Using examples, explain the value and nature of Communication within each of the 5

perspectives of Organizational Communication. ( 30 Marks)

The terms organization, communication, values and nature of communication should first be
understood before one can evaluate and identify organizational communication. Communication
is defined by William-Webster.com as, a process by which information is exchanged between
individuals through a common system of symbols, signs, or behavior. With this in mind
therefore, we can simply identify communication as the passing or exchange of information.
In the same note, we define organization by pointing out to Amitai Etzioni (1964) who
concludes that: We are born in organizations, educated by organizations, and most of us spend
much of our lives working for organizations (p. 1). Stephen P. Robbins (2001) continues to
define an organization as a ―consciously coordinated social unit composed of two or more
people, that functions on a relatively continuous basis to achieve a common goal or set of goals
(p. 4). I can hence deliberate that, the working together between two or more people that
consistently strive to archive a common objective or acquire a predetermined outcome.
Consequently, we can identify that the process of organizing is successful through
communication. In the broader term, organizational communication can now be understood as to
refer to the exchange of information/ messages among the different stake holders within an
organization
Values are the widely accepted standards of what is acceptable or unacceptable, important or
unimportant, right or wrong, fair or just, etc., in a community or society (Winnie Ndeta, 2017). It
can also refer to behaviors that contribute to the unique social and psychological environment of
an organization. Cultural values are a significant element of how a person or group of people
conducts their businesses (p.59). Lastly in defining nature, Webster.com Dictionary dictates
that it is, the structure, composition, physical makeup, or nature of something. The realization
here therefore is that the nature of organizational communication then is a two-way process of
understanding between two or more persons – sender and receiver. A person cannot
communicate with himself. In other words, the word nature is the inherent character or basic
constitution of the intended communication in an organization.
Organizational communication perspectives.
There are five perspectives that work to differentiate the effectiveness, development, growth and
influence of organizational communication. The flow and dissemination of communication
within the organization depend or are as a result of the practices(culture), the values(rules), and
the nature(characteristics) of the communication. The following is a discussion of the values and
nature of communication in the five organizational communication perspectives.
Classical Management Perspective
Classical Management Perspective focuses on organizational structure, analyzing aspects such
as optimal organizational performance plans, organizational power relationships, and classified
different organizational units. Fisher, D. (2000). To understand classical management, a brief
history of industrialization is necessary. Industrialization, or the industrial revolution, refers to
the “development and adoption of new and improved production methods that changed
American and much of Europe from agrarian to industrial economies (Scott 2009). The
conventional outlook for understanding organizational communication can be described using a
machine metaphor. Ndeta. W. (2017). Ndeta (2017) continues to point out that, at the beginning
of the industrial age, where people thought science could solve almost every problem, American
Frederick Taylor, Frenchman Henri Fayol, and German Max Weber tried to apply scientific
solutions to organizations. They wanted to determine how organizations and workers could
function in an ideal scientific manner. Organizations during the industrial revolution wanted to
know how they could maximize their profits, so the classical management perspective focused
on worker productivity (p. 30). This can be exemplified with a simple understanding of the
classical management perspective of organizational communication by equating organization to a
machine. It is common knowledge that, if one operates a machine, they should maintain it well
and perform the needed upgrades and changes. In return then, they will have a very productive
and effective machine. The assumption is that each employee is part of a large machine, which is
the organization. It one part fails then the entire machine fails. Jason S. (2011). The machine
metaphor of classical management suggests that three basic aspects should exist in organizations:
Specialization, Standardization, and Predictability (Miller, 2001). Classical management
perspective can be summarized to be based on the belief that workers only have physical and
economic needs. It does not consider social needs or job satisfaction, but instead advocates a
specialization of labor, centralized leadership and decision-making, and profit maximization. The
value and nature of organizational communication then can be identified in classical
management perspective as stated below.
