Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Retaining Walls PDF
Retaining Walls PDF
FROM THE
SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND
THE GIFT OF
Hetirg HB. Sag*
1891
jjL.37x.o.£ r/r/.A
351;
ne " UniVerSi,y ' brary
TA 760.C69
R ejajning walls in theory and practice, a
DATE DUE 1
TA76
DETAINING WALLS
fc°[0
:
EETAINING WALLS
IN THEOEY AND PEACTICE
BY
T. E. COLEMAN
AUTHOR OF "SANITARY HOUSE DRAINAGE,'* "STABLE SANITATION AND
CONSTRUCTION," "APPROXIMATE ESTIMATES," ETC.
ILontton
E. & F. N. SPON, Limited, 57 HAYMAEKET
mew 13or&:
SPON Ha. CHAMBERLAIN, 123 LIBERTY STREET
1909
s
<
/z l*ff
S°(0
K-^1 %o<
PBEFACE
—p£33C3«^-
as much as possible.
T. E. COLEMAK
58 Hough Geeen, Chesteb :
1909.
The original of this book is in
http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924004084780
— •
CONTENTS
CHAPTER I.
water .....
computing the thickness
The Theory of —
Stability :
of walls for retaining earth or
.
—
equilibrium Causes of failure in retaining walls Messrs. —
—
ments to ensure stability. ....
Atcherley and Pearson's theory Constructional require-
.19
CHAPTER II.
— —
"line of pressures" Curve of pressures Maximum and
—
minimum conditions of statical stability The line of pres-
sures to fall within the centre third of a wall's thickness . 23
—
CHAPTER III.
CHAPTER IV.
CONTENTS. IX
PAGE
— Graphic method
earth pressure with definite surcharge
for ascertaining the total earth pressure
Direction of Thrust of Retained Earth —Poncelet and
....
69
:
CHAPTEE Y.
CHAPTER VI.
CHAPTEE VII.
—
Weight of Materials Average weight of earths Cements
10*
..•••• —
:
— Limes —Bricks —
Building stones —
Brickwork
—
Masonry Concrete H^
CHAPTER VII
DESIGNING RETAINING WALLS.
APPENDIX.
ENGINEERING CALCULATIONS AND MEMORANDA.
GRAPHIC CONSTRUCTION, THE FORCE
AND CENTRE OF GRAVITY.
—
by lines The parallelogram of forces The composition of —
— —
forces The resolution of forces Parallel forces Normal —
and oblique forces . . 145
The Force and Centre op Gravity —
Force of gravity:
INDEX .
157
ILLUSTEATIONS
PIG. PAGE
1 Vertical retaining wall of uniform thickness 2
2 Battering retaining wall ... ...
Retaining wall with curved battering face
. .
2
3
4
5
....
Vertical wall with offsets at back
Battering wall with offsets at back .... 4
3
3
14
16
22-25 Sections of walls for water tanks . 17-18
26 Diagram of pressures on bed-joint of wall . . 24
"
27 Typical section showing " line of pressures 25
28 Graphic diagram for maximum stability 27
29 Graphic diagram for zero pressure at inner edge of joint 28
30 Graphic diagram for uniform pressure . 29
31-34 Diagrams showing distribution of pressure on ce-
mented and uncemented joints when centre of
pressure falls within the "middle third " . . 35-38
35-37 Diagrams showing distribution of pressure when the
centre of pressure on cemented joints falls within
the wall's thickness but outsidethe " middle third " 40-42
38 Diagram showing distribution of pressure when centre
65-67
of earth pressure ....
Graphic construction for determining the magnitude
sure 83-84
68-70
71-72
theories ........
Comparative diagrams for Bankine's and Schenier's
.
.
.
.
.
95
97
100
76-77 Plan and section of horizontal arched retaining wall . 101
78-86
87 Diagram of trigonometrical ratios....
Explanatory sketches for designing retaining walls 120-138
141
68-89
90
91
Diagrams illustrating the
Parallelogram of forces
Besolution of forces
......
....
moment of forces . 144-145
146
147
92-93 Parallel forces 148-149
94 Diagram showing normal and oblique forces . . 150
•95-103 Graphic determination of the centre of gravity of
different bodies .. . 152-155
104 Explanatory diagram for determining the common
centre of gravity for two or more bodies. . 155
—
RETAINING WALLS.
