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Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 172 (2015) 49 – 56

Global Conference on Business & Social Science-2014, GCBSS-2014, 15th & 16th December,
Kuala Lumpur

Effects of Cashless Economy Policy on financial inclusion in

Nigeria: An exploratory study
Musa Abdullahi Bayero*
Bayero University Kano, Gwarzo Road Kano, Kano, Nigeria

Abstract

Empirical studies about Financial inclusion remain vital, especially in developing countries like Nigeria, where little
research studies have been conducted since the introduction of the Cashless economy policy. Review of relevant literatures
reveals lack of comprehensive empirical research regarding the relationship between the Cashless economy policy and
financial inclusion in Nigeria. In this study, results showed that Awareness, Consumer/User Value Proposition, and
Infrastructure were found to have strong significant relationship with Financial Inclusion while Business Model of Financial
Service Providers did not show any significant relationship with Financial Inclusion.
© 2015
© 2015TheTheAuthors.
Authors.Published
Publishedbyby Elsevier
Elsevier Ltd.Ltd.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
Peer-review under responsibility of GLTR International Sdn. Berhad.
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Peer-review under responsibility of GLTR International Sdn. Berhad.
Keywords: Cashless Economy Policy; financial inclusion; electronic payment; payment infrastructure; awareness; customer value proposition;
business model.

1. Introduction

Financial exclusion, which is the inability to access appropriate financial services now attract greater attention both
in academia and policy making arenas in recent times. Low-income consumers are at greater risk of financial exclusion
and being financially excluded, not only prevents people from escaping from poverty, but can also result in people
falling deeper into the cycle of poverty. Available data so far has shown that Nigeria ranks low in indicators of financial
inclusion (Demirguc-Kunct & Klapper, 2013. CBN, 2013). Consequently, the Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) and
other financial system regulators across the globe have continued to aggressively initiate policies that would support

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +234-803-749-4221

E-mail address: mabayero.bus@buk.edu.ng

1877-0428 © 2015 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Peer-review under responsibility of GLTR International Sdn. Berhad.
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.01.334
50 Musa Abdullahi Bayero / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 172 (2015) 49 – 56

financial inclusion. Financial inclusion generally refers to people being able to get access to the formal financial
institutions. Individuals are classified as financially included when they have or use a formal financial product or
service.
Since the declaration of Cashless economy policy by the Central Bank of Nigeria, many scholars have written on
this subject matter. For example, Ejiofor and Rasaki (2012) have noted that the CBN commenced the pilot scheme in
Lagos State apparently relying on its commercial stamina as Nigeria’s business hub. Surprisingly, as sophisticated as
the residents of the metropolis are perceived to be, the level of awareness about the policy is still very low.
Adesina & Ayo (2010) pointed out that the adoption of this payment system by the consumers has improved
Nigeria’s payment landscape. This is evident in terms of volume and value of the level of adoption in the country. The
level of this adoption by the consumers has continued to increase significantly and accounted for billions worth of
transaction as in 2008. However, Adeoti and Osotimehin (2012) noted that despite the general increase in adoption of
e-payment instruments, the rate of adoption and use of POS is relatively low when compared to the rest of the e -
payment system.
Moreover, Okoye and Ezejiofor (2013) have found that majority of Nigerians are already aware of the policy and
majority agree that the policy will help fight against excess cash-carrying related challenges. Adeoti and Osotimehin
(2012) found out that even though the policy has been implemented, fewer customers were satisfied with the speed of
transaction, level of service provided by the merchants, awareness and security.
However, in all the above studies little attention has been paid to investigate the effects of Cash-less policy on
financial inclusion. In line with international precedents, the CBN defines financial inclusion as state in which adults
have easy access to a broad range of formal financial services that meet their needs and are provided at affordable cost.
Financial inclusion implies not only access but usage of a full spectrum of financial services including but not limited
to payments, savings, credit, insurance and pension products (CBN 2012).
Financial inclusion is thus distinct component of the CBN’s second Cash-less policy objective, in conjunction with
reducing banks’ cost to serve. However, other than the implicit assumption that lower banking costs will make banking
services more affordable, the initial policy measures do not immediately appear to directly drive financial inclusion.
For instance, the current threshold for cash deposits and withdrawals above which individuals must pay a fee, set by
the CBN at N500, 000.00 per day, is several times the annual income of most Nigerians, so that few individuals have
been directly affected by it. Not surprisingly, a representative survey of customers in Lagos found that fewer than 6%
had deposited or withdrawn over this amount since the policy went into effect (National Financial Inclusion Strategy,
2012).
So, at this juncture, the study attempts to find out how is the Cash-less policy relevant for financial inclusion in
Nigeria. In other words, the study examines how Cash-less policy based on some selected factors lead to financial
inclusion in Nigeria. Based on the foregoing issues at hand, the main aim of this study is to conduct an appraisal of the
effects of Cash-less economy policy on financial inclusion in Nigeria. Therefore, the specific objectives are:
I. To examine the effects of change in business models of financial service providers on financial inclusion.
II. To investigate the effects of awareness of electronic channels on financial inclusion.
III. To assess the effects of using enhanced formal financial services on financial inclusion.
IV. To examine the effects of accessibility of payments infrastructure on financial inclusion.
In this study, the following sets of hypotheses are drawn in line with the research objectives of the study. The
hypotheses thus are:
V. Change in business models of financial service providers has no significant effect on financial inclusion.
VI. Increasing awareness of electronic channels has no significant effect on financial inclusion.
VII. Using enhanced formal financial services by users has no significant effect on financial inclusion.
VIII. Accessibility of payment infrastructure has no significant effect on financial inclusion.
The remainder of this paper is organized along these lines, in part 2, a literature review is provided, part 3, develops
the research methodology used in the study and next the results are shown. In the end, a summary of the most key
findings are presented while highlighting the limits of the study and the future areas of research.
 Musa Abdullahi Bayero / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 172 (2015) 49 – 56 51