The nature of communication in classical management perspective is only one way. In other
words, communication is only from the management of the organisation to the other workers
with no room for feedback. Under classical management theory, workplaces are divided under
three distinct layers of management. At the very top are the owners, board of directors and
executives that set the long-range objectives for a firm. Middle management takes on the
responsibility of overseeing supervisors while setting goals at the department level to fit within
the confines of the managers’ budget. At the lowest level of the chain are supervisors, who
manage day-to-day activities, address employee problems and provide training. A perfect
example to illustrate the Organizational communication in this Perspective is the communication
that exists in petrol/filling stations in Kenya. This type of organizations still employ Classical
Management Perspective. The fact is illustrated by the specialization and division of labour
among the employees. There usually exists the people responsible for filling vehicles with fuel,
while there are those responsible with repair and those concerned with the sale and distribution
of cooking or household fuel. The communication between stake holders is very limited or even
lacking. The management of such a business usually are concerned with profits and efficiency.
The value of communication in organizational communication is highly contextual but also very
first. classical management perspective involves the specialization and division of labour.
Communication in this perspective then depends on the effectiveness of the preceding conveyers
of the message or information passed. The understanding of the values, norms and culture of the
organization allows for effective completion of tasks and efficiency. Large tasks are broken
down into smaller ones that are easy to accomplish. Workers understand their roles and typically
specialize in a single area. This helps increase productivity and efficiency while eliminating the
need for employees to multi-task and reaffirmation for tasks.
The nature or the process in which organizational communication in classical management
perspective utilises affects the communication. The tendency of an organization of offering
rewards and incentives to efficiency in the organization leads to improved and efficient
productivity. The value assigned to the communication procedure will be influenced by the
incentives available after completion of the task. The employees are motivated by financial
rewards. It proposes that employees will work harder and be more productive if they are awarded
incentives based on their work. Employers who can motivate their employees using this tactic
may be able to achieve increased production, efficiency and profit.
All in all, communication in the classical perspective has two functions: control and command.
Fayol believes that organizations must limit their communication to precise and explicit words
for task design and implementation. Thus, communication is not spontaneous and is more
centralized in a classical organization.
Human Relations Perspective
Contrasted with classical management perspective which was focused on efficiency and profit
and did not treat people as humans, scholars wanted to focus on the human elements of
organizations. These scholars wanted to focus on the human elements of organizations.
The human relations perspective detailed how organizational members relate to one another,
and how individuals’ needs influence their performance in organizations (Miles, R. E. (1965).
Where Taylor viewed people as parts of a working machine, the human relations perspective
directed the focus from the task to the worker. Employees started to be viewed as an important
part of the organization that should be viewed holistically instead of tools of efficiency and profit
maximization. As Miles noted, managers were urged to create a ‘sense of satisfaction’ among
their subordinates by showing interest in the employees personal success and welfare.” Miles, R.
E. (1965). Miles made it clear that, the goal of human relations was to make workers feel like
they belonged to something bigger than themselves, and thus their efforts were important to the
overall effort of the organization.(p.150). Robert. D (1958) continues in contrasting the classical
management perspective with the view that the human relations perspective sees communication
as a tool that can be used by management to “buy” cooperation from subordinates. Dubin, R.
(1958).
Another scholar, Abraham Maslow cemented this perspective with the introduction of a theory
which focused on the hieratical needs of the humans. The theory suggests that human beings are
motivated to satisfy their personal needs. Maslow contends that humans are motivated by a series
of basic physical and psychological needs divided into lower and higher order categories. Ndeta
(2017).
Over the years, managements of organizations became more human-centered, focusing on the
capacities of individuals to act autonomously and creatively and influencing management
toward bringing out the potential of the people they employ. Human relations perspective
focused on the importance of including the needs of the workers with the needs of the
company and adopting policies aimed at their mutual benefit.
In sum, the human relations perspective on organizational management notes that the world
would be easier for managers if they could just make decisions and have subordinates follow
those decisions. However, because employees are more productive when they are satisfied, it
becomes the job of the manager to open engage with subordinates. As Miles notes, “this model
suggests, the manager might do better to ‘waste time’ in discussing the problem with
subordinates, and perhaps even to accept suggestions that he believes may be less efficient, in
order to get the decision carried out.” Miles, R. E. (1965).
