core analysis
(RCAL) and special core analysis (SCAL)) deliver fundamental properties. There are four
fundamental types of properties of a hydrocarbon reservoir that control its initial contents,
behaviour, production potential, and hence its reserves.

1. The rock properties of porosity, permeability, and compressibility, which are all dependent on
solid grain/particle arrangements and packing.

2. The wettability properties, capillary pressure, phase saturation, and relative permeability, which
are dependent on interfacial forces between the solid and the water and hydrocarbon phases.

3. The initial ingress of hydrocarbons into the reservoir trap and the thermodynamics of the
resulting reservoir mixture composition.

4. Reservoir fluid properties, phase compositions, behaviour of the phases with pressure, phase
density, and viscosity.
 Reservoir Petrophysics Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)
1. Porosity
Porous rock is the essential feature of hydrocarbon reservoirs. Oil or gas (or both) is generated from
source layers, migrates upwards by displacing water and is trapped by overlying layers that will not
allow hydrocarbons to move further upwards. Porous material in hydrocarbon reservoirs can be
divided into clastics and carbonates. Clastics such as sandstone are composed of small
grains normally deposited in riverbeds over long periods of time and covered and compressed over
geological periods as shown in the following figure. Carbonates (various calcium carbonate minerals)
are typically generated by biological processes and again compressed by overlying material over long
periods of time. Roughly 60% of conventional oil and gas resources occur in clastics and 40% in
carbonates.

The porosity of a rock is a measure of the storage capacity (pore volume) that is capable of holding
fluids. Quantitatively, the porosity is the ratio of the pore volume to the total volume (bulk volume).
This important rock property is determined mathematically by the following generalized
relationship:

where Ф= porosity
As the sediments were deposited and the rocks were being formed during past geological times, some
void spaces that developed became isolated from the other void spaces by excessive cementation.
Therefore, many of the void spaces are interconnected while some of the pore spaces are completely
isolated. This leads to two distinct types of porosity, namely,
• Absolute porosity
• Effective porosity
Reservoir Petrophysics Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

Solid grains making up porous rock (schematic image and sandstone photograph).
 Reservoir Petrophysics Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

Absolute Porosity
The absolute porosity is defined as the ratio of the total pore space in the rock to that of the bulk
volume. A rock may have considerable absolute porosity and yet have no conductivity to fluid for
lack of pore interconnection. The absolute porosity is generally expressed mathematically
by the following relationships:

Effective Porosity
The effective porosity is the percentage of interconnected pore space with respect to bulk volume, or

The effective porosity is the value that is used in all reservoir engineering calculations because it
represents the interconnected pore space that contains the recoverable hydrocarbon fluids.
 Reservoir Petrophysics Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

Measurement of Porosity
Porosity is measured in two ways, from either wire line logs or laboratory measurement on core.

•1. Measurement of Porosity from Well Logs

Reservoir Petrophysics Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)
 Reservoir Petrophysics Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

B. Sonic Log
In sonic logs, porosity can be calculated from interval transit time (Δt) of the compressional waves that
travel through the rock texture. The compressional wave velocity depends on the porosity and lithology.
Since carbonate reservoirs having intergranular porosity, therefore, Wyllie’s time-average formula still
applies as follows:

where: ФS is sonic-derived porosity, fraction, Δtmat is the interval transit time in the matrix [Its value is
47.6 μsec/ft for limestone and is 43.5 μsec/ft for dolomite)], Δtlog is the interval transit time in the
formation, μsec/ft, and Δtf is the interval transit time in the fluid within the formation [For freshwater
mud =189 (μsec/ft), and for salt-water mud =185(μsec/ft)].