2. Literature Review

The introduction of Cash-less economy policy by the CBN was aimed at reducing cost of cash management,
increasing efficiency of the payments system and driving financial inclusion. Some observers (Humphrey & Berger,
1990., Humphrey et al., 1996., Onley, 1999., Klee, 2004., Garcia-Swart et al., 2006) opined that the increased use of
cashless payment system has led to prediction of a cashless society. In a cashless society, consumers can make
payments over the internet, payment at unmanned vending machine, manned point of sale (POS) using mobile device,
personal digital assistant (PDA), smart cards and other electronic payment systems, including debit and credit cards.
Governments and commercial entities provide strong encouragement and support for cashless transaction (Khan &
Craig-Lees, 2009). According to EFInA (2013), there is a clear correlation between the proportion of electronic
transactions in a society and the proportion of people banked. The term ‘banked’ refers to individuals who have
relationship with a formal financial institution, including banks, cooperatives and credit unions (Solo, 2008). It has
been found out that in cash-lite societies like Canada, for example, almost everyone is banked; 96 per cent of adults
have an account at a formal financial institution, and even for the poorest quintiles of the population, this proportion
drops only to 93 per cent (EFInA, 2013).
Although there is no universally accepted definition of financial inclusion, one may easily identify some common
features in financial inclusion. No matter the approach adopted, one has to admit that financial inclusion refers to
accessibility of formal financial services at an affordable cost, in reasonable time, and in adequate quantity and
appropriate forms to all needy people. Kodan & Chhikara, (2013) posited that even though there is no universally
accepted definition of financial inclusion but on the basis of availability of finance the indicator is seen as the easy
access of needy people to banking services available in appropriate forms.
As noted by EFInA (2013), that while it is obvious that achieving cashlite status requires greater financial inclusion,
- without this, the majority of people would not be able to transact electronically – it is less clear that reaching high
levels of financial inclusion requires policies to promote cash lite. However, emerging evidences from the literature
have indicated that attaining high levels of financial inclusion requires aggressive policies that promote cash lite
societies (Jonker, 2005. Gangopadhayay, 2009. Mas, 2012. Ebiringa, 2010. Kodan & Chhikara, 2013).
According to Mas (2012), making financial services relevant to poor people entails connecting three different
clouds. A physical cloud of hard cash which is the legacy payment system on which most poor people operate today
to exchange and store value. A digital cloud is where money is just an accounting record. This constitutes an alternative
payment system, and is where financial services ought to reside. When money is converted to digital it becomes easier
to supervise the integrity of transactions and accounts, to create new financial products by changing business models
or enhancing customer value propositions, and to move money around as a mere debiting and crediting of account.
On the other hand, a neural cloud in people’s brain, through which people form ideas and habits around money in the
context of their circumstances, their needs and aspirations. People interpret the range of informal and formal financial
services proposed to them with this mind. Mas noted that connecting these clouds is the job of financial institutions.
Mobile phones’ digital communications capabilities, combined with their increasingly pervasive presence in
people’s pockets, hold significant promise to connect these clouds in novel, cost-effective ways. Beyond reducing
costs, mobile phones also permit customers to interact more directly with their banks, checking balances and initiating
transactions from wherever they are. Using mobile phones as the access device offers the customer a level of
immediacy, convenience and control that no other channel can provide. The real power of mobile will come when it
is seen not only as a mechanism for reducing access costs but also for building new types of banking experiences that
begin to approximate how people think about their money and how they separate them for various purposes like
children’s school fees, purchase of bicycle, medical emergencies, monthly contribution to the rotating savings club
they run with their neighbours etc.
Furthermore, this kind of separation of funds helps reminding them of how much money they have for each purpose
and makes all their savings to be accounted for in the sense that it has a defined purpose. Mas (2012) opined that if
this is how poor people manage their financial lives, it should be no surprise that they find bank accounts unhelpful,
even if they are conveniently available. The bottom line here is that if banks want to capture people’s money, first
they need to capture electronically how people think about their money.
52 Musa Abdullahi Bayero / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 172 (2015) 49 – 56