CHAPTEE I.
—
equilibrium -Causes of failure in retaining walls Messrs. —
—
Atcherley and Pearson's theory Constructional requirements
to ensure stability.
Introduction.
the nature and extent of the forces which the wall must
withstand. Originally, a retaining wall referred only
to a wall of brick, stone, or other suitable materials, for
the retention of an earthen embankment. The term,
B
2 RETAINING WALLS.
known as " face " or " breast " walls. They are intended
only to provide a surface or skin protection against the
weather, and are not designed to counteract any thrusting
action of the materials to which they form a covering.
///, n f{<
(<:
t'f/i
Knv.
— * o //
Fig. 1. Fig. 2.
K-
''// >/'•!
1-
A ^ /// J"/// -s///.
Fig. 3. Fig. 4.
Fig. 5. Fig. 6.
6 RETAINING WALLS. +
[W^
^V/aV//^
•VuvJ
Fig. 8.— Plan. Fig. 9. Section.
GENERAL DESIGN.
III"
tin
ITlTil
nin
JjJtlr
Cllu
|T||J1
ft
w
Jii.Ui
8 RETAINING WALLS.
GENERAL DESIGN.
sAvA^-l
Fig. 13.—Plan.
Fig. 14.—Plan.
n
&7^
7/ >/,/-
— y*
/,
Xv/,
7/-^
<*
^
l/
^)/,/ My i
%
/<;
-___ V,
'/
GENERAL DESIGN. II
Fig. 16.
''&
Fig. 17.
r
. '
14 RETAINING WALLS.
tr
^ re-* /'
Fig. 20.
follows, viz. :—
ID
h= '
7 A tan |- sjw
—— 5
GENERAL DESIGN. 1
where
tx= mean thickness of wall in feet.
h = height of wall in feet.
w = weight in lb. of a cubic foot of earth at
back of wall.
W = weight in lb. of a cubic foot of wall.
e = angle which the natural slope of the earth
makes with the vertical, as follows :
= *
74 for sloping wall with external batter of
1 in 6.
tx = •
85 for wall with internal offsets and vertical
Fig. 21.
'("
/
RETAINING WALLS.
* •^--i
THEORY OF STABILITY. 19
required for each of the four types shown, but the sec-
tions indicated in Figs. 22 and 23 provide the greatest
ratio of stability.
downwards.
2. The thrust of the earth or water acting in a
sloping or horizontal direction.
3. The upward or supporting pressure of the founda-
tion.
c r»
20 RETAINING WALLS.
THEORY OF STABILITY. 21
CHAPTEE II.
Fig. 26.
Fig. 28.
c
OVERTURNING AND CRUSHING. 29
Fig. 30.
normal pressure
N
— occurs at the centre of each bed-joint,
DISTRIBUTION OF PRESSURE. 3
A. . . Uncemented bed-joints.
B . . Cemented bed-joints.
DISTRIBUTION OF PRESSURE. 33
m
(11.)
v ,,.
Minimum
.
pressure =
2
-
N/3^ — 1A
-— I —
j.
where
N" = total normal pressure on bed-joint.
t = thickness or width of bed-joint.
d = minimum distance of centre of pressure from
outer edge of bed-joint.
d = t> ; then
2JST
(>-D
N
Minimum pressure = —— — 1 1
But —
1ST
= " mean normal pressure " when evenly dis-
V
34 RETAINING WALLS.
pressure = — — 2 I —/
-^(2-1)
""
t
.
tit-
Minimum
N/3d
= —2 t— — .\
pressure I II
£ \ t
= 2N (1-1)
t
X
= zero.
DISTRIBUTION OF PRESSURE. 35
Then
Maximum pressure =
2N
"^ [2 — -
t
2
t ( -D
7N
4:t
,,. 2 N/3d
N/3— d „v
Minimum
.
pressure — ——- I
1
z z j
2 N
(1-1)
4f
Fig. 31.
~t~ -
LV
£z
1
Let AB ;
Fig. 32, represent the bed-joint, and N" the
Fig. 33.
KH = ?UndAD =
6
2KH=~ (compare6
Fig. 29).
38 RETAINING WALLS.
3 t
Similarly, when the centre of pressure is -=r from
be found that KH = N z
-, and by scale AD = If KH
= ^5 whilst BE=iKH = |^ (compare
Fig. 31).
Fig. 34.
pressures for " cemented " and " uncemented " joints
DISTRIBUTION OF PRESSURE. 39
™
Maximum pressure
• N
= 2—— /o
12
3 d\
— I
V \ t f
t \ 4/
~~
2 t
,,.
Minimum
.
pressure = —N/3d
2
\— -
A
1
= 2* (3 1)
t \4 /
N
2Y
It will be observed that when the centre of pres-
sure falls within the thickness of the wall, but outside
—
40 RETAINING WALLS.
the " middle third " of the bed-joint, then the maximum
pressure at A continues to increase proportionately,
whilst the equation for determining the minimum pres-
sure shows a negative quantity, that is to say, a tensile
When d = 0, then
—
DISTRIBUTION OF PRESSURE. 41
Maximum pressure = —— I I — —J
= ^(2-0)
Minimum pressure = —— —— — I 1 I
2 N (°-
1}
*
2 y
/TTT
(III.)
, TLT
Maximum
• •
compression
2 N/
= -—- ——
12-1 , 3 d\
I
/TTn
(IV.)
, r
Maximum
. .
tension = —N/3—— 2
I
d ,
f-
,\
1 ).
42 RETAINING WALLS.
Maximum compression = ——
t
I Z -\
——I
2 N
(2 + i)
5 N
Fig. 37.
DISTRIBUTION OF PRESSURE. 43
2 ^ ("
(Zd
Maximum tension
t \ t
+1 )
2 N
(t+1)
3 N
C\^&
Fig. 38.
44 RETAINING WALLS.
FiG. r 39.
Fig. 40
DISTRIBUTION OF PRESSURE. 47
"
case the centre of pressure = ^ . The " uncemented
x = t
m
where
x = distance of neutral point from edge of bed-
joint.
DISTRIBUTION OF PRESSURE. 49
Ay
where
S = limit of deviation of centre of resistance from
the centre of gravity of the figure under
consideration.
I = moment of inertia of the figure.
A = area of the bed-joint of the figure.
y = distance from the centre of gravity of the
figure of the bed-joint to the edge furthest
E
.
5o RETAINING WALLS.
Minimum Limit of
Distance from Deviation at centre
Outer Edge. of Bed -Joint.
-J
f% //'
r--/-H f--t
-t
Failure by Sliding.
J)
F
—
FAILURE BY SLIDING. 53
where
Fn = force of friction.
of friction.
Fig. 48.
joint shall not make with the normal (or the perpen-
dicular to the bed-joint) a greater angle than the angle
of repose for the material. As, however, no bed-joint
Fig. 50.
CHAPTER III.
—
for earth particles Wedge theory of earth pressure — Maximum
thrust for a bank of earth behind a retaining wall Plane of —
—
rupture for retained earth Determination of earth pressure on
a retaining wall.
Centre of Pressure for Retained Earth : — Graphic representa-
tion of earth pressure upon a retaining wall — Centre of earth
pressure for vertical retaining walls —Walls with offsets at back
and surcharged earth —Battering retaining walls.
Where
fjb = coefficient of friction = tangent of angle of
repose.
N= total normal pressure.
P = total pressure between the surfaces.
—
<j> angle of repose for the materials.
Fig. 51.
Fig. 52.
Fig. 56.
f 2
6$ RETAINING WALLS.
CHAPTER IV.
/'l
Fig. 57.
JKS.
— 1
Let
x — angle A B E = angle J KS.
w = weight of earth per foot cube.
h = AB.
= %wh 2
tan x. Therefore the total horizontal earth
pressure J S, acting at the centre of pressure C, upon
the vertical plane at the back of the retaining wall is
as follows :
= 2 2
\ %v h tan x
= i^ 2
tan 2 i(90° - <j>).
