SUBJECT CODE: BHCM

Introduction

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), “Health is a state of complete physical,
mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity .”

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), "Hygiene refers to conditions and practices
that help to maintain health and prevent the spread of diseases."

Need For Hygiene

1. In communities with poor hygiene, the proportion of mortality of children under

five years of age may exceed 60 per cent.
2. There is a high incidence of water-borne diseases like diarrhoea and dysentery in
areas with poor hygiene compared to those with proper hygienic facilities.
3. Skin infections like scabies and yaws; and infestations of lice are more common
in people with poor personal hygiene.
4. Poor environmental hygiene can increase incidences of vector-borne infections
like malaria, filaria, dengue and encephalitis by favouring growth and breeding of
vectors.

Types of hygiene

1. Medical hygiene
2. Home and everyday hygiene
3. Personal hygiene
4. Culinary hygiene
5. Personal service hygiene
6. Sleep hygiene
Medical hygiene pertains to the hygiene practices related to the administration of medicine
and medical care that prevents or minimizes the spread of disease. Medical hygiene practices
include:

1. Isolation or quarantine of infectious persons or materials to prevent spread of

infection.
2. Sterilization of instruments used in surgical procedures.
3. Use of protective clothing and barriers, such as masks, gowns, caps, eyewear and
gloves.
4. Proper bandaging and dressing of injuries.
5. Safe disposal of medical waste.
6. Disinfection of reusables (i.e., linen, pads, uniforms).
7. Scrubbing up, hand-washing, especially in an operating room, but in more general
health-care settings as well, where diseases can be transmitted.

Home hygiene pertains to the hygiene practices that prevent or minimize the spread of
disease at home and other everyday settings such as social settings, public transport, the
workplace, public places, etc.

Hygiene in a variety of settings plays an important role in preventing the spread of infectious
diseases. It includes procedures used in a variety of domestic situations such as hand
hygiene, respiratory hygiene, food and water hygiene, general home hygiene (hygiene of
environmental sites and surfaces), care of domestic animals, and home health care (the care
of those who are at greater risk of infection).

At present, these components of hygiene tend to be regarded as separate issues, although

based on the same underlying microbiological principles. Preventing the spread of diseases
means breaking the chain of infection transmission. Simply put, if the chain of infection is
broken, infection cannot spread. In response to the need for effective codes of hygiene in
home and everyday life settings the International Scientific Forum on Home Hygiene has
developed a risk-based approach based on Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP),
also referred to as "targeted hygiene." Targeted hygiene is based on identifying the routes of
pathogens spread in the home and introducing hygiene practices at critical times to break
the chain of infection.

The main sources of infection in the home are people (who are carriers or are infected), foods
(particularly raw foods) and water, and domestic animals. Sites that accumulate stagnant
water—such as sinks, toilets, waste pipes, cleaning tools, face cloths, etc. readily support
microbial growth and can become secondary reservoirs of infection, though species are
mostly those that threaten "at risk" groups. Pathogens (potentially infectious bacteria,
viruses etc.—colloquially called "germs") are constantly shed from these sources via mucous
membranes, feces, vomit, skin scales, etc. Thus, when circumstances combine, people are
exposed, either directly or via food or water, and can develop an infection. Hygienic cleaning
can be done through:

● Mechanical removal (i.e., cleaning) using a soap or detergent. To be effective as a

hygiene measure, this process must be followed by thorough rinsing under running
water to remove pathogens from the surface.
● Using a process or product that inactivates the pathogens in situ. Pathogen kill is
achieved using a "micro-biocidal" product, i.e., a disinfectant or antibacterial
product; waterless hand sanitizer; or by application of heat.
● In some cases combined pathogen removal with kill is used, e.g., laundering of
clothing and household linens such as towels and bed linen.

Hand washing

Hand hygiene is defined as hand washing or washing hands and nails with soap and water or
using a waterless hand sanitizer. Hand hygiene is central to preventing the spread of
infectious diseases in home and everyday life settings.

In situations where hand washing with soap is not an option (e.g., when in a public place
with no access to wash facilities), a waterless hand sanitizer such as an alcohol hand gel can
be used. They can be used in addition to hand washing to minimize risks when caring for "at-
risk" groups. To be effective, alcohol hand gels should contain not less than 60%v/v alcohol.

Respiratory hygiene

Correct respiratory and hand hygiene when coughing and sneezing reduces the spread of
pathogens particularly during the cold and flu season.

● Carry tissues and use them to catch coughs and sneezes

● Dispose of tissues as soon as possible
● Clean your hands by hand washing or using an alcohol hand sanitizer.

Food hygiene at home

Food hygiene is concerned with the hygiene practices that prevent food poisoning. The five
key principles of food hygiene, according to WHO, are:

1. Prevent contaminating food with mixing chemicals, spreading from people, and
animals.
2. Separate raw and cooked foods to prevent contaminating the cooked foods.
3. Cook foods for the appropriate length of time and at the appropriate temperature to
kill pathogens.
4. Store food at the proper temperature.
5. Use safe water and raw materials.