Curves recorded on a caustic logs may include the interval transit time, calliper, gamma ray and/or SP,
and integrated travel time. The primary measurement of interest will be the interval transit time (Δt),
measured in microseconds per foot(μsec/ft)which is the reciprocal of the velocity of a compressional
sound wave in feet per second.
Reservoir Petrophysics Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)
 Reservoir Petrophysics Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

C. Neutron Log

Neutron tools were the first logging instruments to use radioactive sources for determining the
porosity of the formation. After the later introduction of the gamma-gamma density tool, the neutron
measurement was applied in conjunction with the density porosity reading in order to recognize and
correct for effects of shale and gas.The neutron count is presented in API (American Petroleum
Institute) units.

Neutron tool response is dominated by the concentration of hydrogen atoms in the formation. In
clean reservoirs containing little or no shale, the neutron log response will provide a good measure of
formation porosity if liquid-filled pore spaces contain hydrogen, as is the case when pores are filled
with oil or water (hydrogen index =1). By contrast, when logging shaly or gas-bearing formations, a
combination of Neutron and Density readings will often be required for accurate porosity assessment.
Reservoir Petrophysics Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)
 Reservoir Petrophysics Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)
2. Laboratory Measurement of Porosity
Porosity is calculated using the following equation:

We need two out of these three values to determine porosity.

Bulk volume (Vb) can be determined directly from core dimensions if we have a fluid-saturated
regularly shaped core (normally cylindrical), or by fluid displacement methods by weight where the
density of the solid matrix and the displacing fluid is known, or directly by volume displacement.

Matrix volume (Vm) can be calculated from the mass of a dry sample divided by the matrix density.
It is also possible to crush the dry solid and measure its volume by displacement, but this will give
total porosity rather than effective (interconnected) porosity. A gas expansion method can be
used: gas in a cell at known pressure is allowed to expand into a second cell containing core where all
gas present has been evacuated. The final (lower) pressure is then used to calculate the matrix
volume present in the second cell using Boyle‟s law as shown in the following figure. This method
can be very accurate, especially for low-porosity rock. Boyle‟s law: P1V1 = P2V2 (assuming gas
deviation factor Z can be ignored at relatively low pressures) can now be used.

Pore space volume (Vp) can also be determined using gas expansion methods.
Reservoir Petrophysics Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)
 Reservoir Petrophysics Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)
One important application of the effective porosity is its use in determining the original
hydrocarbon volume in place. Consider a reservoir with an areal extent of A acres and an average
thickness of h feet. The total bulk volume of the reservoir can be determined from the following
expressions:

The reservoir pore volume PV can then be determined by combining above correlations with
effective porosity. Expressing the reservoir pore volume in cubic feet gives:
 Reservoir Petrophysics Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)
Example 1
An oil reservoir exists at its bubble-point pressure of 3,000 psia and temperature of 160F. The oil has
an API gravity of 42 and a gas-oil ratio of 600 scf/STB. The specific gravity of the solution gas is 0.65.
The following additional data are available:
• Reservoir area = 640 acres
• Average thickness = 10 ft
• Connate water saturation = 0.25
• Effective porosity = 15%

Calculate the initial oil in place in STB.

Solution
Step 1. Determine the specific gravity of the stock-tank oil using the API gravity. The API gravity
scale is related to the specific gravity (γo) by;
 Reservoir Petrophysics Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

Step 2. Calculate the initial oil formation volume factor by applying Standing‟s equation:

Step 3. Calculate the pore volume:

 Reservoir Petrophysics Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

The reservoir rock may generally show large variations in porosity vertically but does not show
very great variations in porosity parallel to the bedding planes. In this case, the arithmetic
average porosity or the thickness-weighted average porosity is used to describe the average
reservoir porosity. A change in sedimentation or depositional conditions, however, can cause the
porosity in one portion of the reservoir to be greatly different from that in another area. In such
cases, the areal-weighted average or the volume-weighted average porosity is used to characterize
the average rock porosity. These averaging techniques are expressed mathematically in the
following forms:
 Reservoir Petrophysics Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)
Example
Calculate the arithmetic average and thickness-weighted average from the following measurements: