“Nakikita ko ang sarili ko sa'yo,” he

whispered as he gave me a quick

glance. “Gaya mo ay naliligaw lang din
ako simula nang mangyari ang krisis.
Natagpuan ko naman ang daan ko, ang pinakamalalang daang
posible kong daanan pero wala naman akong pagpipilian, hindi ba?
Pero ikaw, maaari mo pang baguhin ang landas mo, bata. Lahat ng
posibilidad ay nasa kamay mo. Nasa iyo na kung anong gagawin mo.
Nasa kamay mo ang sikreto ng Maynila.”

‘…at Dionisio Macaraig.’

He immediately took a gun from his jeepney's drawer and shot

himself through the head.

References:
https://www.google.com/url?q=https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Reference&usg=AFQjCNH3DSL0rBkWXxm12pbcfyteG5RqaQ
https://www.google.com/url?q=https://kingessays.com/reaction-
paper.php&usg=AFQjCNHj-4YSx74u86maItQCRzjAlWvG8g,
https://www.google.com/url?q=https://literarydevices.net/paraphrase/
&usg=AFQjCNFan7_6hEmDtyWNJcUb0tKKhwpgYg Paraphrase - Examples and Definition
of Paraphrase
https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/content-
analysis/&usg=AFQjCNFcILOevkQGaMng6fBf-rsP9YqfRw
https://www.google.com/url?q=http://www.businesscoachphil.com/writing-minutes-of-a-
meeting&usg=AFQjCNExybapP-U5EfPhuYuRDsU0qwDryA
https://www.google.com/search?q=ways+to+repair+communication+gaps
https://www.google.com/url?q=https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Reference&usg=AFQjCNH3DSL0rBkWXxm12pbcfyteG5RqaQ
https://www.google.com/url?q=https://kingessays.com/reaction-
paper.php&usg=AFQjCNHj-4YSx74u86maItQCRzjAlWvG8g,
https://www.google.com/url?q=https://literarydevices.net/paraphrase/ Kerwin John Malabag
&usg=AFQjCNFan7_6hEmDtyWNJcUb0tKKhwpgYg Paraphrase - Examples and Definition Kimberly Macadangdang
of Paraphrase Jerome Billariña
https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/content- Irish Keith Villanueva
analysis/&usg=AFQjCNFcILOevkQGaMng6fBf-rsP9YqfRw
https://www.google.com/url?q=http://www.businesscoachphil.com/writing-minutes-of-a-
meeting&usg=AFQjCNExybapP-U5EfPhuYuRDsU0qwDryA
https://www.google.com/search?q=ways+to+repair+communication+gaps
https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/using_research/
paraphrase_exercises/paraphrasing_exercise.html
https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/using_research/
paraphrase_exercises/paraphrasing_exercise_answers.html
https://literaryterms.net/paraphrase/
44 1