Hygiene in the kitchen, bathroom and toilet

Routine cleaning of (hand, food, drinking water) sites and surfaces (such as toilet seats and
flush handles, door and tap handles, work surfaces, bath and basin surfaces) in the kitchen,
bathroom and toilet reduces the risk of spread of pathogens. The infection risk from flush
toilets is not high, provided they are properly maintained, although some splashing and
aerosol formation can occur during flushing, particularly when someone has diarrhea. In
case of using public toilets you can always use a Toilet Seat Sanitizer to spray on the seat
before sitting on it. A toilet seat sanitizer helps to kill bacteria just as any other sanitizer
which helps to protect from UTI. Pathogens can survive in the scum or scale left behind on
baths, showers and wash basins after washing and bathing.

Laundry hygiene

Laundry hygiene involves practices that prevent disease and its spread via soiled clothing
and household linens such as towels. Items most likely to be contaminated with pathogens
are those that come into direct contact with the body, e.g., underwear, personal towels,
facecloths, nappies. Cloths or other fabric items used during food preparation, or for
cleaning the toilet or cleaning up material such as feces or vomit are a particular risk.

Infectious diseases risks from contaminated clothing etc. can increase significantly under
certain conditions, e.g., in healthcare situations in hospitals, care homes and the domestic
setting where someone has diarrhoea, vomiting, or a skin or wound infection. It increases in
circumstances where someone has reduced immunity to infection.

During laundering, temperature and detergent work to reduce microbial contamination

levels on fabrics. Soil and microbes from fabrics are severed and suspended in the wash
water. These are then "washed away" during the rinse and spin cycles. In addition to physical
removal, micro-organisms can be killed by thermal inactivation which increases as the
temperature is increased. Chemical inactivation of microbes by the surfactants and activated
oxygen-based bleach used in detergents contributes to the hygiene effectiveness of
laundering. Adding hypochlorite bleach in the washing process achieves inactivation of
microbes. A number of other factors can contribute including drying and ironing.

Drying laundry on a line in direct sunlight is known to reduce pathogens.

Medical hygiene at home

Medical hygiene pertains to the hygiene practices that prevent or minimizes disease and the
spreading of disease in relation to administering medical care to those who are infected or
who are more "at risk" of infection in the home. Increasingly, all of these "at-risk" groups are
cared for at home by a carer who may be a household member who thus requires a good
knowledge of hygiene.

Antiseptics may be applied to cuts, wounds, and abrasions of the skin to prevent the entry of
harmful bacteria that can cause sepsis. Day-to-day hygiene practices, other than special
medical hygiene procedures are no different for those at increased risk of infection than for
other family members. The difference is that, if hygiene practices are not correctly carried
out, the risk of infection is much greater.

Household water treatment and safe storage

Household water treatment and safe storage ensure drinking water is safe for consumption.
Point-of-use water quality interventions can reduce diarrheal disease in communities where
water quality is poor or in emergency situations where there is a breakdown in water supply.
Safe storage of water in the home is important. Methods for treatment of drinking water,
include:

1. Chemical disinfection using chlorine or iodine

2. Boiling
3. Filtration using ceramic filters
4. Solar disinfection – Solar disinfection is an effective method, especially when no
chemical disinfectants are available.
5. UV irradiation – community or household UV systems may be batch or flow-though.
The lamps can be suspended above the water channel or submerged in the water flow.
6. Combined flocculation/disinfection systems – available as sachets of powder that act
by coagulating and flocculating sediments in water followed by release of chlorine.
7. Multi Barrier methods – Some systems use two or more of the above treatments in
combination or in succession to optimize efficacy.

Personal hygiene may be described as the principle of maintaining cleanliness and grooming
of the external body. Failure to keep up a standard of hygiene can have many implications. Not
only is there an increased risk of getting an infection or illness, but there are many social and
psychological aspects that can be affected. Factors influencing personal hygiene :
● Body image
● Social and cultural practices
● Personal preferences
● Socio-economic status
● Knowledge

Travelling hygiene

When travelling overseas, take special care if you’re not sure whether the water is safe.
Suggestions include:

· Drink only bottled water.

· Don’t use tap water to clean your teeth.

· When you wash your hands, make sure they are totally dry before you touch any food.

· Don’t wash fruit or vegetables in unsafe water.

· If you have no other water source, make sure the water is boiled before you drink it by
holding it at a rolling boil for one minute.

· Make sure any dishes, cups or other utensils are totally dry after they are washed

Bad breath

Good dental hygiene includes regular brushing and flossing. Bad breath can be caused by
diseases of the teeth, gums and mouth, such as infections. Most people have bad breath first
thing in the morning because saliva is not made while you’re asleep. Some foods that can cause
bad breath include garlic and onion. Mouth washes, mouth sprays and flavoured chewing gum
can make your breath smell better for a while, but if you have a health problem in your mouth,
you need to see your dentist.

Personal hygiene for women

The vagina is able to clean itself no special care is needed, other than washing the external
genitals. Do not put anything like douches into the vagina, as the delicate skin can be
damaged. Here are some personal hygiene suggestions for women:

· Menstruation - wash your body, including your genital area, in the same way as you
always do. Change tampons and sanitary napkins regularly, at least four to five times a day.
Always wash your hands before and after handling a tampon or pad.

Menstrual hygiene management is “ Women and adolescent girls use a clean material to absorb
or collect menstrual blood, and this material can be changed in privacy as often as necessary

for the duration of menstruation” .

