(5 ) Climate Change

Climate change is a long-term change in the average weather patterns that have come to define
Earth’s local, regional and global climates. These changes have a broad range of observed effects
that are synonymous with the term.

Changes observed in Earth’s climate since the early 20th century are primarily driven by human
activities, particularly fossil fuel burning, which increases heat-trapping greenhouse gas levels in
Earth’s atmosphere, raising Earth’s average surface temperature. These human-produced
temperature increases are commonly referred to as global warming. Natural processes can also
contribute to climate change, including internal variability (e.g., cyclical ocean patterns like El
Niño, La Niña and the Pacific Decadal Oscillation) and external forcings (e.g., volcanic activity,
changes in the Sun’s energy output, variations in Earth’s orbit).

(6) OZONE DEPLETION

Ozone depletion consists of two related events observed since the late 1970s: a steady lowering
of about four percent in the total amount of ozone in Earth's atmosphere (the ozone layer), and a
much larger springtime decrease in stratospheric ozone around Earth's polar regions.[1] The latter
phenomenon is referred to as the ozone hole. There are also springtime polar tropospheric ozone
depletion events in addition to these stratospheric events.

In 2019, NASA announced that the "ozone hole" over Antarctica was the smallest ever since it
was first discovered in 1982.

The main cause of ozone depletion and the ozone hole is manufactured chemicals, especially
manufactured halocarbon refrigerants, solvents, propellants and foam-blowing agents
(chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), HCFCs, halons), referred to as ozone-depleting substances
(ODS). These compounds are transported into the stratosphere by turbulent mixing after being
emitted from the surface, mixing much faster than the molecules can settle. [4] Once in the
stratosphere, they release halogen atoms through photo dissociation, which catalyze the
breakdown of ozone (O3) into oxygen (O2).[5] Both types of ozone depletion were observed to
increase as emissions of halocarbons increased

Ozone depletion and the ozone hole have generated worldwide concern over increased cancer
risks and other negative effects. The ozone layer prevents most harmful UV wavelengths of
ultraviolet light (UV light) from passing through the Earth's atmosphere. These wavelengths
cause skin cancer, sunburn, permanent blindness and cataracts, which were projected to increase
dramatically as a result of thinning ozone, as well as harming plants and animals. These concerns
led to the adoption of the Montreal Protocol in 1987, which bans the production of CFCs, halons
and other ozone-depleting chemicals.

The ban came into effect in 1989. Ozone levels stabilized by the mid-1990s and began to recover
in the 2000s, as the shifting of the jet stream in the southern hemisphere towards the south pole
has stopped and might even be reversing.[6] Recovery is projected to continue over the next
century, and the ozone hole is expected to reach pre-1980 levels by around 2075. [7] The Montreal
Protocol is considered the most successful international environmental agreement to date.[8][9

Ozone hole and its causes

The Antarctic ozone hole is an area of the Antarctic stratosphere in which the recent ozone levels
have dropped to as low as 33 percent of their pre-1975 values. The ozone hole occurs during the
Antarctic spring, from September to early December, as strong westerly winds start to circulate
around the continent and create an atmospheric container. Within this polar vortex, over 50
percent of the lower stratospheric ozone is destroyed during the Antarctic spring.

As explained above, the primary cause of ozone depletion is the presence of chlorine-containing
source gases (primarily CFCs and related halocarbons). In the presence of UV light, these gases
dissociate, releasing chlorine atoms, which then go on to catalyze ozone destruction. The Cl-
catalyzed ozone depletion can take place in the gas phase, but it is dramatically enhanced in the
presence of polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs).

These polar stratospheric clouds form during winter, in the extreme cold. Polar winters are dark,
consisting of three months without solar radiation (sunlight). The lack of sunlight contributes to a
decrease in temperature and the polar vortex traps and chills air. Temperatures hover around or
below −80 °C. These low temperatures form cloud particles. There are three types of PSC clouds
—nitric acid trihydrate clouds, slowly cooling water-ice clouds, and rapid cooling water-ice
(nacreous) clouds—provide surfaces for chemical reactions whose products will, in the spring
lead to ozone destruction.