OVERVIEW
A text is conventionally apprehended as a piece of written or spoken
material in its predominant form (as opposed to a paraphrase or summary). On
the other hand, a text can also be implicit in context if it constitutes any stretch
of language, can be simplified into 1-2 words. Thus, sequence of sentences that
come with each other can be deliberated as a text.
In this part of the module, context and foundational knowledge about the
remaining content of the course are provided. Topics in this module include
Working with text where exercises and discussions on taking minutes during
seminars/lectures, meetings, and defenses will be conducted.
Content Analysis is also a part of this module where it is expected that
there will be content analysis not only on written texts but also with audio and
video materials.
Moreover, discourse competence is also a portion of this module. In this
partition, paraphrasing, summarizing, and thematic development are to be
fulfilled.
OBJECTIVES
1. Demonstrate mastery on the different guidelines in making minutes in terms
of conducting a seminar/lecture, meetings, and defenses;
2. Exhibit skills in drafting minutes in terms of varied circumstances;
3. Execute competence and skills in content analysis be it in written, audio, and
video materials; and
4. Employ knowledge and skills in discourse competence under paraphrasing,
summarizing, and thematic development.
2 43
hanggang sa makita ko siyang
nagmamakaawa para sa kamatayan
niya. Wala akong nagawa, isa akong
walang kwentang ama. Gusto kong
umiyak habang yakap-yakap ko ang duguan niyang katawan pero
wala man lang akong naramdamang awa. Blanko ang lahat.”
A few seconds later, we were already in front of the intersection of
highways. But then like before, there weren't any car nor other kind of
vehicles on the road. Some of the dim street lights shed off a faint glow in
the area, enough for me to see the tall buildings that greeted me as the
jeepney headed towards it. I had no idea where we are. There were not
any signs in the vicinity except for the golden twin arc of McDonalds
across the intersection and the statue of Jollibee on our right. A
holographic image had flashed on the silk screen that was displayed as
a billboard. The time just flashed in front of my eyes. It was already
midnight.
The stereo of his jeepney made an unidentified noise, which caught
both of our attention.
‘Ngayon, ika-31 ng Oktubre, iaanunsyo na namin ang pangalan ng
mga mamamatay bukas.’
He breathed heavily as he parked the jeepney. A cold eerie feeling
passed by. “Simula na.”
I held the plastic bag tightly in my hands. It has now started. The
killing spree has started.
‘Nasa listahan bukas ay sina Joselito Pelaez, Juan Chaves, Lucia
Santos, Rafael Guerrero...’
I didn't listen as the list went on. I took a deep sigh as the announcer
mentioned different names. I wonder what would those people who
were called feel, knowing that their death awaits for them in the morning
and they won't be able to get away from it. The driver was quiet just like
everything that surrounds us tonight. I realized I haven't asked his name
yet.
gobyerno. Iyon na lang ang tumutulong
sa aking mabuhay sa napakabilis na pag
-unlad ng ekonomiya rito sa siyudad dahil
naging mahal na lahat mula noon.
Nakabili ako ng sarili kong bahay sa may Espanya, nakabili ng mga
gamit. Nababayaran ko na rin ang mga bayarin ko nang hindi na
kailangan pang magpakahirap. Kaya ko na ring makakain ng mga
sosyal na pagkaing mula sa mga sosyal na kainan. Nakatulong iyon,
ngunit bilang kapalit naman nito ay kailangan kong bumiyahe sakay ng
dyip na 'to gabi-gabi para ihatid ang mga naliligaw na pasahero.”
I looked at him before I asked him the most unlikely question.
“Papatayin mo rin ba ako?”
“Hindi 'yan ang tanong, bata,” he smirked. “Ang tanong dito, ay
dapat ka bang mabuhay?”
I didn't speak.
He pointed his lips at the skull decorated in front of his jeepney.
“Kita mo 'yan? Iyan lang naman ang bungo ng kapatid ko. Isa siyang
dating pulis, at siya lang din naman ang hayop na pumatay sa pamilya
ko. Ginahasa niya ang asawa ko bago niya patayin. At ang anak ko?
Pinahirapan niya 'to hanggang gustuhin na nitong mamatay. Pero hindi
ko naman dapat na basta sisihin ang gobyerno, hindi ba? 'Di mo sila
gugustuhing kaaway. Kaya siya na lamang ang pinatay ko. Matamis
ang pagganti. Ngunit mas matamis ang magkaroon ka ng bagong
prebilehiyong mabuhay. Pero sapat ba 'yon para mapunan ang lungkot
ko? Hindi. Gusto ko na mabuhay ang pamilya ko, na makasama ko sila.
Kaya ako na rin ang gumawa ng paraan upang palaging makasama
ang pamilya ko,” he looked at my seat. “Balat 'yan ng anak ko.”
I looked down on where I was sitting, and the preserved skin of his
son's face greeted me.
We already passed by Betty-Go Belmonte's station when he broke
the ice. “Gaya ng ibang tao, hindi ko nagustuhan kung paano gumalaw
ang gobyerno. Aktibista ang panganay ko't palagi niyang ipinaaalala sa
akin kung gaano kabulok ang politika. Hindi ako naniwala sa kaniya
42
Demonstrate skills in: Taking detailed, organized and
accurate notes during lectures/seminars, meetings
and defenses; and analyzing content-based
texts.
1. Lecture/Guided discussion on ways of taking minutes
during lectures/seminars, meetings and defenses and on
analyzing content of written, audio and video materials.
2. Pair/Group analysis and discussion of the content of a
sample written, audio and video material.
3. Quiz on ways of taking minutes during lectures/seminars,
meetings and defenses and on analyzing content of written, audio
and video materials.
4. Taking down minutes of simulated lectures/seminars, meetings and
defenses.
5. Comprehending and analyzing content of written, audio and video
materials.
Guidelines in Writing Minutes of the
Meetings, Defenses and Lectures/Seminars
Recording meetings, lecture/seminars and
defenses are essential to all organizations. Based on
these documents, the partakers can arrive at
decisions which are crucial for planning or problem
solving. Due to this, they should be both accurate and
in appropriate detail.
In a typical meeting there are a lot of important things taken up.
This is the reason why minutes are important. They serve to implement
decisions or as guides to direct the flow of discussions during succeeding
meetings.
During meetings, lecture/seminars and defenses it is important to
write notes or minutes, to document what took place. Without this,
nobody may remember what were formerly discussed.
We know the persons assigned in writing minutes are the
secretaries, administrative assistants, or the support staff. This is not
3
entirely correct. Writing minutes of the
meeting must be learned also by
executive assistants, and other
managers, as they may be appointed, in
case the person in charge is not available. The president and its top
executives must also know how the minutes are written, so they would
know what to look for when reading the report.
The following should be included in the minutes of a meeting,
lecture/seminar and defense.
 Venue, date and time. Be able to write this down as soon as the
meeting is called to order. This is helpful in determining in what
period matters were conferred and resolved.
 Participants. Record the names of those who attended, and the
names of those who were absent. As much as possible, note also
the reasons or excuses why the others failed to attend. Note down
also the name of the presiding officer.
 Topics discussed. Record matters which were tackled. Present
them in bulleted points, noting down carefully the names of those
who contributed to the discussion. Avoid narrations, describing
what “he said or she said” in details. Do not include awkward
narrations like “Mr. Santos punched Mr. De Leon”, or “Ms. Dela Cruz
labelled Ms. Vega idiot.” It is important to present the minutes of
the meeting in a positive and dynamic manner.
 Materials distributed. Be able to note down if there were reports,
documents or samples presented during the meeting. Include also
the names of those who prepared those materials.
 Resolutions. Write actions agreed upon, the persons responsible,
budget (if any), and deadline. If a division occurred, note down
the results. Be able to capture if there were proposals or motions,
and if these were seconded or abstained. Jot down also which
issues were deferred, or declined.
 Conclusion. Write down the time the meeting was adjourned.
Include the schedule of the next meeting, its agenda, date and
time. Make sure you also note who will lead the next meeting (if
someone was appointed).
Preferably, minutes are written as soon as possible. Upon
completion, this should be typed and submitted to the president,
chairperson, or leader so that error/s (if there are any) may be corrected.
4 41
kababayan natin, nakita na ng
dalawang mong mga mata ang dapat
mong makita. Tumingin ka sa labas at
sabihin mo sa aking isa tayong nag-iisip
na bansa. Tumingin ka sa mga bangkay sa kalsada t'saka mo sabihing
may pakialam tayo.”
I looked outside the streets of Gilmore. On our left was the big sign
of another university— St. Paul University of Quezon City, with fading
letters embedded on it. Bodies of students lied in front of its gates, on our
right were dogs eating a what seems to be the left hand of the young girl
whose rotting body laid on the sidewalk. He is right, no one seemed to
care.
Not even me.
“Kailangan ko nang umalis,” I blurted of the blue. “K-kailangan ko
nang bumalik sa amin.”
He caught a glimpse of me then he sighed heavily. “Ayan na siguro
ang pinakaimposibleng bagay na pwedeng mangyari. Wala nang
nakalabas mula nang krisis. Lahat tayo'y preso ng lugar na 'to, na
walang tsansa ng pagsalba maliban sa pagsuko. Ang mga militar ang
siyang nagbabantay sa barikada. Walang makatatakas sa sumpa ng
siyudad, pinatay nila lahat ng nagtangkang umalis sa lugar na 'to,” he
pointed right at the burnt marks on his face. “Iyan ang ginawa nila. Hindi
lang 'yan, pinatay nila ang pamilya ko at pinahirapan ang anak ko.”
“P-pasensya na…”
“Ilang buwan na rin naman. Wala na ring bago rito. Normal na ang
patayan sa siyudad, ang mga gabi'y naging tahimik ngunit nakamama-
tay,” he muttered as his eyes were focused on the road. “Gustuhin mang
mag-protesta ng mga tao, hindi pa namin gustong maghukay ng sarili
naming hukay. Mas nag-aalala kami sa sarili naming kamatayan, kaysa
sa posibilidad na pagkamatay ng ibang tao sa harap namin. Nasa
punto na tayo na lahat tayo gusto nang mabuhay, at lahat tayo
nagpapakamatay na para mabuhay. Pinatay ko ang kapatid ko. Ang
sunod ko na lang nalaman, binigyan ako ng isang itim na credit card ng
Katolika ang nangyari. Nag-rally ang If already approved, this should be
mga relihiyosong tao. Naging mas alerto immediately reproduced so that people
ang pulisya sa mga pangyayari sa who were not able to attend may be
paligid. Naging normal na ang mga advised promptly on what transpired
away sa kalye. Bumaba rin nang husto ang ekonomiya. Patayan bawat during the meeting.
kanto. Hanggang umakto na ang mismong pangulo.” Make sure the copy of the minutes of the meeting is given to
everyone so nobody will forget what
“Sinimulan nila ang pagsagawa ng 'death list' na pumapatay sa were discussed. Make additional
isandaang tao bawat gabi.” copies, to be circulated and read
during the start of the next meeting.
Silence reigned between us. Remember also, that the key to
He heaved a sigh as his jeepney passed by the station of J. Ruiz. good minutes of the meeting is
“Lahat ng sinasabing hindi nila gusto ang gobyerno ay nasasama sa correctness. It may become a legal
listahan. Kahit sino ka pa o ano ka pa, pwede kang mapasama sa document, which may be presented as
listahan at patayin nang walang paglilitis. Basta nakasulat ang pangalan evidence in the court. Anyone may
mo, 'di mo magagamit maski ang bigat ng bulsa mo. Brutal na question the report, in case data seem
pinagpapatay ang mga madre at pari, nagsara na ang mga simbahan erroneous or invalid.
mula noon at ibinenta rin ang mga estatwa. Iyong mga In closing, note that the style and
pinagkakatiwalaan mong mga pulis? Pinahihirapan ang mga ralyista sa level of detail of the minutes will be
kalsada at walang awang sinabit ang bangkay ng mga ito sa kung saan affected by many factors, like the
mang lugar. Ang mga sundalong laging pinagkakatiwalaan sa importance of the resolutions. It is up to
pagliligtas sa bansa? Pumatay ng mga estudyante. Wala nang ligtas.” the record taker to use her/his
judgement on what is appropriate. With
“At hinayaan lang 'to ng gobyerno?” I couldn't help not to ask so much at stake, nobody should take
while he continued driving. lightly the proper taking of the minutes.

He focused on the road and sighed heavily. “Hindi lang nila

hinayaan, sinimulan pa nila.”

“Akala ko demokratikong bansa tayo,” I told him. “Bakit hinayaan

ng mga tao ang ganito?”