· Cystitis - is an infection of the bladder. This is a common condition for sexually active
young women. Urinating after sexual intercourse can help to flush out any bacteria that may be
in the urethra and bladder.

· Thrush - some soaps and detergents can irritate the skin of the vagina, and make thrush
infections more likely. Some people find that they often get thrush when they use antibiotics.
Use mild soap and unperfumed toilet paper. Avoid tight, synthetic underwear. Try cotton
underwear, and change regularly. There is medical treatment for thrush, so talk to your doctor
or pharmacist.

Personal hygiene for men

A build-up of secretions called smegma can form under the foreskin of uncircumcised men. If
you are uncircumcised, gently pull back the foreskin when you have a shower and clean with
water. You can use soap if you like, but make sure you rinse it off well.

Body odour

Body smells are caused by a number of factors working in combination, including:

· Chemicals in sweat, including pheromones, which are made by the body and sexually
attract (or repel) other people.

· Wastes are excreted through the skin, such as metabolised alcohol.

· The actions of bacteria that live on the skin and feed on dead skin cells and sweat.

· Unwashed clothes, such as underwear and socks.

Culinary hygiene pertains to the practices related to food management and cooking to
prevent food contamination, prevent food poisoning and minimize the transmission of disease
to other foods, humans or animals. Culinary hygiene practices specify safe ways to handle,
store, prepare, serve and eat food.
Personal service hygiene pertains to the practices related to the care and use of
instruments used in the administration of personal care services to people. Personal hygiene
practices include:

● Sterilization of instruments used by service providers including hairdressers,

aestheticians, and other service providers.
● Sterilization by autoclave of instruments used in body piercing and tattoo marking.
● Cleaning hands.

Sleep hygiene means habits that help you have a good night's sleep. Common sleeping
problems (such as insomnia) are often caused by bad habits reinforced over years. You can
learn to retrain your body and mind so that you sleep well and wake feeling rested.
Sleep hygiene can be defined as the controlling of "all behavioural and environmental factors
that precede and interfere with sleep."

Environmental Hygiene

This is again classified into two types

1. Domestic hygiene
2. Community hygiene

Domestic hygiene: domestic hygiene comprises of home, use of soap, need of fresh air,
light, ventilation, hygiene in storage of food, disposal of waste, avoidance of household
pests, rats, mice, insects.
Community Hygiene:It includes safe disposal of human excreta, control of vectors
responsible for transmission of diseases, control of air and water pollution.

Safe disposal of human excreta:

John Snow convincingly proved that cholera spreads due to contamination of the drinking
water with human excreta. This he did, long before there was discovery of the bacteria
responsible for causing cholera. This led to the principle of sanitation barrier. Sanitation
barrier is a method of segregating human feces from water, fingers, flies, soil and food. This
sanitation barrier can be effectively created by provision of a sanitary latrine.

Sanitary latrines should be preferably sewered, water-flush type. It should ensure that the
feces are not accessible for flies and odor is not emanated. Also the latrines should see that
the feces do not contaminate soil, ground water, or food. If drainage facilities are available,
then it should be treated and converted into harmless substance before disposing off in sea,
river or other place chosen. For this, the feces are subjected to primary and secondary
treatment before disposal. If drainage facilities are not available, septic tanks or aqua privy
provide safe alternatives.

Control of disease vectors in the community:

The general principles involved in controlling vectors of the disease in environment are as
following:

Environmental control: it includes minor engineering works like, source reduction (by
filling, leveling and drainage of breeding places), carefully planned water management,
provision of piped water supply, proper disposal of refuse and other wastes, cleanliness in
and around houses.

Chemical control: use of insecticides and rodenticides (like DDT, Malathion, Paris green,
etc) help for control of mosquitoes, flies and rodents that can spread diseases to human
beings. However, it should be ensured that the insects and rodents are not resistant to the
chemicals intended for use.

Biological measures of vector control include, use of fishes like Gambusia and Lebister
which feed on larvae of mosquitoes and help in controlling their breeding. Also useful are
fungi like Coelomomyces which are pathogenic to mosquitoes.

Genetic control: theoretically it is possible to control vectors by using techniques like

sterile male technique, chromosomal incompatibility and chromosomal translocations, etc.

However, a single measure is likely to become outdated in the long term and neither do they
provide solutions in every situation. Therefore it is important that all measures are used in
an integrated manner to control vectors to obtain maximum benefits with minimal inputs.

Control of air and water pollution:

Air pollution can be minimized by containing the dust smoke or harmful gases at the site of
production. The technology should be used to replace sources of air pollution with one
making no/ lesser pollution. For example, use of electricity or LPG helps to reduce the
pollution caused by wood or cow dung when cooking food. Establishing green belts between
industrial and residential areas helps to reduce the effects of air pollution on the general
population. Using legal measures like raising height of chimneys of factories, creating
smokeless zones, keeping vehicles conditioned etc also help in reduction of air pollution.

Water pollution: water bodies have their capacity to cleanse themselves, provided if their
pollution level can be kept minimal and sufficient time is provided for the natural forces to
act. However, engineering measures can be used to minimize water pollution, for example,
treatment of industrial wastes, recycling industrial effluents, incineration of toxic materials
etc. Legal measures also help in reducing the water pollution.

SOCIAL HYGIENE

According to Merriam- Webster, ‘Social hygiene of measures designed to protect and

improve the family as a social institution. Specially the practice of measures aiming at the
elimination of venereal disease and prostitution’

● Social hygiene movement was begun in the united states of America in the year 1913
● Social hygiene as a profession grew alongside social work and other public health
movements of the era.
● Social hygienists emphasized sexual continence and strict self-discipline as a solution
to societal ills, tracing prostitution, drug use and illegitimacy. To rapid urbanization.
● The aim of social hygiene is to control venereal disease, regulate prostitution and
vice, and disseminate sexual education through the use of scientific research methods
and modern media techniques.
● The social hygiene approach was adopted in medical schools in Russia in 1920s
 ● The movement remained alive throughout much of the 20 th century and found its way
into American schools, where it was transmitted in the form of classroom films about
menstruation, sexually transmitted disease, drug abuse and acceptable sexual
behaviour in addition to an array of pamphlets, posters, textbooks and films.

Associations and project of social hygiene

● American social hygiene association

● Progressive era
● Racial hygiene association
● Negro project

The American Social Hygiene

The American social hygiene association partnered with the government during the great
war. The American social hygiene association provided social hygiene health information to
the soldiers in hopes that this education would help take fewer soldiers out of action from
venereal diseases.

• started a campaign to suppress prostitution and begin educating people about sex and
venereal diseases.

• The two organizations that had developed were the American vigilance association,
fighting prostitution, and the American federation for sex hygiene.

The Progressive Era

The social hygiene movement helped with the development of the management of
prostitution in the progressive era was the turning point in the state’s regulations of
sexuality. It was said that the progressive era had physicians and women moral reformers
working together to help manage prostitution and educate the people on social hygiene.

Racial hygiene association

● This link between racial hygiene and social hygiene movement can be seen in
Australia, where the racial hygiene association of new south wales is now named the
family planning association.

Negro project

In the 1940s during world war II, ASHA (American social hygiene association) launched a
new project called the negro project also known as the negro venereal disease education
project.

The aim of this project was to address the widespread presence of venereal diseases among
African Americans.In the early 1940s, ASHA drafted a grant proposal and in 1942 it was sent
to prospective funding agencies.

The proposal emphasized two main aspects of the negro project, that the higher rate
prevalence of venereal diseases among the black population was alarming; and two, that this
higher prevalence rate was not the fault of the black community.

The main purpose of the negro project was to provide educational materials and methods for
instruction regarding syphills. some of the intended materials to be produced were
pamphlets, posters, and motion pictures specially aimed at the african community.

SERVICES PROVIDED BY THE ASSOCIATIONS

1. Providing diagnostic assessment, treatment and car

2. Promoting health and preventing STD and skin diseases through individual health
counselling and other health education activities.

3. Tracing contacts for investigation and defaulters for treatment and follow-up.

4. clinics provide social hygiene service (Female)

5. clinics provide social hygiene service (Male)

6. clinics provide Dermatological services.

Components of social hygiene

•Control venereal diseases

•Elimination of Prostitution

•Sexual education

•Mental hygiene

•Menstrual hygiene

Result for Social Hygiene Movement

1. laws were passed mandating blood tests before marriage

2. people allowed to access contraception if they were married.

Venereal diseases also called as sexually transmitted diseases are diseases that passed on
from one person to another person through sexual contact, and sometimes by genital contact
the infection can be passed on via vaginal intercouse, oral sex and anual sex.

•Examples of STDs: Chlamydia, Genital herpes, Gonorrhea, HIV/AIDS, HPV, Syphilis,

Trichomoniasis

Sexual education

Sex education is the instruction of issues relating to human sexuality, including emotional
relations and responsibilities, human sexuality, human sexual anatomy, sexual activity,
sexual reproduction, age of consent, reproductive health, reproductive rights, safe sex birth
control and sexual abstinence.

Mental hygiene is the science of maintaining mental health and preventing the
development of mental illness.

Diet

In nutrition, diet is the sum of food consumed by a person or other organism. The word diet
often implies the use of a specific intake of nutrition for health or weight-management reasons
(with the two often being related).

A dietary pattern is defined as the quantity, variety, or combination of different foods and
beverages in a diet and the frequency with which they are habitually consumed.

Types of diet:

1. The Paleo Diet

2. The Blood Type Diet
3. The Vegan Diet
4. The South Beach Diet
5. The Mediterranean Diet
6. Raw Food Diet

The Paleo Diet

This is a natural way of eating, one that almost abandons all intake of sugar. The only sugar in
a Paleo diet comes from fruit. However, abandoning sugar is not the only stipulation. Processed
foods and grains are also eliminated from the Paleo diet. The fewer carbohydrates in your
system leads to a decreased amount of glucose. So your system will then begin to use fat as its
fuel source. In a Paleo diet, dairy is also eliminated.

So what can be eaten? A Paleo diet consists of fish, fowl, vegetables, fruits, nuts, oils, sweet
potatoes, eggs and meat, so long as that meat is grass-fed and not grain-fed.

The Blood Type Diet

Some doctors have started to research diets that coincide with particular blood types. The
premise of these diets attempts to match people with their common dietary needs based on
their blood type.