72 RETAINING WALLS.
= D x - x w
= wD
2
total pressure = \w 2
tan 2 J 90°
therefore
total pressure = ^w h 2
= ^D 2
ment :
= 2 { B C - a/BOTB O'^AH)
}
This formula expresses the relationship between
the horizontal thrust upon the vertical plane and the
perpendiculars to the angle of repose, the latter being
drawn respectively from the extremities of the vertical
Fig. 59
Let
P = total horizontal earth pressure in lb.
<f>
= angle of repose of earth.
6 = angle of slope of surcharge with the hori-
zontal plane.
m p _ wW 1 - sin<ft
*
This equation is merely another form of expressing
the same result as already obtained, viz. :
"
In the case of a retaining wall having a " definite
-y
nr
Fig. 60.
t = hi! + s t"
h + 2s
where
= thickness of wall in feet, necessary to
support a bank of earth with definite
surcharge.
= thickness of wall in feet, necessary to
support a bank of earth without surcharge.
= thickness of wall in feet, necessary to
support a bank of earth with indefinite
surcharge.
h = height of wall in feet.
V
p\
V
r L
Fig. 61.
= BC x CJ
= B C (B C - A H)
cd = Vb c~(b c -^Th)
MAGNITUDE OF EARTH PRESSURE. 79
BD =BC- CD
= B C - VBC(BC-AH)
BD 2
= (BC- VBC(BC - AH)} 2
to
P =
, . -
2JBC-VBC(BC-AH)
{
= ™*B D 2
.
Fig. 62.
B E. Make C D = C M.
Then, as in the preceding case,
w
B C - n/B C (B C - A H)
= - BD 2
.
a<
-k
F K
Fig. 63.
remains as follows :
C
/ \
^
/
/
s
/
I
i
i
i
/
\
I
v /
82 RETAINING WALLS.
7
Poncelet' s and Moseley s Theory.
Rankings Theory.
According to Kankine, the pressure of retained earth
may be considered as acting in a direction parallel to
F
C
84 RETAINING WALLS.
Scheffler's Theory.
Comparative Results.
2>
86 RETAINING WALLS.
Fig. 70.
87
CHAPTER V.
its depth.
2. The pressure is exactly the same in all directions.
3. The pressure of water is normal (or perpendicular),
to the surface against which it presses.
88 RETAINING WALLS.
Fig. 71.
A
w D2
therefore as follows :
6 '
Let
6 = angle of inclination of the wetted face of
the wall.
— =
go RETAINING WALLS.
Intensity of pressure at B = wD
w D2 cosec
Fig. 72.
w D3 cosec 2
WATER MEMORANDA. 91
Water Memoranda,
1 cubic foot of
= 6£ gallons (approximately)
water
= 62i lb. = 1000 oz. =
'557 cwt. = '028 ton.
1 lb. of water
= 27-73 cubic inches =-016
cubic feet = 1 or T^ gallon.
*
V = 2
200 P
or
200
where
P = pressure of wind in pounds per square foot
against a surface normal to the wind.
V = velocity of wind in miles per hour.
Description of Wind.
—
94 RETAINING WALLS.
5ft. above
ground.
THEORY OF WIND PRESSURE. 95
the ground.
Fig. 73 shows the section of a wall, the portion
ABDE being above the ground level. The uniform
pressure of the wind against the side of the wall is
±-i
c
-H
D B=_~\H
Fig. 73.
where
P = total wind pressure (or height of wall 1 foot
h = height of wall.
t = thickness of wall.
Vh = P(sini) 1 -
84008 *
where
P = intensity of horizontal wind pressure in lb.
inclined surface.
inclined surface.
Fig. 74.
Inclination of Surface.
99
CHAPTEE VI.
—
determining their stability Horizontal arched retaining walls
— —
Bankine's formula Horizontal arched retaining walls with
battered face.
//s
Fig. 75.
h L 1
v'//:.
U
t \ ;r
'//,'
where
D = depth (on plan) of buttress required.
b = breadth (on plan) of buttress required.
L= length of earth bank which one bay or
buttress has to sustain.
t = the computed thickness of vertical retain-
ing wall (this thickness being considered
as uniform throughout, as in Fig. 1)
which would be required to sustain a
similar bank of earth.