He laughed as the jeepney's speed went faster. “Salita lang ang

demokrasya, bata. Nakatira ka sa isang bansa kung saan akala mo ay
ikaw ang boss ng gobyerno pero hindi, isa ka lang sa milyon-milyong ta-
ong kailangan nila upang maluklok sa posisyong kapangyarihan lang
ang tanging importante sa tao. Hindi demokrasya 'to, bata. Matagal na
tayong niloloko ng gobyerno, at mga loko-loko tayong naniniwala sa la-
hat ng kagaguhang sabihin nila. Hindi ko man gustong maliitin ang mga
Watch the video on YouTube with this
link: https://youtu.be/t3KaNSsDVIU and, take down minutes of the
meeting using the format below.
Company Name / Organization / Department:
______________________________________________________________________

40 5
Call to Order ___________________________
________________________________________
Date ___________________________________
Time ___________________________________
Venue _______________________________________________________________
Facilitator ____________________________________________________________
Approval of the minutes of the last meeting____________________________
Agenda:
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
Attendees:
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
Absentees: (write excuses or reasons)
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
Discussions and Actions:
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
Time Adjourned ________________________________________________
Prepared by: _________________________________________________________
Noted by: ____________________________________________________________
6 39
go. I had decided to cross the road. It
was the first thing that crossed my mind
and so I did. Afterwards, my both feet just
stood there as I waited for a miracle.
There wasn't a jeepney on the road, but I had to keep my hopes up and
be optimistic in the most pessimistic situation. Then a miracle happened.
Or probably an unsolved mystery.
A jeepney parked right in front of me.
“Saan ka pupunta, bata?” the driver asked as his weary brown
eyes stared at me. He was an old guy, his thin white hair made him look
bald, but a navy blue cap covered his head so it didn't seem to be
obvious. He had small burns on his face, making him hard to look at but I
didn't mind. He opened the small metallic door to the passenger's seat
immediately after a weird noise came out from his stereo. “Sakay na.
Madilim na. Baka makita ka ng mga 'yon.”
“Sino sila?” I asked innocently before I hopped onto the passenger's
seat. He immediately heated up the engines of his jeepney and roamed
on the empty road. “Anong nangyayari?”
He continued steering the wheels then suddenly looked at me with
confusion in his weary eyes. “Wala ka talagang alam? May malawak na
patayan sa siyudad. Nilagyan na ng harang ng mga pulis ang lugar.
Walang nakakaligtas sa gabi. Teka, bakit nga ba nasa labas ka pa?”
The plastic bag felt heavier in my hands. “H-hinanap ko lang 'yung
kapatid ko. Tungkol sa mga militar at pulis, bakit nila binabakuran ang
buong lugar? At bakit may mga patayan?”
“Sana kaya kong sabihin lahat, bata,” he said disappointingly as
we roamed on the road of V. Mapa. The infamous SM Sta. Mesa shone
under the moonlight but its cold dark aura had dominated the area.
“Marami na ring nangyari. Ilang buwan na rin ang nakalilipas, dito pa
lang sa siyudad, mataas na ang populasyon. Isang daang milyon katao
sa Maynila pa lang, sapat na 'yon para makuha ang atensyon ng lokal
na gobyerno. Nagsimula silang mamigay ng mga condom at
kontraseptiba sa mga residente. Medyo hindi nagustuhan ng simbahang
was crying but he tried hard to not sound
like it. He told me that if ever he dies, he
wanted to be buried in our hometown.
Then he ended the call, just like how they
ended his life.
Walking inside the university was easy, walking outside was not.
Seeing your brother in his decaying stage is never one of my dreams, but
I had no choice but to stare upon him as his head tilted. The next thing I
knew, it fell on the ground and rolled towards me. Both of his eyeballs
stared at me like it was watching my every move. I picked up his head
and looked around for a plastic bag where I can put it. A few steps from
my direction was a red plastic bag. I put his head inside and so are his
other body parts— his hands, his feet, his stomach, even his pelvic bone.
Every piece of him was inside a red plastic bag, and I had to be sure I
had his complete set of bones. The night was more quiet than usual… it
was almost 10 PM, and up to until this point, I don't know where to go.
Even after four days of wandering the streets of Manila, it was still an
unfamiliar place. I don't even remember how to get back to the
apartelle I checked in last night. All I remember is that it was in Cubao,
but how to get there? I had no idea. My pants'pocket was empty,
except for the black card that the militar gave me the moment the bus I
took in Crossing set foot in Manila. Everyone inside the bus was given a
black card and a memo saying the sky is the limit. I didn't know what it
meant, but I suggest it meant something good to somewhat brighten up
the mood. I held it tightly inside my pocket as I walked past the gates,
holding a plastic bag with my brother's corpse.
I had to bring Jose to our hometown.
Silence reigned along Teresa street as I passed by. No vendors in
the area, no street food in anywhere in the vicinity, the 7-11 store was
gloomy with cobwebs on its ceiling. Computer shops were also closed,
the small chapel along the street looked abandoned as well. There was
a glass box near the chapel which looked like a statue had been there,
but there wasn't a statue inside but the corpse of a guy with his hands
tied upwards as his shoulders carried the weight of Jesus' calvary. I
ignored it and continued walking while Jose's corpse seemed to be
heavier in the plastic the longer I walk. When I already reached the end
of the street, only the faint glow of the moonlight guided me on where to
38
of Written, Audio and
CONTENT ANALYSIS is a
method for summarizing Video Materials
any form of content by
counting various aspects of the content. This
enables a more objective e val ua tion than
comparing content based on the impressions of a listener. For example,
an impressionistic summary of a TV program, is not content analysis. Nor
is a book review: it’s an evaluation.
Though it may seem crude and simplistic to make such
statements, the counting serves two purposes:
1. To remove much of the subjectivity from summaries
2. To simplify the detection of trends.
Also, the fact that programs have been counted implies that
somebody has listened to every program on the station: content
analysis is always thorough.
A. Topics appropriate to content analysis:
1. Content analysis can be used with any form of communication:
a. The early uses of content analysis were in studies of the nature and
effects of propaganda, and this type of analysis later spread to
studies of news media, education, and then communication in
general.
b. Content analysis is usually thought of in connection with the mass
communication media, but it is by no means limited to these. It
may be used with any kind of written material, as well as with
pictorial and sound materials.
c. Frequent artifacts for content analysis are books, magazines,
poems, newspapers, songs, movies, videos, paintings, speeches,
letters, laws, & constitutions.
2. Answering "who says what, to whom, why, how, and with what effect?"
a. As a mode of observation, the focus is on the what.
b. As an analysis of data, content analysis addresses the why and
with what effect.
3. Content analysis is the equivalent in document study to survey
research. It is conducive to the use of formal hypotheses, large
scientifically drawn samples, and quantitative data that can be
analyzed with computers and modern statistical techniques. In
7
 addition to hypothesis testing, other
purposes for content analysis are:
a. To describe trends in
communication content.
b. To relate known characteristics of sources to messages they
produce.
c. To audit communication contents against standards.
d. To analyze techniques of persuasion.
e. To analyze style.
f. To relate known attributes of the audience to messages produced
for them.
g. To describe patterns of communication.
4. There are three main emphases of content analysis:
a. Content analysis may provide information about the characteristics
of the originator's culture or about the originator.
b. The interest may be in the message itself, such as the relative
effectiveness of alternative messages, or a comparison of messages
from a single source at different times or under different
circumstances.
c. A content analysis study may tell something about the effects of the
message on the target audience.
5. Examples of research problems studied through content analysis:
a. Attempts at identifying the source of messages by analysis of
sentence length and frequency of various classes of nouns (could
be used to determine unknown or disputed authorship)
b. Studies of the content of messages by counts of words and symbols,
by amount of space devoted to various topics, by presence of
different types of bias, and by comparison of the frequency of
occupations portrayed on television with the frequency of those
occupations existing in society.
c. Studies of the differential content of advertising messages as related
to the audience toward which the magazines were aimed.
d. Studies of the frequency of items in a message.
B. Sampling in content analysis:
1. Units of analysis are the individual units about which or whom descriptive
and explanatory statements are made.
a. Doing content analysis becomes more complicated when the units
of observation differ from the units of analysis.
b. It is extremely important to be clear about the unit of analysis,
because sample selection depends on what the unit of analysis is.
2. Sampling techniques: Content analysis of written communication may
occur at any or all of the following levels: words, phrases, sentences,
paragraphs, sections, chapters, books, writers, or the social contexts
8 37
other lied on one of the far away
benches. I tried to look for my brother. He
could be here somewhere, either he was
alive, sitting on a bench while practicing
his lines for his upcoming theatre play, or worse, he could be one of the
dead bodies I walked upon earlier. But either way, I need to see him. I
need to see my brother, Jose, may he be dead or alive. I was already at
that point of desperation, the lowest point of anyone's life. But a man
new with his surrounding can't do anything with such situations, can he?
Today is the day where even prayers won't work.
God is dead, and so is my brother.
A food stand's radio made a sudden noise, enough for it to get my
attention. I had no idea how long it's been open, but the next words that
came out from its speakers kept me silent.
‘Iaanunsyo ang mga pangalan sa ‘death list’ mamayang
hatinggabi. Manatiling nakatutok.’
I walked outside the walled place and headed to the main gate.
The night was darker than earlier but the bonfire lit up every corner. The
digital clock near the main gate flashed the time. It was already 9:04 PM.
Not the usual time for a twenty-three year old guy to wander around an