1. Consequences of ozone layer depletion:- Since the ozone layer absorbs UVB ultraviolet
light from the sun, ozone layer depletion increases surface UVB levels (all else equal),
which could lead to damage, including increase in skin cancer. This was the reason for
the Montreal Protocol. Although decreases in stratospheric ozone are well-tied to CFCs
and to increases in surface UVB, there is no direct observational evidence linking ozone
depletion to higher incidence of skin cancer and eye damage in human beings. This is
partly because UVA, which has also been implicated in some forms of skin cancer, is not
absorbed by ozone, and because it is nearly impossible to control statistics for lifestyle
changes over time. Ozone depletion may also influence wind patterns.
2. Increased UV:-Ozone, while a minority constituent in Earth's atmosphere, is responsible
for most of the absorption of UVB radiation. The amount of UVB radiation that
penetrates through the ozone layer decreases exponentially with the slant-path thickness
and density of the layer. When stratospheric ozone levels decrease, higher levels of UVB
reach the Earth's surface. UV-driven phenolic formation in tree rings has dated the start
of ozone depletion in northern latitudes to the late 1700s.
In October 2008, the Ecuadorian Space Agency published a report called HIPERION.
The study used ground instruments in Ecuador and the last 28 years' data from 12
satellites of several countries, and found that the UV radiation reaching equatorial
latitudes was far greater than expected, with the UV Index climbing as high as 24 in
Quito; the WHO considers 11 as an extreme index and a great risk to health. The report
concluded that depleted ozone levels around the mid-latitudes of the planet are already
 endangering large populations in these areas. Later, the CONIDA, the Peruvian Space
Agency, published its own study, which yielded almost the same findings as the
Ecuadorian study.

3. Biological effects:- The main public concern regarding the ozone hole has been the
effects of increased surface UV radiation on human health. So far, ozone depletion in
most locations has been typically a few percent and, as noted above, no direct evidence of
health damage is available in most latitudes. If the high levels of depletion seen in the
ozone hole were to be common across the globe, the effects could be substantially more
dramatic. As the ozone hole over Antarctica has in some instances grown so large as to
affect parts of Australia, New Zealand, Chile, Argentina, and South Africa,
environmentalists have been concerned that the increase in surface UV could be
significant.
Ozone depletion would magnify all of the effects of UV on human health, both positive
(including production of vitamin D) and negative (including sunburn, skin cancer, and
cataracts). In addition, increased surface UV leads to increased tropospheric ozone, which
is a health risk to humans.
4. Basal and squamous cell carcinomas:- The most common forms of skin cancer in humans,
basal and squamous cell carcinomas, have been strongly linked to UVB exposure. The
mechanism by which UVB induces these cancers is well understood—absorption of UVB
radiation causes the pyrimidine bases in the DNA molecule to form dimers, resulting in
transcription errors when the DNA replicates. These cancers are relatively mild and rarely
fatal, although the treatment of squamous cell carcinoma sometimes requires extensive
reconstructive surgery. By combining epidemiological data with results of animal studies,
scientists have estimated that every one percent decrease in long-term stratospheric ozone
would increase the incidence of these cancers by 2%.

5. Malignant melanoma:- Another form of skin cancer, malignant melanoma, is much less
common but far more dangerous, being lethal in about 15–20 percent of the cases
diagnosed. The relationship between malignant melanoma and ultraviolet exposure is not
yet fully understood, but it appears that both UVB and UVA are involved. Because of this
uncertainty, it is difficult to estimate the effect of ozone depletion on melanoma incidence.
One study showed that a 10 percent increase in UVB radiation was associated with a 19
percent increase in melanomas for men and 16 percent for women. A study of people in
Punta Arenas, at the southern tip of Chile, showed a 56 percent increase in melanoma and a
46 percent increase in nonmelanoma skin cancer over a period of seven years, along with
decreased ozone and increased UVB levels.

(7) ACID RAIN

Acid rain, or acid deposition, is a broad term that includes any form of precipitation with acidic
components, such as sulfuric or nitric acid that fall to the ground from the atmosphere in wet or
dry forms.  This can include rain, snow, fog, hail or even dust that is acidic.  

Acid Rain Causes?

Acid rain results when sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOX) are emitted into the
atmosphere and transported by wind and air currents.  The SO2 and NOX react with water,
oxygen and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids.  These then mix with water and
other materials before falling to the ground.

While a small portion of the SO 2 and NOX that cause acid rain is from natural sources such as
volcanoes, most of it comes from the burning of fossil fuels.  The major sources of SO2 and NOX
in the atmosphere are:

 Burning of fossil fuels to generate electricity.  Two thirds of SO2 and one fourth of NOX in the
atmosphere come from electric power generators.
 Vehicles and heavy equipment.
 Manufacturing, oil refineries and other industries.

Winds can blow SO2 and NOX over long distances and across borders making acid rain a
problem for everyone and not just those who live close to these sources. 

Forms of Acid Deposition

 1. Wet Deposition:- Wet deposition is what we most commonly think of as acid rain.  The
sulfuric and nitric acids formed in the atmosphere fall to the ground mixed with rain, snow,
fog, or hail.  

2. Dry Deposition:-Acidic particles and gases can also deposit from the atmosphere in the
absence of moisture as dry deposition.  The acidic particles and gases may deposit to
surfaces (water bodies, vegetation, buildings) quickly or may react during atmospheric
transport to form larger particles that can be harmful to human health. When the
accumulated acids are washed off a surface by the next rain, this acidic water flows over and
through the ground, and can harm plants and wildlife, such as insects and fish.

The amount of acidity in the atmosphere that deposits to earth through dry deposition
depends on the amount of rainfall an area receives.  For example, in desert areas the ratio of
dry to wet deposition is higher than an area that receives several inches of rain each year.