Lt 2
W
,
h
=
CHAPTER VII.
1
2
Loam, clay, or fine sand, firm and dry . . 3
Very firm, coarse sand, stiff gravel, or hard clay. 4
Per super.
Bricks — ft.
Limestones —
Ancaster
Bath
Bolsover
...
Chilmark
Ham-hill
Ketton
Portland
....
.
I08 RETAINING WALLS.
Craigleith
Darley-Dale
. .. 500 7,700
. . 450 7 000
,
Granites —
Aberdeen G50
Cornish .
Devonshire
Guernsey
Irish . ...
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. IO9
ft. super.
— —
110 RETAINING WALLS.
30
50
Lb.
460
770
mortar ....
Blue Staffordshire brickwork in lime
.10 160
mortar ....
Blue Staffordshire brickwork in cement
.12 180
(1 „ 6)
(1 „ 4)
Mortars —
Stone lime mortar
Lias lime mortar . .
Earths, etc. —
n6 RETAINING WALLS.
Approx. Weight
Weieht
weigut.
per 1000.
Bricks
—
Lime.
Brickwork — Lb.
Brickwork in lime mortar (clamp bricks)
„ „ ,, (kiln bricks) .
Masonry —
Ashlar masonry (limestone)
,, ,, (sandstone)
....
.... 140
145
,, „ (granite) . . . 165
Rubble masonry in mortar (common) . . 130
Concrete (1 to 6)
CHAPTER VIII.
per foot cube, and concrete at 130 lb. per foot cube. A
provisional section is now drawn (Fig. 78), having a base
thickness of 4 feet, a top thickness of 2 feet, and a batter
of 2 inches per foot, so that the mean thickness of the
wall is 3 feet. For preliminary purposes, a further
comparison may be made by a reference to Hurst's
formula for vertical walls (see page 14). where
= 3-2 feet.
ficale -°j- ^os.
5 00
EH
PTR-
O SCO /OOP
2
—
3
pcalc
S
200Q
*
— of —
S 6
feet .
J
+00
S '
9
$000 lis
tojt.
.
Pig/ 78.
DESIGNING RETAINING WALLS. 121
thatP = 4r x (6
'
9)
2
= 2142 lb - The point repre-
= 2463 lb ;
and similarly, on the same scale, set off
~
2 1 +~sin ~<f>
-
= ";H
2
1 sin 30°
2 1 + sin 30°
= 90
xl2
_l-x
2 1+i
= 2160 lb.
= 2N/
—— I 3^\
'
Maximum pressure ( — J
t
2 X 5920
4 V"
(»-42*)
4
= 2960 lb. per foot super.
= 20 lb. per sq. inch.
S /?
v
Fig. 80.
126 RETAINING WALLS.
Similarly
,,.
Minimum
.
pressure = 2 X /3— d ,\
- I 1 1
= 2 x 5920 /3_x_2i _ i\
£ \ 4 J
= 2960 x
= zero.
base.
S fi
o
DESIGNING RETAINING WALLS. 1
29
by computation.
If, on the other hand, the bed-joints be considered
as cemented joints, having the centre of pressure outside
/
/
I /'
I /
V
„
Maximum
.
pressure = 2 /
-— (2
1ST 3 d\
—J
= 2 x 4680 U _ 3xA ]
= 2N/3— d
^—
Minimum pressure (
1
= ^680 (i _ l)
= - 1170 lb.
130 lb. per foot cube, whilst heavy clays usually weigh
about 120 lb. per foot cube. Considering the uncertain
nature of the material to be retained, it seems desirable
to assume a mean thickness of 4 feet, so as to obtain
Mean thickness =
DESIGNING RETAINING WALLS. 135
Fig. 85.
120
= —^- X 7 2 = 2940 lb.; and the centre of pressure C
occurs at a height of \ B. A
The value of the earth
thrust = P sec 20° = 2940 x 1-0641 = 3128 lb., and
acts through the centre of pressure at an inclination of
20° with the horizontal. The pressure diagram is now
completed as shown, when it is found that the resultant
pressure upon the base amoTints to 8100 lb. and inter-
wH 2
.. 1 - sin 20°
138 RETAINING WALLS.
inch, or say 8000 lb. per foot super., and 17,000 lb. per
foot super, for rubble masonry in cement. As the maxi-
mum pressure will not exceed 3032 lb. per foot super.,
the wall is quite
betical — —
conventions Trigonometrical expressions 'Table of
— —
trigonometrical values Trie principle of the lever Stability
of position.