abandoned university. But I knew better. It was not abandoned, it was
meant to be a place for something important-capital punishment. I
always remember how Jose talks about his dream for himself, of how he
wanted to be a playwright. He loves to write scripts for theatre plays and
direct some for town performances. He wanted to be famous just like his
all-time favorite Ricky Lee. He wanted to be looked upon by people. He
should be glad right now that one of his dreams came true, the moment
I looked upon his corroding body carelessly tied on one of the electric
posts. Despite his face and body being burned and his ribcage showing
off through his flesh, I knew it was him. I had no doubts about it. Hanging
around his neck was the necklace I gave him for his nineteenth birthday.
This is absolutely not the kind of reunion I was expecting. He used to tell
me how there was no strong signal in Manila so he was not able to
contact me. I knew he was lying, but I didn't ask. Memories came back
to me, the last time Jose called me over the payphone. It was raining
hard here, I can remember the sound of raindrops over the phone. He
of the commuters' daily lives despite the
fact that it stays nothing but an
annoyance to every resident of the city.
How there are pick-up girls or hookers in
every street, waiting for a guy to ask out for a one night stand in replace
of three hundred pesos, and the roller coaster rides by jeepneys acting
like 'kings of the road'. But what greeted me right now is nothing like the
Manila Jose had been talking about. No vendors on the streets at night,
no noise from the barkers, no traffic. Nothing. It was like an empty place;
it didn't even look like anything near to a civilization. I wonder how my
young brother can bear the struggle of living in a place like this. He's a
third year Filipinology student of the country's first Polytechnic University.
We haven't talked for weeks now, I had no news about him. He lives in a
small dormitory in Teresa street. After our parents died when I was
eighteen, he's been a part of my obligation. I sent him off to school,
working in a small factory in Lucena City by day, and a construction
worker in Sariaya by night. My four-year younger brother, ambitious and
had great dreams for the country persuaded me about his Manila
dream. He would always tell me how he wanted to study here, to which I
would just shrug off. We had no enough money, and college education
was just as expensive as our parents' funeral. But then I knew my brother
deserved a decent education, something I never had. As a surprise, I
worked hard so he can attend this school. He was really excited, he
studied hard to make me proud. I could not be any prouder of him, not
until he had not contacted me for weeks.
A heavy sigh escaped from my lips as I continued walking. There
was a walled place inside the university which looked like Intramuros
back in the Spaniard days. Despite the barbed wires surrounding it, I
managed to get inside. There wasn't much to see. Just food stands in
every corner, benches and tables with unfinished foods on top, fallen
trees, the cable wires that hung like banderitas during town fiesta.
Decaying bodies were displayed on the tables, they were opened
carelessly, their body organs can be seen outside their system lying right
beside them. Cats and dogs have been feeding on their bodies, feasting
on the rotten meat in front of them. There was a lagoon inside, but
instead of bearing the fresh color of green or blue, it had a bloody red
water with eyeballs and intestines floating everywhere. Plastic bags
floated like water lilies, a decaying body of a couple on top of each
36
relevant to the works.
a. The primary step is to compile a
sampling frame, or a list of all units from
which the sample is to be drawn.
b. After a sampling frame is constructed, any of the probability
sampling techniques may be used in content analysis -- random,
systematic, stratified, or cluster.
c. The process of sampling does not need to end when the
researcher reaches the unit of analysis.
C. Coding in content analysis:
1. Communications may be coded on manifest and latent content:
a. Manifest content is the visible, surface content of a
communication. This approximates the standardization in survey
questionnaires.
b. Latent content is the underlying meaning of the communication.
This parallels the subjective component of field research.
2. Units and categories -- the content analysis procedure involves the
interaction of two processes:
a. Reliability-specificity: Specification of the content characteristics to
be measured; and
b. Validity-depth: Application of the rules for identifying and recording
the characteristics when they appear in the texts to be analyzed.
3. Conceptualization and the creation of code categories: categories
should reflect the purposes of the research, and should be exhaustive,
mutually exclusive, and independent. By independent, this means that
the value of one category does not determine the value of another
category.
4. Relationship between theory and research:
a. Induction: An inductive approach entails the researcher's initial
immersion in documents of some type in order to identify the
dimensions, or themes, which seem meaningful to the producers of
the documents. A greater reliance upon induction, especially at
the onset of a content analysis, is more consistent with a qualitative
approach. When content analysis is carried out in an inductive or
mixed manner it resembles the process of building grounded theory
advocated by Glaser and Strauss in conjunction with participant
observation.
b. Deduction: A deductive approach is followed when the categories
are suggested to the researcher by a theoretical perspective and
the documents provide a convenient source of data on which to
test a hypothesis. In a purely deductive approach, there is little
interplay between theory building and theory testing.
c. Different levels of measurement may be used in content analysis --
9
 nominal categories, ordinal
ranking, interval, or ratio. Keep in
mind that the level of
measurement implicit in your
coding scheme does not necessarily reflect the nature of your
variables.
d. Pretest a coding scheme before using it in content analysis. You
should decide what manifest or latent contents of communications
will be regarded as indicators of the different attributes composing
your research variables.
5. Counting and record keeping: Most content analysis research is
quantitative. Quantification may be performed by using one of the
following systems of enumeration:
a. An appearance system that calls for searching the material for
appearance of a certain attribute. The size of the context unit
determines the frequency with which repeated recording units
occurring in close proximity to each other are counted separately.
b. A frequency system in which every occurrence of a given attribute
is recorded. Knowing the exact frequency with which a category
appears is more valuable than merely knowing whether or not the
category appears at all.
c. A time/space system that is based on various measures of space
(column inches, front page, size of headline) or units of time
(minutes a radio/tv devotes to a news item, etc.) to describe the
relative emphases of different categories in the analyzed material.
This measures how much attention is devoted to the category.
d. An intensity system, which is generally used in studies dealing with
attitudes and values. Methods of quantifying for intensity are based
on the construction of scales.
6. Coding units of analysis vs. units of observation:
a. The recording unit is the smallest body of content in which the
appearance of a reference is counted (a reference is a single
occurrence of the content element). The major recording units are:
i. Single word is usually the smallest unit employed. The problem
with using a single word is that there may be too many words
for the researcher to manage. The single word is seldom used,
except in studies dealing with readability, style, psychotherapy,
and literary detection.
ii. The theme refers to the moral purpose, or goal of a document.
Since the theme has no spatial boundaries like words, there is
less consensus about where the theme begins and ends,
lowering intercoder reliability.
iii. The character as a recording unit is limited to such documents
10
screaming out 'WHY SO SERIOUS?'. There
was a huge bonfire in the field, it just
made me wonder how long this place
has been like this. Hundreds of different
placards surrounding the barriers were there with words like 'god is dead'
and 'a nation reborn'. Holy Bibles were used to fuel the fire, its pages
scattered on the ground like our house's linoleum. If my mother was still
alive, her religious self would probably scold every single person involved
here, but for me, I knew better. I walked along and ignored whatever I
saw, it wasn't the time to think about my religious beliefs if ever I even
had one. This time, it is not about the individual people.
It's about Manila.
Smoke and fog covered the place, scents of burnt buildings and
gasoline filled every corner of the university like I was another Anne Frank
inside the concentration camp, wondering if I will turn into glittery ashes
the moment Hitler met my eyes. But this was different. I'm not Anne Frank,
and there was no Hitler wanting to eliminate me simply because he
thinks he's better of a human being for being German. I was alone. The
place was like a battlefield and I was a brave soldier walking along the
fragments of skeletons of my comrades while I think about survival.
Walking along the university was mental torture, suicide just became a
word after I passed by the gates, pushing aside the electric wires
welcoming me. Screams and whines echoed the moment I walked
towards the obelisk that stood in the middle. The night was quiet that you
would hear your own fresh blood running through your veins just like
water running down the stream. There weren't any lights in the vicinity
except for the faint glow of the moonlight caressing the corroding bodies
lying on the cold grounds. And no farther than my position was the body
of an indigenous boy wearing his tribe's precious clothing, his face was
half-burnt and the other half was smashed by a rock up to that point that
it was nothing but a small piece of ground pig meat. If I haven't watched
gore movies before, I could've vomited my own body organs. Except
that this time, it was not a movie.
It was real.
I still remember how my brother Jose talks about Manila being a
noisy place surrounded by hundreds of street vendors and jeepney
barkers shouting every morning. How the traffic in EDSA became a part
35
The Buried Secrets of Manila
by: 42
011918 | 1830
The clouds have been my home as I walked along the cold empty
streets of Manila on one Saturday night, wondering around like a kid on a
candy store while my feet brought me to a city way different than I
imagined. Just like the wheat fields in our province, Manila was just
another quiet place lurking in the heart of the so-called ‘metro city’, at-
tracting people to be one of its fine visitors. I was one of those people. It's
been almost four days since I've arrived here, and it was nothing like the
harsh description I have been hearing from other people whenever they