Case in point to illustrate values and nature of organizational communication in Human
Relations Perspective can be given following. An organization such as a school is a perfect
example of Human Relations Perspective. The nature of communication is highly flexible which
allows for the easy flow and effective communication in the organization. The different division
and demarcation of tasks allows for the upward and also downward flow of the communication
within it. The behavior of the workers and stake holders affects the development of the
organization. The value of communication then is identified as important to the efficiency and
development of the organization.
Human Resources Perspective
According to Ndeta W. (Ed. (2017). The Human Resources perspective picks up where human
relations left off. The contrast of this perspective with the previous is obvious. Human Relations
was primarily concerned with productivity and focused to achieve worker productivity simply by
making workers happy. Ndeta proceeds to exemplify this perspective by sating: The idea that a
happy employee would be a productive employee makes initial sense. However, happiness does
not mean that we will be productive workers. As a matter of fact, an individual can be happy
with a job and not work very hard (p.34). Another reason scholars tried to improve the human
relations perspective was because manipulative managers misused it by inviting participation
from employees on the surface, but not really doing anything with the employees ‘contributions (
Ndeta, 2017).
Winnie Ndeta (Ed.)2017) continues to detail this perspective. She says that, Human Resources
perspective attempts to truly embrace participation by all organizational members, viewing each
person as a valuable human resource. Employees are valuable resources that should be fully
involved to manifest their abilities and productivity. Using this approach, organizations began to
encourage employee participation in decision making. (p.36)
Under this perspective then, one can identify that leaders/management should not be focused on
controlling employees or getting them to blindly follow or agree to decisions. Instead, the focus
of management should be the creation of a working environment that encourages employee
creativity and risk taking. Miles agrees with this belief by pointing out that it allows the
management to maximize and tap into the abilities employees bring to the organization. That
being so, organizational communication in this perspective must be current, clear and multi-
directional, giving room for participation in decision-making for both management and workers
(Miles, 1965). Miles and Ritchie simplify the perspective by explaining that the human resources
perspective, “recognized the untapped potential of most organizational members and advocated
participation as a means of achieving direct improvement in individual and organizational
performance (Miles, R. E., & Ritchie, J. B. (1971).
Example,
Communication is used in human resources to relay information from directors to employees.
This information pertains to company policies or goals. Effective communication increases
productivity, which benefits employees and the company. Proper communication techniques
can boost employee morale to create a positive work atmosphere.
Positive communication practices create a work environment that reduces employee turnover.
It is important to keep experienced employees within the company to help train and instruct
others. An example is realized through an organization like Safaricom Limited in Kenya. The
company is quite famous among many in Kenya due to its good and desirable operations. The
nature of communication within the company is multi directional and highly dynamic. The
management of the company is open and receptive to the feedback and welfare of the
employees. The company has gone ahead even to establish essential and much needed
facilities for the employees. An example of such facility is the construction of a high-end
Education center that is open to all children of the employees and even other members of the
public. The value of communication in Safaricom therefore is high and very effective. All the
workers of Safaricom treasure and are keen to adhere to the communication within the
company.
Systems Perspective
The Systems Perspective was first detailed by Katz and Kahn, who adapted General Systems
Theory to organizational behavior. Katz and Kahn (1966). This approach identifies
organizational behavior by mapping the repeated processes of input, throughput, output, and
feedback between an organization and its external environment. Systems receive input from the
environment either as information or in the form of resources. The systems then process the input
internally, which is called throughput, and release outputs into the environment in an attempt to
restore equilibrium to the environment. The system then seeks feedback to determine if the
output was effective in restoring equilibrium (Bertalanffy (1951). As can be realized, this
Perspective emphasizes on the means used to maintain organizational survival and focuses on
long-term goals rather than the short-term goals as contrasted with the other perspectives
discussed above that deal in efficiency and profit maximization.
