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help them to symbolically relive their own painful emotional experiences, and therefore achieve

relief or resolution” (qtd. in Powell). This is exactly what theatre does for an individual.

Experiencing catharsis through theatrical performance can allow an audience member to believe

she is living these emotions for the character, when she is actually experiencing these necessary

emotions for herself.

The theatrical form is curative and this is evident through ancient practices. The

beginnings of theatre is traced all the way back to rituals and storytelling; these were the major

forms of performance in oral cultures, as Tobin Nellhaus states in the first chapter of ​Theatre

Histories: An Introduction​. ‘Storytelling’ is simply self-explanatory: the telling of a story. These

stories could range from short tales to entire epics. The performance was in the speech, rather

than in the embodiment of a character. ‘Ritual’, which can be defined as a ceremony consisting

of a series of actions performed in a prescribed order, is of a different nature. This form usually

involves the impersonation of deities, which can be compared to the transformation into a

character in theatre.

Both rituals and storytelling held social and cultural significance, as theatre does today.

Storytelling for generations helped recycle concepts, ideas, and history in oral cultures. Rituals,

then and now, are vital to maintaining a culture’s memory. Additionally, they also have the

ability to “spiritually purify a space, object, or person” (Nellhaus 32); here Nellhaus steps into its

therapeutic nature. In her dissertation exploring African mourning rituals, Veronicah Zandile

Mqwathi supports this healing power notion. She argues that everyone goes through changes, it

is simply a part of life; however, these changes can also equate to a loss of something. Through

these losses, whether it be in mentally, physically, or spiritually, there is a sudden need for
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healing, on any level. This constant yearn for “therapeutic intervention” is why rituals are so

helpful. They allow us the opportunity to lean on a practice that gives us the tools for coping

with the unforeseeable world. Within their performative nature, rituals assist people in providing

the structure and backing for therapy.

In her experiment, Mqwathi specifically centralizes the loss of a loved one. She asks the

question, “In what ways can the performance of African mourning rituals within the drama

therapy space support participant’s responses to loss?” (Mqwathi 8). Her conclusions were that

African mourning rituals have an already therapeutic characteristic, which are simply further

brought out in a drama therapy space. Each African mourning session contained multiple ritual

elements: a candle used to celebrate, soothe, and define ceremony, life, and hope; masks which

allowed the client to take on new characters and explore their own emotions within these chosen

characters; and a play space, where the clients were safe to try, feel, and experience. Through the

performance of these African rituals, clients were able to explore emotions and expressiveness

and dig deeper into themselves in order to repair and heal.

In Salvo Pitruzella’s article, “Drama and healing in Ancient Greece: Demeter and

Asklepios”, he emphasizes the link between early rituals in Ancient Greece and the role of

dramatherapists today; both processes included dramatic performance. The dramatic forms

explored in this article concern two mythical figures that had a vital role in both Greek culture

and spirituality: Dwmeter, the mother-goddess, and Asklepios, the defied hero of medicine. The

performance of these myths allow the mirroring of reality, specifically the ability to transform

and transition realities for all participants, which in turn give way to an opportunity for catharsis.

Within the sanctuary of Epidaurus, the act of “incubation” was a vital part of the healing process.
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Patients would spend nights in the temples allowing the god, Asklepios, to display himself and

help heal them. Additionally, this sanctuary held actual theatrical performances which assisted its

role in the therapy for the patients. Mainly dealing with light, cheerful subjects in the story,

patients were able to receive positivity and hope through the ritual productions. Pitruzella

exclaims that “The act of witnessing the other is a regenerative experience” (Pitruzzella 82),

which is what this ancient Greek tradition allows for. In his conclusion, Pitruzzella summarizes

the way in which one can connect to and be changed by the story, as well as the importance of

achieving this:

Yet, in order to accomplish such a momentous transition, they have to go through

a series of dramatic enactments, which are imbued with cathartic feelings: anger

and despair on one side, and the abrupt explosion of laughter on the other. This

journey mirrors the life cycle and its changes; at the end, people come out

refreshed and vivified” (Pitruzzella 85).

These early rituals in ancient Greece are yet another example of how the foundation of

theatre was based in therapy.