For example, individuals with type O blood are recommended to eat lots of food that are high
in protein. In order to lose weight, spinach, red meat, seafood and broccoli are suggested while
dairy should be avoided. Those with type A blood are recommended to avoid meat and place an
emphasis on turkey, tofu, and fruit while weight loss is contingent on eating a diet that
consists primarily of soy, seafood and vegetables. Individuals with type B and AB blood also
have their own dietary restrictions and recommendations.

The Vegan Diet

This diet is a form of a vegetarian diet as it eliminates meat and animal products. One of the
primary effects of this diet is that it reduces the intake of cholesterol and saturated fat. It takes
some planning, but if a vegan diet is rationed out properly, it can have many positive effects.
Studies have proven that those who practice a vegan diet minimize their overall risk of
coronary heart disease, obesity and high blood pressure. To compensate for a lack of meat,
vegans must find a way to incorporate more sources of protein and vitamin B-12 into their
diets.

The South Beach Diet

This diet was first introduced in 2003 and is based on the premise of changing one’s overall
eating habits by balancing out one’s everyday diet. Certain carbohydrates are completely
avoided. It does not eliminate carbohydrates altogether, but aims to educate dieters on which
carbs to always avoid. This often leads to developing a healthy way of eating so that it will be
sustainable for the rest of people’s lives. The diet includes a selection of healthy fats, lean
protein, as well as good carbs.

The Mediterranean Diet

This is another kind of vegetable-heavy diet that avoids a lot of meat, but does not eliminate it
altogether. This diet has been proven to help with depression, in addition to controlling blood
sugar levels and helping with weight loss. The Mediterranean diet recommends the use of oil as
much as possible and that means as an alternative to butter, salad dressings or marinades. It
also emphasizes adding vegetables to each meal and favors fish over chicken. Whole grains,
nuts and herbs are also used in larger amounts.

Raw Food Diet

This is a diet that places a premium on eating uncooked and unprocessed foods. The diet
eliminates the intake of any foods that have been pasteurized or produced with any kind of
synthetics or additives. The diet is intended to create a surge in energy, a decrease in
inflammation, while also lowering the number of carcinogens in one’s diet.

Weight management

A particular diet may be chosen to seek weight loss or weight gain. Changing a subject's dietary
intake, or "going on a diet", can change the energy balance and increase or decrease the
amount of fat stored by the body. Some foods are specifically recommended, or even altered,
for conformity to the requirements of a particular diet. These diets are often recommended in
conjunction with exercise. Specific weight loss programs can be harmful to health, while others
may be beneficial (and can thus be coined as healthy diets). The terms "healthy diet" and "diet
for weight management" are often related, as the two promote healthy weight management.
Having a healthy diet is a way to prevent health problems, and will provide your body with the
right balance of vitamins, minerals, and other nutrients.

Eating disorders

An eating disorder is a mental disorder that interferes with normal food consumption. It is
defined by abnormal eating habits that may involve either insufficient or excessive diet.
Obtaining, Storing, Using, and Discarding Food

Humans acquire, store, and discard food using a variety of methods. People may grow, fish, or
hunt some of their food, or they may purchase most of it from supermarkets or specialty stores.
If there is limited access to energy sources, people may store small amounts of foods and get
most of what they eat on a day-to-day basis. In homes with abundant space and energy,
however, people purchase food in bulk and store it in freezers, refrigerators, and pantries. In
either case there must also be proper disposal facilities to avoid environmental and health
problems.

Exposure to Foods

There are innumerable flavors and food combinations. A liking for some flavors or food
combinations is easily acceptable, but others must develop or be learned. Sweetness is a
universally acceptable flavor, but a taste for salty, savory, spicy, tart, bitter, and hot flavors
must be learned. The more a person is exposed to a food—and encouraged to eat it—the greater
the chances that the food will be accepted. As the exposure to a food increases, the person
becomes more familiar and less fearful of the food, and acceptance may develop. Some persons
only eat specific foods and flavor combinations, while others like trying different foods and
flavors.

Influences on Food Choices

There are many factors that determine what foods a person eats. In addition to personal
preferences, there are cultural, social, religious, economic, environmental, and even political
factors.

1.Individual Preferences.

Every individual has unique likes and dislikes concerning foods. These preferences develop
over time, and are influenced by personal experiences such as encouragement to eat, exposure
to food, family customs and rituals, advertising, and personal values. For example, one person
may not like frankfurters, despite the fact that they are a family favorite.

2.Cultural Influences.
A cultural group provides guidelines regarding acceptable foods, food combinations, eating
patterns, and eating behaviors. Compliance with these guidelines creates a sense of identity
and belonging for the individual. Within large cultural groups, subgroups exist that may
practice variations of the group's eating behaviors, though they are still considered part of the
larger group. For example, a hamburger, French fries, and a soda are considered a typical
American meal. Vegetarians in the United Someone who is repeatedly exposed to certain foods
is less hesitant to eat them. For example, lobster traditionally was only available on the coasts,
and is much more likely to be accepted as food by coastal dwellers. [AP/Wide World Photos.
Reproduced by permission. States, however, eat "veggie-burgers" made from mashed beans,
pureed vegetables, or soy, and people on diets may eat a burger made from lean turkey. In the
United States these are appropriate cultural substitutions, but a burger made from horse meat
would be unacceptable.

3.Social Influences.