talk about the night life in Manila. There wasn't a noise on the cold streets
of Sta. Mesa, no pick-up girls like the ones my brother talked about the
first time he went here. An old abandoned university lies at the end of
Teresa street, the fading red and white motif was enough to catch my
attention. The sign became a bit unreadable for some letters on its name
banner was missing. Traces of gun powder were all over the place, some
bullets were scattered in front of the broken gate, trees all fell down and
the electric wires hung carelessly on the roads. It was nothing but a fallen
debris, remnants of catastrophe, a memory of a tragic end. Chaos
wasn't an enough word to describe the mess that it was. But I guess none
cared, because if someone did, I guess I wouldn't walk upon decaying
bodies of students and professors still wearing their neatly ironed white
uniforms covered in faint blood and forms of dust just to see the entity of
the abandoned gloomy six-floor building.
I was walking on a red carpet of dead bodies.
PO…VERTY OF THE PHILIPPINES
The name banner welcomed me with small sparks of blazing fire,
the gates were covered by barbed wires signaling how this place now
became a private property, but the opened gate suggested otherwise. I
entered the place with second thoughts since there could be people
inside and my uninvited presence would ruin the vibe, but the quiet eerie
feeling attracted my feet to be its new guest. Now I regret it. Blood
flowed on the cold floor, bodies hung up everywhere like lanterns on
Christmas Eve, no noise can be heard except for the cold gush of air
passing by. The facade of the building was spray painted with silver paint
34
as novels, plays, television programs, or
movies. The category systems for characters
usually involves ascribed or achieved
statuses. The recording unit is the particular
person, and the number of persons fitting into each of the
categories is recorded. The character is concrete and
unambiguous, and usually the numbers are manageable.
iv. The sentence or paragraph has the advantage of having clear
boundaries. A disadvantage is that they often contain more
than one topic or theme, making them not mutually exclusive
for coding.
v. The item is the recording unit when the entire article, film, book,
or program is characterized. This unit may be too vague, and
may present problems when items fall between two categories.
b. The context unit is the largest body of content that may be examined
in characterizing a recording unit.
c. For example, the recording unit may be a single term; but in order to
describe whether the term is treated favorably, one has to consider the
sentence in which the term appears (the context unit). The sentence is
taken into account when recording coding the term.
7. Record the base from which the counting is done. Every observation
should be coded according to one of the attributes making up a variable.
D. Advantages of content analysis:
1. Content analysis is economical in terms of both time and money. A staff
and expensive equipment are not required.
2. Content analysis is objective, systematic, and typically quantitative. These
features make it reliable and valid. One should be able to consistently
come up with the same results and the results should accurately reflect the
data from a communication.
3. Content analysis can handle large volumes of data; and it is easy to
repeat part or all of the coding to make sure the information is coded in a
consistent manner.
4. Content analysis permits longitudinal studies--one can study processes
occurring over long periods of time.
5. Content analysis is able to deal with unstructured material. This means that
documents that were not prepared with scientific analysis in mind (diaries,
letters, songs, etc.) can be meaningfully and successfully analyzed for
patterns and relationships.
6. Content analysis involves sensitivity to context and symbolic forms in
communication. Situational, semantic, and political consequences can be
researched. It is also possible to analyze data from a document in a
context quite different from the one used in the source.
7. Content analysis is unobtrusive, and seldom has any effect on the subject.
11
If you want to use content analysis in describe the author and the paper you
your research, you need to start with a are analyzing, the main ideas and
clear, direct research question. problems you are going to discuss. You
Example: Is there a difference should write at least three-four sentences
in how the US media represents male and female politicians in about the original text and close the introduction section with your thesis,
terms of trustworthiness? which will be discussed later in the paper. Make sure your statement is
brief and straight to the point, because you will need to get back to it
Select the content you will analyze
over and over again throughout your paper.
Based on your research question, choose the texts that you will
analyze. You need to decide:
 The medium (e.g. newspapers, speeches or websites) and genre The second part of the paper is where the real work begins. You
(e.g. opinion pieces, political campaign speeches, or marketing need to write down your thoughts on the main ideas of the paper,
copy) backed with appropriate quotes and sources. Remember to stick to the
 The criteria for inclusion (e.g. newspaper articles that mention a original article and always get back to it, while providing your personal
particular event, speeches by a certain politician, or websites selling thoughts. However, you are free to add theoretical information to sup-
a specific type of product) port your ideas. This section is crucial and should contain a thorough
 The parameters in terms of date range, location, etc. analysis of the obtained data.
If there are only a small amount of texts that meet your criteria, you
might analyze all of them. If there is a large volume of texts, you can
select a sample. Conclusions should be brief and contain information on your thesis
Define the units and categories of analysis and main ideas, which were shaped throughout the work. You can also
Next, you need to determine the level at which you will analyze refer to the target audience and the impact these conclusions may
your chosen texts. This means defining: have on the society. The list of citations should contain a brief but
 The unit(s) of meaning that will be coded. For example, are you structured information on the sources, used in your work.
going to record the frequency of individual words and phrases, the
characteristics of people who produced or appear in the texts, the Writing a reaction paper can be a real challenge, but at the same
presence and positioning of images, or the treatment of themes time it will help you to improve your analytical skills and share your
and concepts? opinion with the world.
 The set of categories that you will use for coding. Categories can be
objective characteristics (e.g. female, aged 40-50, lawyer, mother)
or more conceptual (e.g. trustworthy, corrupt, conservative, family
oriented).
Your units of analysis are the politicians who appear in each
article and the words and phrases that are used to describe
them. Based on your research question, you have to
categorize based on gender and the concept of
trustworthiness. To get more detailed data, you also code for
other categories such as the age, political party, and marital
status of each politician mentioned.
12 33
 The second part should contain your
personal thoughts on the subject. Focus
on a main problem or address all of them
and describe your opinion. Explain how
the material can relate to the modern world, to the society or separate
individuals. Back your statements with sources if needed and make
conclusions whether you support the author or not.
Writing a reaction paper can be quite a challenging task, so many
students use examples to learn more about its structure and key features.
Here are a few recommendations, which will help you complete an
outstanding reaction paper:
 Read the original article carefully and highlight the main ideas and
points you want to discuss;
 Describe your point of view and back it with additional information
if needed. Use vivid examples;
 Use various sources to make your statement more argumentative.
1. Don’t give a summary of an article.
2. You should perform your personal opinion, not an overview.
3. You should always back your ideas with examples.
4. Avoid using examples, which are difficult to relate to the topic.
Formatting gives every student a chance to create an outstanding
paper, using previous experience and a clear plan of actions. With the
help of such an outline, you will be able to see how the paper will look
like and will be able to go from one paragraph to another smoothly.
Usually you will have specific information on the size of the paper, so a
plan will be of a great help. A reaction paper consists of four main parts:
1. Introduction;
2. Body;
3. Conclusions; and
4. List of citations and sources.
Introduction section is the face of your paper, so you need to pay
extra attention to this part to gain interest of the reader. Here you should
32
Develop a set of rules
for coding
Coding involves organizing the units
of meaning into the previously defined categories. Especially with more
conceptual categories, it’s important to clearly define the rules for what
will and won’t be included to ensure that all texts are coded consistently.
Coding rules are especially important if multiple researchers are
involved, but even if you’re coding all of the text by yourself, recording
the rules makes your method more transparent and reliable.
In considering the category “female politician,” you decide
which titles will be coded with this category (senator, governor,
counselor, mayor). With “trustworthy”, you decide which specif-
ic words or phrases related to trustworthiness
(e.g. honest and reliable) will be coded in this category.
Code the text according to the rules
You go through each text and record all relevant data in the
appropriate categories. This can be done manually or aided with com-
puter programs, such as QSR NVivo, Atlas.ti and Diction, which can help
speed up the process of counting and categorizing words and phrases.
Following your coding rules, you examine each newspaper
article in your sample. You record the characteristics of each
politician mentioned, along with all words and phrases related
to trustworthiness that are used to describe them.
Analyze the results and
draw conclusions
Once coding is complete, the collected data is examined to find
patterns and draw conclusions in response to your research question.
You might use statistical analysis to find correlations or trends, discuss your
interpretations of what the results mean, and make inferences about the
creators, context and audience of the texts.
The results reveal that words and phrases related to
trustworthiness appeared in the same sentence as a male
politician more frequently than they did in the same sentence
as a female politician. From these results, you conclude that
national newspapers present male politicians as more
trustworthy than female politicians, and infer that this might
have an effect on readers’ perceptions of women in politics.
13
 Title