Graphic Construction — ^Representation of numbers or forces by
:
Similarly
cos a=
base AP AP
hypotenuse AO AO'
base AP AP'
cot a=
base AP _ AP'
perpendicular OP O'P'
sec a = hypotenuse
^\ =A
—=5 AO'
base AP AP'
cosec a=—hypotenuse A
-^-— —=— = ^-^ =
A -
^r
T
perpendicular
,
OP FOF f
.
142 RETAINING WALLS.
Number of
Degrees in
Angle.
ENGINEERING MEMORANDA. 143
DC = 100 x CE CE
400 4
400 X D C
CE = = 4DC.
100
Fu ^/oo
Ft = 4-oo
Fig. 88.
of simple stability.
A wall is said to possess " stability of position
when the structure is secure against overturning at its
Fig. 89.
Graphic Constkuction.
Fig. 91.
T-.
- C*
GRAPHIC CONSTRUCTION. 149
^3
fj=200
soo
Fig. 93.
^
FORCE AND CENTRE OF GRAVITY. 151
—
Area of a Triangle. G = The intersection of the
straight lines drawn from any two of the angles to the
Fig. 97.
Fig. 100.
Fig. 102.
x = D X 300
600 + 300
D
3
.© \
5 = 30o
\
\
\
#*GOO
INDEX
— weight 115
of,
for earth pressure, 75
limiting position for centre
Mean normal pressure, 27
of pressure, 49
Memoranda, water, 91
Middle third, definition of, 32
— theory of earth pressure, 83
Repose, table of angles of, 56
Moment of a force, 143
— of water pressure, 89 Reservoir walls, rule
Resistance, centre
for,
25
17
of,
Mortars, adhesive strength 113
— cohesive strength of, 113
of,
— curve of, 26
Resolution of forces, 149
Moseley's theory of earth pressure,
Retaining walls, arched, 99
82
conditions of stability, 19
Natural sines, etc., of angles, 142 designing, 119
— slope of earths, 11 for water, 17
Neutral point, equation for, 47 Revetment walls, 7
New York, foundation loads al- Rock foundations, safe load for,
lowed, 106 105
loads on walls, 112 Roofs, wind pressure on, 96
Normal and oblique forces, 150 Rules for thickness of walls,
Baker's, 12 '
—
tensile, 113
of concrete, crushing, 108
— revetment walls, 8
Velocity of pressure of wind, 93
— of granites, crushing, 108
— of masonry, crushing, 109
tensile, 113 Walls, battering, 3
— of mortars, crushing, 110 — conditions of stability, 19
tensile, 113 — face or breast, 2
Summary for distribution of pres- — horizontal arched, 101
sure, 48 — revetment, 7
Supporting power of earths, 104 — vaulted revetment, 8
Surcharged retaining walls, 8 — with abutments, 5
buttresses, etc., 5
Table of angles and coefficients of offsets at back, 3
friction, 56 surcharge, 8
— of crushing strength of mate- Water memoranda, 91
rials, 107 — pressure, equation for, 72
— of limiting pressures, 50 moment of, 89
— trigonometrical values, 142
of theory of, 87
— of weight materials, 115
of Wedge theory of earth pressure,' 61
— of wind pressures, 93 Weight of bricks, 116
Tensile strength of mortars, 113 — of brickwork, 117
Theory ,Atcherley and Pearson's, 21 — of cement, 115
— of earth pressure, generally, 60 — concrete, 117
of
Poncelet's, 82 — of earths, 115
Rankine's, 83 — lime, 115
of
Scheffler's, 84 — masonry, 117
of
— 19
of stability, — of stone, 116
— of water-pressure, 87 Wind, direction of, 93
— wind pressure, 91
of — pressure, equation for, 96
Tie rods for retaining walls, 7 theory of, 91
Trigonometrical expressions, 141 Winds, pressure of, 93