Continuing this trend, the Islamic practice of Ta’ziyeh is also a healing ritual. In order to

understand the ritual, one must first understand the events that led up to the need for such a

ritual. The general doctrine of Islam is that there is a central focus on the submission to God, and

beliefs are guided by the Qur’an. The Qur’an, a vocal recitation, was transmitted specifically to a

man named Muhammed. When prophet Muhammad died, there was a fight over who should be

his successor. This created a division into two sects: the Sunnis and the Shiites. There were ten

battle-illed days between these sects in which all males, but one boy and Hussein (the Shi’ites
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choice of prophet) were massacred and the women were taken captive. This battle became a

source for most Shi’ite rituals because all those martyred modeled the ideal behavior in the

struggle to follow the right path towards Allah, or God. The Ta’ziyeh is a cycle of ten plays

performed during the first ten days of Muharram. Each play focuses on a single episode of the

brutal events or on heroic deaths of specific members of Hussein's friends or family. The last

play is always death of Hussein. This mourning rituals serves as a healing process for the losses

in the Shi’ite sector. It allows for the community to reflect, learn, and be relieved of the

emotional weight that comes with the past of their sect.

In his article about the Ta’ziyeh, Peter Chelkowski explains how “Poor theatre”, a term

developed by director Grotowski, emphasizes the importance of a raw relationship between actor

and audience. This creates an inner harmony and allows for a refreshing and regenerative

experience. The Ta’ziyeh was believed to bring salvation to all participants of the Ta’ziyeh, both

actors and audience. It was an event that utilized the entire community. Each person would

contribute what they could, even if they had very little. Participation was important to the

community because of the link to their salvation. Chelkowski suggests that it was successful in

“uniting rural folk art with urban, royal entertainment, it admits no barriers between the

archetype and the human, the wealthy and the poor, the sophisticated and the simple, the

spectator and the actor” (Chelkowski 31). This communal centralization inspires universality,

altruism, group cohesiveness, and of course, catharsis, which all create a great foundation for the

therapeutic process.

An ancient tradition called Shamanism also has its connections to both drama and

therapy. Shamanism, one of the oldest spiritual practices in the world, originated in Siberia.
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Shamanism is believed to be the key to existence. As long as shamanic rituals are practiced, we

will continue to exist. Shamanism creates a link between people and the spirit world in order to

influence the weather, contact deceased ancestors, uplift consciousness, and most importantly, to

heal. Shamanism has been a part of various ancient native cultures, including siberian, Indian,

South American, and Native American.

In her scholarly article, Blair Glaser focuses on the link of creative art therapies to

Shamanism, by drawing comparisons between Developmental Transformations and elements of

Shamanism. Developmental Transformation is an agreement between the patient and therapist to

devote a certain amount of time to play, or in the playspace. During free play, or

physically-focused improvisation, the two explore movement, sound, and eventually characters.

If a client finds trouble at any point in the playspace, the disruption is analyzed and talked

through. Both Shamanism and Developmental Transformation use imagination to ​give patients a

better sense of liberty, and have a deep focus on the healing power of creative impulse.

In addition to clear links between theatre and therapy through ancient theatrical

traditions, therapy in drama was also incorporated in a number of dramatic works, most famously

found in Shakespeare’s ​Two Noble Kinsmen ​and ​King Lear, ​as well as John Fletcher’s ​The Mad

Lover, A Very Woman, ​and ​The Passionate Madman (​Valley 17-18). This demonstrates the

notion that before the eighteenth century there was a general belief, or simply a curiosity that

theatre could hold a sort of healing effect. As time continues on, people began to put these

beliefs into practice. These applications finally gave way to the coining of the term,

‘psychodrama’ which is an action method in which clients use spontaneous dramatization,

dramatic self-presentation, and role playing to investigate and gain insight into their lives. This,
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in turn, influenced the official creation and application of drama therapy as an effective form of

treatment.

Drama therapy was coined in the late 20th century, but it is evident that drama has been

used as therapy since ancient beginnings. There are those that feel that ​drama was, and is, not an

effective healing process due to its little impact on society. But it is those same people who

disparage the social weight that theatre holds itself, and therefore cannot see its clear link to

therapy. There needs to be a clear grasp of theatre’s foundation, as well as the ultimate goal of

theatre in order to recognize its therapeutic nature. One must acknowledge the theatre’s history

of cathartic rituals and be able to tie these backgrounds to its modern-day influences in order to

see its true healing power.

​The existence of drama being used to treat has been around since ancient times. The

effectiveness of drama has often been overlooked, but one can see its impact through rituals and

traditions, which have a basis in performance and are directly tied to the creation of theatre.

Additionally, the concept of catharsis lends itself to the nature of drama as a way to release.

These powerful practices allowed for the development of total application of drama as a form of

therapy.