3. Measuring Acid Rain:-Acidity and alkalinity are measured using a pH scale for which 7.0 is
neutral. The lower a substance's pH (less than 7), the more acidic it is; the higher a
substance's pH (greater than 7), the more alkaline it is. Normal rain has a pH of about 5.6; it
is slightly acidic because carbon dioxide (CO 2) dissolves into it forming weak carbonic acid.
Acid rain usually has a pH between 4.2 and 4.4.

Policymakers, research scientists, ecologists, and modelers rely on the National

Atmospheric Deposition Program’s (NADP) National Trends Network (NTN) for
measurements of wet deposition. The NADP/NTN collects acid rain at more than 250
monitoring sites throughout the US, Canada, Alaska, Hawaii and the US Virgin Islands.
Unlike wet deposition, dry deposition is difficult and expensive to measure. Dry deposition
estimates for nitrogen and sulfur pollutants are provided by the Clean Air Status and Trends
Network (CASTNET). Air concentrations are measured by CASTNET at more than 90
locations.

When acid deposition is washed into lakes and streams, it can cause some to turn acidic.
The Long-Term Monitoring (LTM) Network measures and monitors surface water
chemistry at over 280 sites to provide valuable information on aquatic ecosystem health
and how water bodies respond to changes in acid-causing emissions and acid deposition.

(8) DEFORESTATION
Deforestation, clearance, clearcutting or clearing is the removal of a forest or stand of trees
from land which is then converted to a non-forest use. Deforestation can involve conversion of
forest land to farms, ranches, or urban use. The most concentrated deforestation occurs in
tropical rainforests. About 31% of Earth's land surface is covered by forests.

Deforestation has many causes: trees can be cut down to be used for building or sold as fuel
(sometimes in the form of charcoal or timber), while cleared land can be used as pasture for
livestock and plantation. Disregard of ascribed value, lax forest management, and deficient
environmental laws are some of the factors that lead to large-scale deforestation. In many
countries, deforestation—both naturally occurring and human-induced—is an ongoing issue.
Between 2000 and 2012, 2.3 million square kilometres (890,000 sq mi) of forests around the
world were cut down. As of 2005, net deforestation rates had ceased to increase in countries with
a per capita GDP of at least US$4,600.

The removal of trees without sufficient reforestation has resulted in habitat damage, biodiversity
loss, and aridity. Deforestation causes extinction, changes to climatic conditions, desertification,
and displacement of populations, as observed by current conditions and in the past through the
fossil record. Deforestation also has adverse impacts on bio sequestration of atmospheric carbon
dioxide, increasing negative feedback cycles contributing to global warming. Global warming
also puts increased pressure on communities who seek food security by clearing forests for
agricultural use and reducing arable land more generally. Deforested regions typically incur
significant other environmental effects such as adverse soil erosion and degradation into
wasteland.

Deforestation is more extreme in tropical and subtropical forests in emerging economies. More
than half of all plant and land animal species in the world live in tropical forests. As a result of
deforestation, only 6.2 million square kilometres (2.4 million square miles) remain of the original
16 million square kilometres (6 million square miles) of tropical rainforest that formerly covered
the Earth. An area the size of a football pitch is cleared from the Amazon rainforest every
minute, with 136 million acres (55 million hectares) of rainforest cleared for animal agriculture
overall. More than 3.6 million hectares of virgin tropical forest was lost in 2018.

The causes of deforestation

Deforestation causes can either be direct or indirectAmong direct causes are

 Natural causes as hurricanes, fires, parasites and floods

 Human activities as agricultural expansion, cattle breeding, timber extraction, mining, oil
extraction, dam construction and infrastructure development.

Among indirect causes are:

 Insufficient political actions and governance failure as inadequate land tenure system, corruption,
wrong public administration investments
 Political and socio-economic causes as population growth, military conflicts and climatic changes

The main causes of deforestation can actually be lead back especially to:

 substitution of forest areas with cultivations and breeding

 timber extraction
 firewood collection
 road and infrastrucutre construction

Deforestation consequences

Forests play a crucial role for the water cycle and deforestation entails climatic imbalances both
at a global and local level as it influences the composition of the atmosphere and, as a
consequence, also has an impact on the greenhouse effect. Forests, infact, have an important role
to play for air and climate. Every tree produces, on average, 20-30 litres of oxygen per day. In
particular, a virgin tropical forest produces about 28 tons of oxygen per hectare every year,
equivalent to a total of 15,300 million tons per year. On the contrary, forest destruction caused
by fires to create areas for agriculture and cattle breeding, burns oxygen and releases in the
atmosphere carbon dioxide which has been stored by trees during their whole life cycle in the
form of wood and vegetation. Deforestation is responsible for about a fifth of global greenhouse
gas emissions and is, indeed, one of the major causes of carbon release in the atmosphere.