Select the content you will analyze.

Based on your research question,
choose the texts that you will analyze.
Define the units and categories of
analysis.
Summary
Develop a set of rules for coding.
Code the text according to the rules.
Analyze the results and draw conclusions.

Read the given text below then analyze its

content. Remember to follow the steps in
Key Ideas
conducting content analysis.
NOTE: Think of your own RESEARCH
QUESTION to answer.
Gender Shouldn’t Matter,
But Apparently It Still Does
by Jack Zenger and Joseph Folkman
All would agree that many factors go into hiring the right person for a job.
What exactly causes a manager to choose person A over person B? Are some
people hired because of whom they know? Yes. Are some individuals more likely
to receive promotions or positions because they belong to a certain gender or
race? Yes. Unfortunately, unfairness does exist in the workplace.
We all believe the best qualified person should get the job and that
It is a type of written assignment, which requires personal opinion
gender, race, or relationships should not be a factor. But our data suggest that,
unconsciously, other dimensions weigh heavily upon the final decision, as well. and conclusions on a given article or abstract. Unlike a summary, a
As we said in our previous blog, the pattern in the data we cited from our reaction paper should contain your own thoughts on the problem,
latest survey is unmistakable. The majority of senior leaders are still men, and the discussed in the original text. It aims to show professor how deep your
higher up in the organization you go, the greater the disparity becomes. And understanding of the situation is and how well you can use your
yet at the same time, women at every level were perceived by their bosses, analytical skills.
their colleagues, and their direct reports as superior to their male counterparts The first part of your paper should contain information on the author
on three quarters of the competencies our long years of conducting and and the topic. You need to write down the main ideas and highlight the
analyzing 360-evalutions have shown are critical to superior leadership main points of the paper. You can use direct quotations if needed. Avoid
effectiveness. It’s hard not to conclude that when it comes time for promotion, your personal opinion in this section.
some — many — highly qualified women are being overlooked.
14 31

Title
Summary
Key Ideas
4. Electric trolley cars or trams were once the chief mode of public
transportation in the United States. Though they required tracks and
electric cables to run, these trolley cars were clean and comfortable. In
1922, auto manufacturer General Motors created a special unit to
replace electric trolleys with cars, trucks, and buses. Over the next
decade, this group successfully lobbied for laws and regulations that
made operating trams more difficult and less profitable. In 1936 General
Motors created several front companies for the purpose of purchasing
and dismantling the trolley car system. They received substantial
investments from Firestone Tire, Standard Oil of California, Phillips
Petroleum, and other parties invested in the automotive industry. Some
people suspect that these parties wanted to replace trolley cars with
buses to make public transportation less desirable, which would then
increase automobile sales. The decline of the tram system in North
America could be attributed to many things—labor strikes, the Great
Depression, regulations that were unfavorable to operators—but perhaps
the primary cause was having a group of powerful men from rival sectors
of the auto industry working together to ensure its destruction. Fill it up,
please.
30
What’s more, a deeper look at our data
reveal, qualified women appear to be
similarly underrepresented in specific
functional areas of the organization. It’s no
news to say that stereotypes exist about which functions women are expected
to excel in: Usually these include customer service and human resources. Areas
like sales, operations, engineering, IT, R&D, and facilities management are
perceived as male bastions. In terms of numbers, these biases are confirmed by
our latest survey of 7,280 leaders, which our organization evaluated in 2011.
But when it came to perceptions of excellence, the numbers tell a
different story, as you can see in the chart below (click to see a larger image),
which pairs the percentages and perceptions of effectiveness (as reported in
360 evaluations) for male and female leaders in 15 different functional areas.
In only three of the 12 categories were men perceived by everyone they
worked with as more effective than their female counterparts, and interestingly
two of them — customer service and administrative functions — are classically
considered areas in which women excel. What’s more, the largest differences
between men’s and women’s effectiveness rankings are generally in those
functional areas that are highly dominated by males (sales, general
management, R&D, IT, and product development). These disparities are even
more stark in the aggregate at the extremes. When looking at the percentage
of male and females who were rated the highest and the lowest, females have
a lower percentage of the worst and a higher percentage of the best, as you
can see from the following chart (click to see a larger image).
Certainly, some of these patterns can be explained by the makeup of
candidate pools: there simply are far fewer female than male engineers, for
example. And also by the fact that women currently in leadership positions
come from an extremely selective population, and they have worked
tremendously hard to achieve their positions.
But surely to some extent these numbers are a reflection of upper
management’s subjective beliefs about how each person would perform in
these roles — beliefs that simply are not borne out by the data.
It is high time to put our notions of gender roles in the workplace to rest.
Women excel when given the opportunity. And so do men, particularly when
they, too, feel the need to prove themselves in nontraditional roles. The good
news about this research isn’t that women are better than men. It’s that both
men and women can develop their leadership skills and abilities, and no area
need be reserved for one or the other.
What it takes to develop great leaders, whether male or female, is their
own willingness to develop, being given opportunities to grow through
challenging job assignments, and support through mentoring and coaching
from senior leaders.
15

Demonstrate
competence in: Restating or reconstructing ideas in a
coherent presentation; summarize information from
different sources and write reaction papers by
elaborating themes and sub themes or
developing particular points and appropriate conclusions.
1. Lecture and quiz on concepts and techniques of
paraphrasing and summarizing.
2. Actual writing applying concepts and techniques of
paraphrasing and summarizing.
3. Writing of reaction papers.
Differentiate paraphrasing from summarizing.
____________________________________
________________________________________
______________________________________
______________________________
_______________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
PARAPHRASING is one way to use a text in your own
writing without directly quoting
source material. Anytime you are
taking information from a source that is not your
own, you need to specify where you got that
information.
QUOTING is speaking or writing while specifying
the source of information; to repeat a passage from
especially in substantiation or illustration.
16
world, regularly reaching 200 miles per
hour. But what you may find most
shocking is that TGV trains run on electric
power not petrol. Now if you’ll excuse
me; I have a record to catch.
Title
Summary
Key Ideas
3. Giddy-up, cowboys and girls! In the Southwest during early half of the
1800s, cows were only worth 2 or 3 dollars a piece. They roamed wild,
grazed off of the open range, and were abundant. Midway through the
century though, railroads were built and the nation was connected.
People could suddenly ship cows in freight trains to the Northeast, where
the Yankees had a growing taste for beef. Out of the blue, the same
cows that were once worth a couple of bucks were now worth between
twenty and forty dollars each, if you could get them to the train station. It
became pretty lucrative to wrangle up a drove of cattle and herd them
to the nearest train town, but it was at least as dangerous as it was
profitable. Cowboys were threatened at every turn. They faced cattle
rustlers, stampedes and extreme weather, but kept pushing those steers
to the train station. By the turn of the century, barbed wire killed the
open range and some may say the cowboy too, but it was the train that
birthed him.
29
What do you see? It must be a circus
train! One of the first uses of the circus
train is credited to W.C. Coup. He
partnered with P.T. Barnum in 1871 to
expand the reach of their newly combined shows using locomotives.  Your own rendition of essential information and ideas expressed by
Before circus trains, these operators had to lug around all of their animals, someone else, presented in a new form.
performers, and equipment with a team of more than 600 horses. Since  One legitimate way (when accompanied by accurate
there were no highways, these voyages were rough and took a long documentation) to borrow from a source.
time. Circuses would stop at many small towns between the large  A more detailed restatement than a summary which focuses
venues. Performing at many of these small towns was not very profitable. concisely on a single main idea.
Because of these limitations, circuses could not grow as large as the  Paraphrasing is a valuable skill because...
imaginations of the operators. After they began using circus trains,  It is better than quoting information from an undistinguished passage.
Barnum and Coup only brought their show to large cities. These
 It helps you control the temptation to quote too much.
performances were much more profitable and the profits went toward
 The mental process required for successful paraphrasing helps you to
creating an even bigger and better circus. Multiple rings were added
grasp the full meaning of the original.
and the show went on. Today, Ringling Bros. and Barnum and Bailey
Circus still rely on the circus train to transport their astounding show, but STEP Reread the original passage until you
now they use two. understand its full meaning.
Title STEP Set the original aside, and write your
paraphrase on a note card.