Scholars went ahead and poised that, to understand System Perspective, one must know this
perspective is “concerned with problems of relationships, of structure, and of interdependence
rather than with the constant attributes of objects” (Katz & Kahn, 1966, p.18). Buckley (1967)
observed that, an organization is like a living organism, and must exist in its external
environment in order to survive. Organizations are not isolated, and must interact with other
organizations within their environments to survive. Without this interaction an organization
remains what we call closed, and withers away.
Organizations depend on their environments for numerous critical resources; customers who
purchase the product or service, suppliers who provide materials, employees who provide labor
or management, shareholders who invest, and governments that regulate. According to Cutlip,
Center, and Broom, public relations is a vital role in helping organizations adjust and adapt to
changes in an organization’s environment. (Cutlip, Center, and Broom (2006).
Lastly, Ndeta (Ed)2017) describes that, an organization is more than just a physical building with
people inside. Communication is the process of organizing- implying that communication
actually is the organization (Farace, Monge, & Russell, 1977; Eisenberg & Goodall, 2001).
Regardless of whether the focus is on the message or the meaning, Systems Perspective stresses
the interdependence and cohesiveness among people within organizations and the outcomes they
produce as a result of their interactions. (Ndeta Ed. 2017, pg. 38)
The value and nature of Organizational communication in System Management Perspective is
exemplified as it follows. The nature of communication in systems Perspective is highly
inclusive. The communication here involves the constant flow of communication within and
without the organization. A company like Kenya Revenue Authority uses the system perspective
for its operation. The existence of KRA is highly reliant on constant communication among its
different stake holders who in turn are in contact with other organizations that must also
communicate with KRA for their continued sustainability and operations.
Cultural Perspective
First, cultures are created through communication; that is, communication is the means of human
interaction through which cultural characteristics— whether customs, roles, rules, rituals, laws,
or other patterns—are created and shared (Ndeta 2017). It is not so much that individuals set out
to create a culture when they interact in relationships, groups, organizations, or societies, but
rather that cultures are a natural by-product of social interaction. Evidently, cultures are the
"residue" of social communication. It would be impossible to preserve and pass along cultural
characteristics from one place and time to another without the use of communication and
communication avenues/media. One can confidently say, that culture is created, shaped,
transmitted, and learned through communication. The conventional, traditional or common ways
of behavior and actions within a cultural identity group are expressed through language. In order
to be accepted as a member of a cultural group, members must be acculturated, essentially
learning and using a code that other group members will be able to recognize Mary Coller
(1996).
Throughout modern history, cultural and social influences have established dominant and
nondominant groups. (Brenda J. 2011). Cultures change over time. In fact, cultures are ever
changing—though the change is sometimes very slow and unrecognized(2011). Many forces
influence cultural change. As indicated above, cultures are created through communication, and
it is also through communication between individuals that cultures change over time.
Exposure and communication advancement greatly accelerate the movement of messages from
one cultural context to another, and in small and large ways, cultures come to influence one
another through communication.
Ndeta (Ed.)2017) summarises this perspective by giving five roles that organizations must
maintain. They are.
1) Shared values and beliefs,
2) Common practices, skills, and actions,
3) Customarily observed rules,
4) Objects and artifacts, and
5) Mutually understood meanings.
Ndeta continues to argue that, ‘’each organization has unique characteristics that make it
different from other organizations. Every organization has certain cultural differences such as
language, traditions, symbols, practices, past-times, and social conveniences that distinguish it
from other organizations. Each organization is rich with its own histories, stories, customs, and
social norms. We can understand organizations by seeing them as unique cultures.’’ Ndeta
(Ed)20117).
Communication in Culture Perspective is highly dynamic. This nature allows for the quick
adoption of change in the communication process. The value of communication to the
organization in this perspective is unquantifiable. This is so because of the outside interaction of
the organization and other organizations. Self-evaluation and easy adaptability of change makes
the communication vital and precious to the effectiveness and suitability of the organization.
A company like Samsung International, employs the system perspective in organizational
communication. Due to the versatile environment in which the organization operates, require for
constant and current communication between stake holders in the company and the other
organizations to identify new and modern production to avoid redundancy and outdatedness.