The cashless economy policy consists of a package of measures directed at achieving the objectives of the policy.
One of the measures is to promote awareness through market education and sensitization. This is done directly by the
CBN and by banks, separately and in conjunction, through high profile messaging in all forms of media. Nigeria’s
cashless awareness campaigns are core measure of the policy as these can help to overcome the potential market
failure by disseminating public messages. With this, providers will find it easier to market electronic services to
unbanked customers as well as to those banked customers who do not use their accounts and e-channels (Enhancing
Financial Innovation &Access, 2013).
However, information and communication experts in Nigeria believed that prospective users of POS are not aware
of the system. If there is awareness, the penetration of the system will be high (Ilesanmi, 2012). It can be deduced
here, that the higher the awareness, the higher the diffusion of the POS and vice-versa (Abubakar & Ahmad, 2013).
Reffat (2003) observed that lack of knowledge of how government carry out its function leads to citizen’s non-
involvement to benefit from government services. Interestingly and specific to POS adoption in Nigeria, researchers
and ICT experts attributed the slow adoption of POS to lack of awareness. For example, Yaqub, et al., 2013) believed
that the reason for slow adoption of e-payment in Nigeria is lack of awareness of advantages of the system; hence
there is need for awareness to aid the diffusion of POS in Nigeria (Ilesanmi, 2012). Also as stated in Chiemeke and
Evwiekpaefe, (2011:1723), “The Economist Intelligence Unit, 2006 noted that the introduction of e-commerce
services is hampered by a lack of public awareness on how to use the technologies”. However, it should be noted that
some of these researchers’ assertions were not empirically tested.
Mofleh, Wanous, & Strachan, (2008) defined awareness as citizen’s knowledge about the existence and advantages
of using the e-government. Similarly, a variable related to awareness is ‘technology cognizance’, which was studied
in Nambisan, Agarwal, & Tanmiru, (1999). Rogers, (1995) cited in Nambisan, Agarwal, &Tanmiru (1999: 372)
defined it as “user’s knowledge about the capabilities of a technology, its features, potential use, and cost and benefits,
i.e., it relates to awareness-knowledge”. Based on the definition of awareness and technology cognizance, the current
study coined and operationalized the construct as ‘cashless policy awareness’ and defined it as the user’s knowledge
of the existence, features, costs, benefits and simplicity or otherwise of using cashless economy channels in their
businesses.
Moreover, infrastructure has been identified as one of the major determinants of successful implementation of
cashless economy policy in the quest for financial inclusion (Gangopadhayay, 2009., Bayero & Daneji, 2014., &
Gheysari et al., 2012). The Central Bank of Nigeria (2007) maintain that among the e-banking processes adopted by
Nigeria banks the ATM is the most patronized by customers. In addition, it was found that attitudinal dispositions
significantly influenced their ATM usage. Klynveld, Peat, Marwick & Goerdeler (2009) in this regard found that
Nigerian bank customers give special consideration to banking particularly ATM. With this, it seems that Nigerian
bank customers are increasingly associating quality of bank services with online real time. They are now more alert
and meticulous in choosing banks to patronize (Idowu, Aliu, & Adagunodo, 2002).
Another important e-channel is the mobile phone which has continued shaping modes of financial access (Jack &
Suri, 2012). Gangopadhayay (2009) pointed out that mobile penetration can increase only if at least one of two
conditions is fulfilled – costs decline or benefits increase. If there is an unmet demand for financial services, and
mobile phones make transactions costs of availing these services lower than they otherwise are, the benefits of
possessing mobile phones will increase and then more people will avail them. He finally suggested that the lack of
mobile users should not lead to a lack of interest in using this platform by financial institutions to push for greater
financial inclusion.