Members of a social group depend on each other, share a common culture, and influence each
other's behaviors and values. A person's membership in particular peer, work, or community
groups impacts food behaviors. For example, a young person at a basketball game may eat
certain foods when accompanied by friends and other foods when accompanied by his or her
teacher.

4.Religious Influences.

Religious proscriptions range from a few to many, from relaxed to highly restrictive. This will
affect a follower's food choices and behaviors. For example, in some religions specific foods are
prohibited, such as pork among Jewish and Muslim adherents. Within Christianity, the
Seventh-day Adventists discourage "stimulating" beverages such as alcohol, which is not
forbidden among Catholics.

5.Economic Influences.

Money, values, and consumer skills all affect what a person purchases. The price of a food,
however, is not an indicator of its nutritional value. Cost is a complex combination of a food's
availability, status, and demand.

6.Environmental Influences.

The influence of the environment on food habits derives from a composite of ecological and
social factors. Foods that are commonly and easily grown within a specific region frequently
become a part of the local cuisine. However, modern technology, agricultural practices, and
transportation methods have increased the year-round availability of many foods, and many
foods that were previously available only at certain seasons or in specific areas are now
available almost anywhere, at any time.

7.Political Influences.

Political factors also influence food availability and trends. Food laws and trade agreements
affect what is available within and across countries, and also affect food prices. Food labeling
laws determine what consumers know about the food they purchase.

Eating habits are thus the result of both external factors, such as politics, and internal factors,
such as values. These habits are formed, and may change, over a person's lifetime.

Hospital

A hospital is a health care institution providing patient treatment with specialized staff and
equipment. The best-known type of hospital is the general hospital, which has an emergency
department. A district hospital typically is the major health care facility in its region, with
large numbers of beds for intensive care and long-term care. Specialised hospitals include
trauma centres, rehabilitation hospitals, children's hospitals, seniors' (geriatric) hospitals.

Health administration or healthcare administration is the field relating to leadership,

management, and administration of public health systems, health care systems, hospitals, and
hospital networks.

Yoga

Yoga is a group of physical, mental, and spiritual practices or disciplines which originated in
ancient India.

Physical benefits

The relaxation techniques incorporated in yoga can lessen chronic pain, such as lower back
pain, arthritis, headaches and carpal tunnel syndrome. Yoga can also lower blood pressure and
reduce insomnia.
Other physical benefits of yoga include:

● increased flexibility
● increased muscle strength and tone
● improved respiration, energy and vitality
● maintaining a balanced metabolism
● weight reduction
● cardio and circulatory health
● improved athletic performance
● protection from injury

Mental benefits

1. Aside from the physical benefits, one of the best benefits of yoga is how it helps a
person manage stress, which is known to have devastating effects on the body and
mind.
2. Stress can reveal itself in many ways, including back or neck pain, sleeping problems,
headaches, drug abuse, and an inability to concentrate.
3. Yoga can be very effective in developing coping skills and reaching a more positive
outlook on life.
4. Yoga’s incorporation of meditation and breathing can help improve a person’s mental
well-being.
5. Regular yoga practice creates mental clarity and calmness; increases body awareness;
relieves chronic stress patterns; relaxes the mind; centers attention; and sharpens
concentration.
6. Body- and self-awareness are particularly beneficial because they can help with early
detection of physical problems and allow for early preventive action.

Spiritual self-care can help you to:

● Improve relationships and connections with others

● Experience more inner peace
● Gain clarity on what makes you happy
● Enhance feelings of oneness and universality
● Diminish feelings of isolation and loneliness
 ● Deepen relationship with self

Buddhism

Buddhist meditation encompasses a variety of meditation techniques that aim to develop

mindfulness, concentration, supramundane powers, tranquility, and insight.

Core techniques have been preserved in ancient Buddhist texts and have proliferated and
diversified through teacher-student transmissions. Buddhists pursue meditation as part of the
path toward Enlightenment and Nirvana. The closest words for meditation in the classical
languages of Buddhism are bhāvanā] and jhāna/dhyāna.

Hinduism

Classical Yoga

Yoga is considered as a philosophical school in Hinduism. Yoga, in this context, is one of the
six āstika schools of Hinduism (those which accept the Vedas as source of knowledge).

Due to the influence of Vivekananda, the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali are nowadays considered as
the foundational scripture of classical yoga, a status which it only acquired in the 20th century.
Before the twentieth century, other works were considered as the most central works, such as
the Bhagavad Gita and the Yoga Vasistha, while Tantric Yoga and Hatha Yoga prevailed over
Ashtanga Yoga.

Ashtanga Yoga

Yoga as described in the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali refers to Ashtanga Yoga.

Ashtanga Yoga incorporates epistemology, metaphysics, ethical practices, systematic exercises

and self-development techniques for body, mind and spirit. Its epistemology(pramanas) is the
same as the Samkhya school. Both accept three reliable means to knowledge – perception
(pratyākṣa, direct sensory observations), inference (anumāna) and testimony of trustworthy
experts (sabda, agama). Both these orthodox schools are also strongly dualistic. Unlike
Sāṃkhya school of Hinduism which pursues non-theistic/atheistic rationalist approach,Yoga
school of Hinduism accepts the concept of a "personal, yet essentially inactive, deity" or
"personal god". Along with its epistemology and metaphysical foundations, Yoga school of
Hindu philosophy incorporates ethical precepts (yamas and niyamas) and an introspective way
of life focused on perfecting oneself physically, mentally and spiritually, with the ultimate goal
being kaivalya (liberated, unified, content state of existence).
Hatha yoga

Hatha yoga, also called hatha vidyā, is a kind of yoga focusing on physical and mental strength
building exercises and postures described primarily in three texts ofHinduism.