STEP Jot down a few words below your paraphrase to remind you
later how you envision using this material. At the top of the note
card, write a key word or phrase to indicate the subject of your
paraphrase.
Summary
STEP Check your rendition with the original to make sure
that your version accurately expresses all the
essential information in a new form.

STEP Use quotation marks to identify any unique

Key Ideas
2. How do you say “Holy cow” in French? The fastest thing in France may
just be the fastest ground transportation in the world. The TGV (Train à
Grande Vitesse: French for very high speed) is France’s national high
speed rail service. On April 3rd, 2007, a TGV test train set a record for the
fastest wheeled train, reaching 357.2 miles per hour. In mid 2011, TGV
trains operated at the highest speed in passenger train service in the
term or phraseology you have borrowed
exactly from the source.
STEP Record the source (including the page) on your
note card so that you can credit it easily if you
decide to incorporate the material into your paper.
Original Sentence:
She angered me with her inappropriate comments,
rumor-spreading, and disrespectfulness at the formal dinner table.

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Example #1 THE PASSAGE:
She made me angry when she was rude at What’s dressed in all black,
dinner. practices stealth, and is a master of
 This paraphrase is an example of a espionage, sabotage, and assassination?
rewording which shortens and simplifies while maintaining the same meaning.
You guessed it: it’s a ninja! Perhaps the only thing
Example #2 more elusive than a ninja is the source of the word
Her impoliteness, gossiping, and general lack of respect at dinner infuriated me. ninja. In China ninja are more often referred to as shinobi.
 This rephrasing maintains the same meaning but is rearranged in a creative The Chinese word shinobi, short for shinobi-no-mono, means “to
way. steal away.” The word shinobi appears in Chinese poems as far back as
the eighth century. So how did this word become a ninja? Some
Example #3 believe that during the Edo period in Japan, the word shinobi-no-mono
I was mad when she started spreading rumors, making inappropriate comments, was appropriated and transformed into the very similar word ninja.
and disrespecting other guests at our dinner. This probably happened because it was a lot quicker and easier to
 Another paraphrase, this rewording properly and interestingly rearranges the just say, ninja. It is difficult to see how such a transformation could have
information provided in the original sentence.
occurred when we look at the words using our alphabet, but if you look
at the kanji representing these words, it may make more sense to you.
This is how you write shinobi-no-mono in Chinese: And this is how you
A. Change of Parts of Speech
Parts of speech ranging from verbs and nouns to adjectives and adverbs write ninja: Now, do you see the similarities?
are replaced with new parts of speech in this type of paraphrasing. Here is an
example: THE SUMMARY:
The word ninja is an ‘elusive’ word. In Chinese, a ninja is called a
ORIGINAL SENTENCE PARAPHRASE
‘shinobi’ which means ‘to steal away’ and also appears in many ancient
The boy quickly ran across the finish The quick boy seized yet another victory poems. The Japanese, later on, derived the word ninja from shinobi as it
line, seizing yet another victory. when he ran across the finish line. was easy to say it. These words may seem very different in English, but
In this example, many parts of speech are changed: the adverb quickly when written in Chinese, they are similar and so the transformation and
becomes the adjective quick, and the verb phrase with the gerund seizing origin of the word ‘ninja’.
becomes the verb seized.
ACTIVITY #3
B. Change of Structure Read each passage and:
This type of paraphrasing involves changing the sentence’s structure, 1. Create a title for the passage
sometimes creating a passive voice from an active voice and vice versa. The related to the main idea.
change in structure can be used to reflect the writer’s interpretation of the origi- 2. Accurately summarize the text.
nal quote. Here is an example of change of structure paraphrasing: 3. Your summary must describe all
key ideas from the text.
ORIGINAL SENTENCE PARAPHRASE
4. Do not include opinions or personal
Puppies were adopted by numerous Many kind souls adopted puppies during information in your summary.
kind souls at the puppy drive. the puppy drive.
5. Highlight or underline or extract key ideas in each passage.
In this example, the object of the sentence (kind souls) becomes the
subject with an active voice (adopted) rather than a passive voice (were 1. Picture this: a herd of elephants flies past you at sixty miles per hour,
adopted). followed by a streak of tigers, a pride of lions, and a bunch of clowns.
18 27
  Helps curate the essential compo- C. Reduction of Clauses
nents from the passage without Reduction of clauses paraphrases
causing a confusion reduce the number of clauses in a sentence,
which can be interruptive or confusing, by
 Help to remember the passage and
incorporating the phrases into the sentence. Here is an example of reduction of
its important details i.e helps build memory. clauses paraphrasing:
ORIGINAL SENTENCE PARAPHRASE
Before writing a summary, one must ask themselves the following While I understand where you’re I understand where you’re coming from
questions: coming from, and truly respect your and respect your opinion, but I wish you
1. What is or are the main idea(s) given in the passage? opinion, I wish you would express would be more like Clara and express
2. What the passage is about yourself more clearly, like Clara does. yourself more clearly.
3. It’s tone D. Synonym Replacement
4. What type of writing it is Synonym replacement paraphrasing is one of the simplest forms of
5. What are the crucial details and points that support the ideas? paraphrasing: replacing words with similar words, or synonyms. Here is an
6. Are the parts relevant to the passage? example:
7. What is the irrelevant information in the passage? ORIGINAL SENTENCE PARAPHRASE
8. If you were to write a headline or heading for the passage in your
own words, how would you begin? The older citizens were honored with
Senior citizens were honored with a
a parade for those once in the
march for veterans.
military.
A summary is always very simple and easy to understand and
doesn’t contain any idioms, metaphors, sayings and complicated In this example, many synonyms are used: older citizens are senior citizens,
English style. a parade becomes a march, and those once in the military refers to veterans.
The summary is almost always in the writer’s own words. However,
keywords can be used directly from the passage.
Paraphrasing can be found in a variety of journalistic sources from newspapers
to film documentaries to literary journals. Here are a few examples of
paraphrasing in literature:
STEP STEP STEP STEP
Example 1
Someone once wrote that musicians are touched on the shoulder by God, and I
think it’s true. You can make other people happy with music, but you can make
yourself happy too.
In John Berendt’s nonfiction novel Midnight in the Garden of Good and
As you read the Once your Evil, a character references what someone has once written by paraphrasing
Summarize
passage, note summary is their message.
After reading each part,
down important ready, read it to
the passage paragraph or Example 2
points and check its
once, re-read it keywords which similarity to the
segment in one I’m going to paraphrase Thoreau here… rather than love, than money, than
but slowly. you can include original passage to two faith, than fame, than fairness… give me truth.
in your summary. given. sentences. In this example from the nonfiction novel Into the Wild, Jon Krakauer para-
phrases Thoreau’s larger message of transcendence.
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Example 3
So far, Laurance’s critiques of new
road-building schemes have been well
received, but he expects that to change.
In Michelle Nijhuis’ article “What Roads Have Wrought,” William Laurance
is paraphrased rather than quoted to express his general viewpoint.
Paraphrasing is often found in pop culture when attempting to translate
the language of older plays, poems, and stories, such as Shakespeare’s works.
Here are a few examples of paraphrasing in pop culture:
Example 1
10 Things I Hate About You (1999): Just a minor encounter with the shrew… the
mewling, rampalian wretch herself.
In the modern-day adaptation of Shakespeare’s The Taming of the Shrew,
many characters’ lines paraphrase Shakespeare’s originals. Here is Shake-
speare’s version:
A meacock wretch can make the curstest shrew.
Example 2
A Different World: Romeo, Oh Romeo
First, the student reads Shakespeare’s original words: Oh gentle Romeo. If
thou dost love, pronounce it faithfully. Or if thou thinkest I’m too quickly won, I’ll
frown and be perverse and say thee nay, so thou wilt woo.
Then, she paraphrases to translate its meaning for modern ears: It’s all
about translation. Oh, sweet thang Romeo. If you think I’m all that, then step to
me correctly. But if you think I’m a skeeze, I’ll be dissin’ and dismissin’, then you’ll
be workin’ overtime getting’ me back.
Like paraphrases, summaries are rewordings of original statements. Where-
as paraphrases are precise and specific, summaries are brief and selective.
Summaries report main points in a shortened version of the original, whereas par-
aphrases simply restate the original statement in a new way. Here is an example
of summary versus paraphrase:
Original Statement:
At the party we had delicious red punch, a bunch of different appetizers,