3. Research Methodology
The research design for this study was a cross sectional survey. The unit of analysis (target respondent) in this study
is individual working age adult. The choice of the unit of analysis is informed by the definition of financial inclusion
given by the CBN in line with international precedents. The study identified Business Models, Awareness, Value
Proposition and Payment Infrastructure as variables of the Cashless economy policy. It attempted to find out the effect
of these variables on financial inclusion. A total of 230 respondents sample was used in the study. Descriptive and
basic statistical analyses of the data were performed using SPSS 19 computer software. Multiple Linear Regression
(MLR) was used to test the hypotheses. Prior to using the MLR, testing of assumptions which include establishing
linear relationship between independent and dependent variables, homoscedasticity and independence of error terms
 Musa Abdullahi Bayero / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 172 (2015) 49 – 56 53

were conducted. Similarly, the test of reliability and validity was conducted to ascertain the internal consistency of
the instrument used in the study. Therefore, the study was designed to investigate the relationship as depicted in Figure
1 below:

Independent Variables Dependent Variable

Business Model

Awareness
Financial Inclusion

Customer Value

Infrastructure
Figure 1: Research Framework

3.2 Reliability Test

The Cronbach’s Alpha reliability coefficient was employed to test the internal consistency of the instrument used.
The most acceptable benchmark for the Alpha coefficient is 0.7 or more. However, the reliability values of 0.6 are
also acceptable. The Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient values for the variables in this study are .714, .607, .744, .655 and
.732 for financial inclusion, business model, awareness, customer value, and infrastructure respectively. From the
information given, Cronbach’s Alpha for all the variables is more than .60. This shows that all the variables are
reasonably reliable.

3.4 Regression Analysis

In order to test the research hypotheses multiple regression analysis was conducted (see tables 1, 2 and 3 below).
From the results of Multiple Regression and discussions, the overall Model (i.e. Model Summary) shows that the
Independent Variables succeeded in explaining 34.2 per cent of the variance in the Dependent Variable. The R 2 =
0.342 is reasonable and substantial considering the nature of the study which is in social sciences (Cohen, 1988).
However, investigating the contribution of individual independent variables in the explanation of the dependent
variable revealed that Awareness (β = 0.169, t = 2.989, p = 0.003), Enhancing Consumer/User Value Proposition (β
= 0.197, t = 3.150, p = 0.002), and Infrastructure (β = 0.408, t = 6.311, p = 0.000) have a significant unique
contribution. Hence, all the null hypotheses which state that “Increasing awareness of electronic channels has no
significant effect on financial inclusion”, “Using enhanced formal financial services by users has no significant effect
on financial inclusion”, “Accessibility of payment infrastructure has no significant effect on financial inclusion” are
not supported. On the contrary, the hypothesis which states that, “Change in business models of financial service
providers has no significant effect on financial inclusion” is supported because it has not made a significant unique
contribution in the explanation of the dependent variable, it has weak beta and t values (β = 0.044, t = 0.710, p =
0.479).

Table 1: Model Summary

Model R R Square Adjusted R Std. Error of Durbin-Watson
Square the Estimate
1 .585a .342 .330 2.87994 2.034
a. Predictors: (Constant), Infrast, Awareness, BusMod, CusVal
b. Dependent Variable: FinIncl
54 Musa Abdullahi Bayero / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 172 (2015) 49 – 56

Table 2: ANOVAb
Model Sum of Squares Df Mean Square F Sig.