Many scholars also include the preceding Goraksha Samhita authored by Gorakshanath of the
11th century in the above list. Gorakshanath is widely considered to have been responsible for
popularizing hatha yoga as we know it today

Vajrayana Buddhism, founded by the Indian Mahasiddhas,] has a series of asanas and
pranayamas, such as tummo (Sanskrit caṇḍālī) and trul khor which parallel hatha yoga.

Shaivism

In Shaivism, yoga is used to unite kundalini with Shiva.

Jainism

Jain meditation has been the central practice of spirituality in Jainism along with the Three
Jewels. Meditation in Jainism aims at realizing the self, attaining salvation, and taking the soul
to complete freedom. It aims to reach and to remain in the pure state of soul which is believed
to be pure conscious, beyond any attachment or aversion. The practitioner strives to be just a
knower-seer (Gyata-Drashta). Jain meditation can be broadly categorized to the auspicious
Dharmya Dhyana and Shukla Dhyana and inauspicious Artta and Raudra Dhyana.

Tantra

Samuel states that Tantrism is a contested concept. Tantra yoga may be described, according to
Samuel, as practices in 9th to 10th century Buddhist and Hindu (Saiva, Shakti) texts, which
included yogic practices with elaborate deity visualizations using geometrical arrays and
drawings (mandala), fierce male and particularly female deities, transgressive life stage related
rituals, extensive use of chakras and mantras, and sexual techniques, all aimed to help one's
health, long life and liberation.

Modern wellness

Apart from the spiritual goals, the physical postures of yoga are used to alleviate health
problems, reduce stress and make the spine supple in contemporary times. Yoga is also used as
a complete exercise program and physical therapy routine.

While the practice of yoga continues to rise in contemporary American culture, sufficient and
adequate knowledge of the practice’s origins does not. According to Andrea R. Jain, Yoga is
undoubtedly a Hindu movement for spiritual meditation, yet is now being marketed as a
supplement to a cardio routine. This scope "dilutes its Hindu identity." Contemporaries of the
Hindu faith argue that the more popular yoga gets, the less concerned people become about its
origins in history. These same contemporaries do state that while anyone can practice yoga,
only those who give Hinduism due credit for the practice will achieve the full benefit of the
custom.

A spiritual practice or spiritual discipline

(often including spiritual exercises) is the regular or full-time performance of actions and
activities undertaken for the purpose of inducing spiritual experiences and cultivating spiritual
development. A common metaphor used in the spiritual traditions of the world's great
religions is that of walking a path.[1] Therefore, a spiritual practice moves a person along a path
towards a goal. The goal is variously referred to as salvation, liberation or union (with God). A
person who walks such a path is sometimes referred to as a wayfarer or a pilgrim.

Abrahamic religions

Baha'i Faith

Prayer in the Bahá'í Faith refers to two distinct concepts: obligatory prayer and devotional
prayer (general prayer). Both types of prayer are composed of reverent words which are
addressed to God, and the act of prayer is one of the most important Bahá'í laws for individual
discipline.

Christianity

In the Catholic tradition, spiritual disciplines may include: prayer, fasting, acts of mercy,
Sacraments (e.g., Baptism & Eucharist), monasticism, chanting, celibacy, the use of prayer
beads, mortification of the flesh, Christian meditation, and Lectio Divina.

For Protestants, spiritual disciplines are generally regarded to include any combination of the
following, in moderation: celebration, chastity, confession, fasting, fellowship, frugality,
giving, guidance, hospitality, humility, intimacy, meditation, prayer, reflection, self-control,
servanthood, service, silence, simplicity, singing, slowing, solitude, study, submission,
surrender, teaching, and worship.

The Religious Society of Friends (also known as the Quakers) practices silent worship, which is
punctuated by vocal ministry. Quakers have little to no creed or doctrine, and so their practices
constitute a large portion of their group identity.

A well-known writer on Christian spiritual disciplines, Richard Foster, has emphasized that
Christian meditation focuses not of the emptying of the mind or self, but rather on the filling
up of the mind or self with God.

Islam

Spiritual practice in Islam is practiced within salat (ritual prayer) during which Muslims subdue
all thoughts and concentrate solely on Allah. Spiritual practices that are practised by Sufis
include fasting, Dhikr, Muraqaba, and Sama (Sufi whirling).

Judaism

Kavanah is the directing of the heart to achieve higher contemplative thoughts and attain
inner strength. Perhaps the most elevated spiritual exercise for a Jew is known as Torah
Lishmah, the diligent study of the Torah. Reciting daily prayers (such as the Shema and
Amidah), following dietary laws of kashrut, observing Shabbat, fasting, and performing deeds
of loving-kindness all assist in maintaining awareness of God. Various Jewish movements
throughout history have encouraged a range of other spiritual practices. TheMusar movement,
for example, encourages a variety of meditations, guided contemplations, and chanting
exercises.