and a cookout. Since it was at the park, we played volleyball, went swimming,
and sunbathed for fun.
20
You must also make decisions about
which concepts to leave in and which to
omit, taking into consideration your
purposes in summarizing and also your
view of what is important in this text.
Here are some methods for summarizing: First, prior to skimming, use
some of the previewing techniques.
1. Include the title and identify the author in your first sentence.
2. The first sentence or two of your summary should contain the
author’s thesis, or central concept, stated in your own words. This is
the idea that runs through the entire text–the one you’d mention if
someone asked you: “What is this piece/article about?” Unlike
student essays, the main idea in a primary document or an
academic article may not be stated in one location at the
beginning. Instead, it may be gradually developed throughout the
piece or it may become fully apparent only at the end.
3. When summarizing a longer article, try to see how the various
stages in the explanation or argument are built up in groups of
related paragraphs. Divide the article into sections if it isn’t done in
the published form. Then, write a sentence or two to cover the key
ideas in each section.
4. Omit ideas that are not really central to the text. Don’t feel that you
must reproduce the author’s exact progression of thought. (On the
other hand, be careful not to misrepresent ideas by omitting
important aspects of the author’s discussion).
5. In general, omit minor details and specific examples. (In some texts,
an extended example may be a key part of the argument, so you
would want to mention it).
6. Avoid writing opinions or personal responses in your summaries
(save these for active reading responses or tutorial discussions).
7. Be careful not to plagiarize the author’s words. If you do use even a
few of the author’s words, they must appear in quotation marks. To
avoid plagiarism, try writing the first draft of your summary without
looking back at the original text.
 It helps to judge the understanding of an individual about the given
passage.
 Helps to build the comprehending capability of the students
25
and cushions the head. From "Bike
Helmets: Unused Lifesavers," Consumer
Reports (May 1990): 348.
4. Matisse is the best painter ever at putting the viewer at the scene. He's
the most realistic of all modern artists, if you admit the feel of the breeze
as necessary to a landscape and the smell of oranges as essential to a
still life. "The Casbah Gate" depicts the well-known gateway Bab el
Aassa, which pierces the southern wall of the city near the sultan's pal-
ace. With scrubby coats of ivory, aqua, blue, and rose delicately fenced
by the liveliest gray outline in art history, Matisse gets the essence of a
Tangier afternoon, including the subtle presence of the bowaab, the
sentry who sits and surveys those who pass through the gate. From Peter
Plagens, "Bright Lights." Newsweek (26 March 1990): 50.
5. While the Sears Tower is arguably the greatest achievement in
skyscraper engineering so far, it's unlikely that architects and engineers
have abandoned the quest for the world's tallest building. The question
is: Just how high can a building go? Structural engineer William
LeMessurier has designed a skyscraper nearly one-half mile high, twice as
tall as the Sears Tower. And architect Robert Sobel claims that existing
technology could produce a 500-story building. From Ron Bachman,
"Reaching for the Sky." Dial (May 1990): 15.
SUMMARIZING is writing a summary or a
brief of the passage or writing the synopsis which
includes the main points mentions in the passage
and is always much shorter than the passage.
Summarizing a text, or distilling its essential
concepts into a paragraph or two, is a useful study tool
as well as good writing practice. A summary has
two aims:
1. to reproduce the overarching ideas in a
text, identifying the general concepts that
run through the entire piece, and
2. to express these overarching ideas using precise, specific
language. When you summarize, you cannot rely on the language
the author has used to develop his or her points, and you must find
a way to give an overview of these points without your own
sentences becoming too general.
24
Summary:
At the party we enjoyed food and drink and
various outdoor activities.
Here, the summary purposefully shortens
the original statement while covering its major points.
Paraphrase:
At the party we drank some punch, ate a handful of appetizers, and had a
cookout. The park allowed us to enjoy a number of enjoyable activities from vol-
leyball to swimming to sunbathing.
As this example shows, the paraphrase rephrases the original statement
and keeps more of its original content than the summary.
Although paraphrase sometimes translates difficult phrasing into more
understandable phrasing, it is not literally considered translation. For something
to be a translation, it must change writing in one language to another l
anguage. Here is an example of translation versus paraphrasing:
Original Phrase:
That’s life.
Translation into French:
C’est la vie.
Paraphrase:
That’s just how life goes sometimes.
Although we loosely may refer to paraphrase as translating ideas,
technically it is not a tool of translation.
Paraphrasing is a way of referencing a source without directly quoting it or
of further explaining a selected quote. Correct paraphrasing is important in that
poor paraphrasing can result in accusations of plagiarism, or copying from a
source without correctly citing it. Paraphrasing allows writers to examine the
meaning of others’ work, creatively rephrase their statements, and craft
information to suit an essay or composition’s goal or focus.
Paraphrasing is an important tool for nonfiction writers, journalists, and
essayists alike. It is a common proponent of news and reporting. Correct
paraphrasing protects writers from plagiarism and allows them to creatively
rephrase original works, incorporating them into their own compositions.
21
 ACTIVITY #1 A. We saved the day with teamwork
Choose the best and creative thinking.
answer from the given B. Because we worked together and
choices below then used innovation, we made it work.
elaborate your choice. Write your answer in C. Thanks to innovative thinking and teamwork, we were able to
save the day.
your answer sheet following the format
D. We were able to save the day together.
below. Answer: ______________________________________________________________
1. What is paraphrasing? Explanation: __________________________________________________________
A. rephrasing an original statement ______________________________________________________________________
B. summarizing and shortening ______________________________________________________________________
C. stealing someone else’s words
D. a type of summarization ACTIVITY #2
Answer: ______________________________________________________________ On a separate piece of paper, write a paraphrase of each of the
Explanation: __________________________________________________________ following passages. Try not to look back at the original passage.
______________________________________________________________________
2. When can paraphrasing be used? 1. "The Antarctic is the vast source of cold on our planet, just as the sun is
A. in a documentary the source of our heat, and it exerts tremendous control on our
B. on a news report climate," [Jacques] Cousteau told the camera. "The cold ocean water
C. in a formal essay around Antarctica flows north to mix with warmer water from the tropics,
D. all of the above and its upwellings help to cool both the surface water and our
Answer: ______________________________________________________________ atmosphere. Yet the fragility of this regulating system is now threatened
Explanation: __________________________________________________________ by human activity." From "Captain Cousteau," Audubon (May 1990):17.
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________ 2. The twenties were the years when drinking was against the law, and
3. What is the difference between paraphrasing and summarizing? the law was a bad joke because everyone knew of a local bar where
A. summarizing shortens, whereas paraphrasing only rephrases liquor could be had. They were the years when organized crime ruled
B. summarizing rephrases, whereas paraphrasing shortens the cities, and the police seemed powerless to do anything against it.
C. paraphrasing always lengthens whereas summarizing only some- Classical music was forgotten while jazz spread throughout the land, and
times lengthens men like Bix Beiderbecke, Louis Armstrong, and Count Basie became the
D. paraphrasing and summarizing are the same thing heroes of the young. The flapper was born in the twenties, and with her
Answer: ______________________________________________________________ bobbed hair and short skirts, she symbolized, perhaps more than anyone
Explanation: __________________________________________________________ or anything else, America's break with the past. From Kathleen Yancey,
______________________________________________________________________ English 102 Supplemental Guide (1989): 25.
______________________________________________________________________
4. Which of the following is the best possible paraphrasing of this state- 3. Of the more than 1000 bicycling deaths each year, three-fourths are
ment? caused by head injuries. Half of those killed are school-age children. One
We were able to save the day thanks study concluded that wearing a bike helmet can reduce the risk of head
to teamwork and innovative thinking. injury by 85 percent. In an accident, a bike helmet absorbs the shock

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