1 Regression 968.851 4 242.213 29.203 .000a

Residual 1866.157 225 8.294

Total 2835.007 229

a. Predictors: (Constant), Infrast, Awareness, BusMod, CusVal
b. Dependent Variable: FinIncl

Table 3: Coefficientsa
Model Unstandardized Standardized Coefficients T Sig.
Coefficients

B Std. Error Beta

1 (Constant) 6.218 1.305 4.764 .000

BusMod .057 .080 .044 .710 .479

Awareness .239 .080 .169 2.989 .003

CusVal .227 .072 .197 3.150 .002

Infrast .453 .072 .408 6.311 .000

a. Dependent Variable: FinIncl

4. Managerial Implications

From this research, the policy makers will be able to know the relationship between business models of financial
service providers, awareness, customer value proposition, and infrastructure on the one hand, and financial inclusion
on the other. For example, since three (Awareness, Customer Value, and Infrastructure) out of the four explanatory
variables were found to have significant relationship with financial inclusion, the Central Bank of Nigeria, Money
Deposit Banks and other stakeholders should focus their attention towards aggressive awareness campaigns,
introducing or modifying financial services that enhances value proposition of the customer, and massive deployment
of payment infrastructures such as ATMs, POS, uninterrupted power supply and internet connectivity, and other
electronic payment channels.
Even though, business model of financial service providers is insignificant in explaining the variance in the
dependent variable in this study it seems it has a role to play in determining financial inclusion of the working age
adults. Hence, the policy makers should not neglect the little effect of this variable as working age adults may
eventually consider it a major factor when the above three variables are perceived to be adequate.

5. Conclusion

In the contemporary economic environment that necessitates all inclusive-financial access, effective financial
inclusion requires a lot of resources, efforts and a belief in the concept of all-inclusive financial access. Lack of one
of these variables will militate against universal access to formal financial services. Hence, the study investigated the
effect of business model of financial service providers, awareness, enhanced customer value proposition, and
accessibility of payment infrastructure on financial inclusion. The results show that the model of the study is
significant and that awareness, customer value, and infrastructure have significant statistical association with financial
inclusion. In contrast, business model has no unique significant contribution in the model. However, among the three
 Musa Abdullahi Bayero / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 172 (2015) 49 – 56 55

significant variables, infrastructure has the highest contribution in the model; followed by customer value and
awareness in that order.
Although previous studies have established links between Cashless economy and financial inclusion in some
contexts, these links have not been thoroughly examined with respect to samples drawn from 230 working age adults
in Kano, Nigeria, which is one of the 5 states under pilot study. This is one of the first studies to examine self-reports
regarding the relationship between Cashless economy and financial inclusion in Kano, Nigeria. After extensive review
of literature, two important research gaps were identified by this study regarding the relationship between Cashless
economy and financial inclusion. First, the relationship between Cashless economy and financial inclusion were
explored in a low income country setting (Kano, Nigeria). Second, for the first time variables of Cashless economy
were tested on financial inclusion among working age adults in Kano, Nigeria. As such, the current study has validated
the significant relationship between Cashless economy and financial inclusion in a newer context (Nigeria). In general,
the present study has found that financial inclusion of the working age adult is partly influenced by variables of
Cashless economy. Specifically, the study found awareness, payment infrastructure and enhancing user value
proposition to have significant impact on financial inclusion of working age adults. On the contrary, change in business
models of financial service providers is found to have an insignificant relationship with financial inclusion.

6. Limitations and Directions for Future Research

Owing to some limitations regarding to this study, some recommendations for future studies to take care of the
limitations are hereby made. First, because of time and financial constraints faced by this study, a generalized impact
of Cashless economy policy on financial inclusion is used in the analysis of this study without taking into consideration
the social class or level of income of respondents.
Secondly, this study is limited in terms of model scope to explain more holistically relationship between Cashless
economy policy and financial inclusion. Thus, suggesting that there are other factors that may have significant effects
on the criterion variable (Financial inclusion). Specifically, results of the study have indicated an R-squared (R2) of
34.2 per cent, which clearly shows that the model variance was not adequately explained by the factors (Cashless
economy policy) in the model.
Thus current findings implied that more factors could be incorporated to explain financial inclusion in Nigeria. In
view of this, the study recommends future research to examine additional factors in an attempt to explain financial
inclusion in Nigeria. Specifically, future research may need to investigate what mediating and moderating roles of
general level of employment or income distribution or religious faith can play on the relationship between Cashless
economy and financial inclusion. This suggestion is not incorporated into this study because of parsimony and the
need to avoid complications regarding to analysis of findings and volume of the final report.

Acknowledgements

The author wishes to express his appreciation and thanks to Prof. Garba Bala Bello of the Department of Business
Administration and Entrepreneurship, Bayero University Kano, Nigeria for helpful comments offered at an early phase
of the development of this article. I also would like to extend my special thanks to the management of Bayero
University Kano, Nigeria for its partial support. I will not forget the support I enjoy from Aisha Ahmad Ishaq and my
wife, Halima Ibrahim, who assisted in ensuring the paper was submitted within the stipulated time.

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