Indian religions

Buddhism

In Theravada Buddhism, the generic term for spiritual cultivation is bhavana. The Pali word
"yoga," central to many early Buddhist texts, has been often translated as "Spiritual
Practice."In Zen Buddhism, meditation (called zazen), the writing of poetry (especially haiku),
painting, calligraphy, flower arranging, the Japanese tea ceremony and the maintenance of Zen
gardens are considered to be spiritual practices. The Korean tea ceremony is also considered
spiritual.

Hinduism

In Hinduism, the practice of cultivating spirituality is known as sadhana. Japa, the silent or
audible repetition of a mantra, is a common Hindu spiritual practice.

Tantric practices are shared in common between Hinduism and certain Buddhist (especially
Tibetan Buddhist) schools, and involve the deliberate use of the mundane (worldly, physical or
material) to access the supramundane (spiritual, energetic or mystical) realms.

Anthroposophy

Rudolf Steiner gave an extensive set of exercises for spiritual development. Some of these were
intended for general use, while others were for certain professions, including teachers, doctors,
and priests, or were given to private individuals.

New Age

Passage meditation was a practice recommended by Eknath Easwaran which involves the
memorization and silent repetition of passages of scripture from the world's religions.

Adidam (the name of both the religion and practice) taught by Adi Da Samraj uses an extensive
group of spiritual practices including ceremonial invocation (puja) and body disciplines such as
exercise, a modified yoga, dietary restrictions and bodily service. These are all rooted in a
fundamental devotional practice of Guru bhakti based in self-understanding rather than
conventional religious seeking.

The term Neotantra refers to a modern collection of practices and schools in the West that
integrates the sacred with the sexual, and de-emphasizes the reliance on Gurus.

Recent and evolving spiritual practices in the West have also explored the integration of
aboriginal instruments such as the Didgeridoo, extended chanting as in Kirtan, or other
breathwork taken outside of the context of Eastern lineages or spiritual beliefs, such as
Quantum Light Breath.
Vaccination

Vaccination is the administration of a vaccine to help the immune system develop protection
from a disease. Vaccines contain a microorganism or virus in a weakened, live or killed state,
or proteins or toxins from the organism. In stimulating the body's adaptive immunity, they
help prevent sickness from an infectious disease. Vaccine schedules are organized by age. For
example, there are vaccine schedules for:

● Infants and young children

● Preteens and teens
● Adults

Some people who are at an increased risk for certain diseases may need additional vaccines.
For example:

● Gay or bisexual men

● Health care workers
● Military members
● People with health conditions
● Pregnant women
● Travelers

Vaccines are also important for other high-risk groups, like people who inject drugs.

A vaccine administration may be oral, by injection (intramuscular, intradermal,

subcutaneous), by puncture, transdermal or intranasal. Several recent clinical trials have
aimed to deliver the vaccines via mucosal surfaces to be up-taken by the common mucosal
immunity system, thus avoiding the need for injections.

There are several different types of vaccines. Each type is designed to teach your immune
system how to fight off certain kinds of germs — and the serious diseases they cause. Based
on a number of these factors, scientists decide which type of vaccine they will make. There
are 4 main types of vaccines:
 1. Live-attenuated vaccines
2. Inactivated vaccines
3. Subunit, recombinant, polysaccharide, and conjugate vaccines
4. Toxoid vaccines

Live-attenuated vaccines use a weakened (or attenuated) form of the germ that causes a
disease.Because these vaccines are so similar to the natural infection that they help prevent,
they create a strong and long-lasting immune response. Just 1 or 2 doses of most live
vaccines can give you a lifetime of protection against a germ and the disease it causes. Live
vaccines are used to protect against:

● Measles, mumps, rubella (MMR combined vaccine)

● Rotavirus
● Smallpox
● Chickenpox
● Yellow fever

Inactivated vaccines use the killed version of the germ that causes a disease. Inactivated
vaccines usually don’t provide immunity (protection) that’s as strong as live vaccines. So you
may need several doses over time (booster shots) in order to get ongoing immunity against
diseases. Inactivated vaccines are used to protect against:

● Hepatitis A
● Flu (shot only)
● Polio (shot only)
● Rabies

Subunit, recombinant, polysaccharide, and conjugate vaccines use specific pieces of the germ
— like its protein, sugar, or capsid (a casing around the germ).

Because these vaccines use only specific pieces of the germ, they give a very strong immune
response that’s targeted to key parts of the germ. They can also be used on almost everyone
who needs them, including people with weakened immune systems and long-term health
problems.

One limitation of these vaccines is that you may need booster shots to get ongoing
protection against diseases. These vaccines are used to protect against:

● Hib (Haemophilus influenzae type b) disease

● Hepatitis B
● HPV (Human papillomavirus)
● Whooping cough (part of the DTaP combined vaccine)
● Pneumococcal disease
● Meningococcal disease
● Shingles

Toxoid vaccines use a toxin (harmful product) made by the germ that causes a disease. They
create immunity to the parts of the germ that cause a disease instead of the germ itself. That
means the immune response is targeted to the toxin instead of the whole germ.

Like some other types of vaccines, you may need booster shots to get ongoing protection
against diseases. Toxoid vaccines are used to protect against:

● Diphtheria
● Tetanus