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1) Efficiency of Unitary Government and Federal Government: some believe that a unitary and cohesive
country is more efficient and that a centralized government is able to make decisions and implement
laws and regulations in a more effective manner. At the same time, others argue that a decentralized
system can respond to the needs of all citizens in a more adequate way. Indeed, in unitary systems, the
decision-making process is faster and (often) smoother, but, at the same time, there might be less
transparency. Unitary governments do not have duplications (whereas federal systems do) and reduce
bureaucratic and administrative processes to the minimum. Conversely, federal systems tend to take
longer to make decisions, to adopt or reject new laws, and to implement political and social changes;

2) Participation of Unitary vs.  Federal Government: in a unitary democracy (as well as in some modern
monarchies), citizens have the possibility of electing their representatives and popular participation is
allowed and promoted by the government itself. Yet, federal systems allow for a broader popular
engagement. For instance, in most federal republics, citizens can elect their representatives at a local
and state level but can also participate in the election of the president or head of the state;

3) “Involvement in the economy” of Unitary and Federal Government: the degree of governmental

involvement in the economy varies from country to country. In some cases, federal systems allow for
more autonomy even in the economic sphere, while on other cases the central government uses its local
subsidiaries to keep a closer look on private businesses. In general, private entrepreneurship tends to be
more challenging in unitary states.

What is Unitary Government?

A unitary government can be both a democracy and a monarchy. In both cases, the power is
concentrated in the hands of the central government, while provinces and regions do not enjoy large
autonomy. The underlying principle of any unitary government is the idea of unity. If the power is in the
hands of few (even if those few are elected by the population), it is easier to create cohesive and equal
laws and norms that apply to all citizens (in all parts of the country) without discrimination.

Some believe that citizens do not have much say in unitary systems, but this is not always true. In
unitary democracies, like Italy, South Korea, Portugal, France and Finland, citizens have the right to
express their opinions and the government is elected by the people. Even in monarchic systems like
Spain, Sweden and Denmark, the interests of the population are always taken in high consideration.
Freedom of speech and liberty of movements are (or should be) always respected in such countries and
citizens have the possibility to protest against their government if they wish so. Yet, at the same time, it
is easier for a unitary government to turn into an authoritarian regime or a dictatorship, and rulers have
the possibility of creating and eliminating rules and laws in a much quicker way than in a federal system.

Confederation: Meaning and Examples of Confederation

Meaning of Confederation:

Confederation is an organisation of some sovereign states which join together for Common Defence and
for other common purposes. They establish a common executive and legislature but the powers of these
executives and legislatures are limited.

Hall says, “A confederation is a union strictly of independent states which consent to forgo permanently
a part of their liberty of action for certain specific objects, and they are so combined under a common
government that the latter appears to their exclusion as the international unity”.

According to Oppenheim, a confederation consists of a number of full sovereign states linked together
for the maintenance of their external and internal independence by a recognised international treaty
into a union with organs of its own, which are vested with a certain power over the member ‘states’, but
not over the citizens of these states”.
It is clear from the definitions given above that some sovereign states establish a joint centre for
common purposes and transfer some powers to it willingly. They can leave that union at will. The
sovereignty of the states forming a federation is not in any way hampered.

This union can neither impose any tax on the citizens of the states, nor can it make any law for them.
The states joining the union can contribute funds at will at the time of need. They also implement its
decisions. There is an executive and legislature of this union, where the representatives of the state vote
according to the instructions from their states.

Examples of Confederations:

In history, many examples of confederations are available. The reasons for this is that for Common
Defence and for other common purposes the neighbouring countries join together. Many examples of
confederations are available in ancient Greece which include Boeotian, Delian, Lycian, Achaean and
Actolian League-many references are also available regarding confederations of ancient cities of Italy,
but they were not as complete as the Greek Confederations were.

References of confederations in ancient India are also available. Thirty-six republics of the Eastern India
established a confederation in 493 to 462 B.C. in order to protect themselves against the attack of Ajat
Satru, the ruler of Magadha.

During the middle Ages many confederations were established in Europe among which Rhenish
confederation, 1254-1350 and Hanseatic League, 1367-1669 are quite well-known. The Holy Roman
Empire of 1526 to 1806 A. D. was one of the most important confederations before the nineteenth
century.

The confederation comprised of several hundred states, free cities and Church-controlled states.
Confederations flourished in Switzerland from 1291 to 1798 and 1803 to 1818 A. D. in U.S.A. from 1781
to 1787 A.D. There was a confederation in United Netherlands from 1576 to 1789 A.D.

During 1907, five Central American States, Guatemala, Costa Rica, Honduras, Nicaragua and Salvador
established a confederation. The League of Nations (1919-1944) is one of the best examples of a
confederation. Now the U.N. has been formed for establishing world peace.

This is also an organisation of sovereign states. In the U.N. the member-states vote according to the
instructions received from their respective governments. It has a General Assembly and a Security
Council whose decisions and resolutions are not binding on the member states.

Merits of Confederation:

One of the most important merits of a confederation is that it guards the weak states against a powerful
enemy. It also lessens expenditure on foreign relations and the mutual political and commercial conflicts
of the states are resolved. A confederation creates the spirit of unity just as it was created in the
American and German confederations and ultimately paved way for the federation.
Demerits of Confederation:

The main defect in a confederation is the lack of sovereignty. Its member-states are sovereign and it
depends upon their will be to implement its resolutions and decisions to any extent. It has no military
force of its own and it also does not have the power to impose taxes. Sometimes powerful states
indulge in conspiracy in a confederation. This is not in the interest of smaller states as it results in its
early destruction.

Difference Between Federation and Confederation

Definition

Federation is a political entity of regional states or constituents united into a single group with
centralized control while the confederation is a more or less permanent union of sovereign states
according to common interests and political, economic or even administrative convenience.

Central Authority

The federal government which governs the member states acts as the central authority of the
federation whereas, in a confederation, the central authority is usually a weak nominal body appointed
by the member states.

New State

Federation is a creation of a new state, but the confederation does not create any new state.

Sovereignty

The member states in a federation lose their sovereignty and are controlled by the central authority
while the member states in a confederation retain their sovereignty even after their union. This is the
main difference between Federation and Confederation.

Membership

The membership in a federation becomes mandatory while the membership in a confederation is

voluntary to the states. Therefore, the members of a confederation can leave the union at any time they
wish.

Constitutions

Federation has a written constitution while confederation does not have a written constitution.

Resolutions

The resolutions passed by federations concern the laws made by the federal government, and the
member states bound to obey and enforce them. On the contrary, the resolutions passed by the
Confederation are not of the status of law; they are mostly academic, or joint foreign policy etc. thus,
not binding the member states to enforce them.

Association

The extent of the association in a confederation is not as deep as in a federation. In other words, a
federation is a rigid union while confederation is more or less a loose union.

Examples

Some examples of federations are Russia, China, USA, Belgium, Austria, Australia, Germany, etc. Some
examples of Confederation are EU, Indigenous confederations in North America, Old Swiss Confederacy,
Confederation of the Rhine, etc

Conclusion

Federation and Confederation are two forms of government systems in the world. We can see the
federation system in states consisting of large territories with several provinces and regions while the
confederation is usually among autonomous states with common political and economic objectives. The
main difference between federation and confederation lies in the sovereign status of their members
after the formation of the confederation.
Difference between Federation and Confederation

Federation and confederation are political and strategical agreements among countries or provinces,
created in order to enable the constituents to enjoy political and economic benefits. In spite of some
similarities, the two concepts are quite different:

1. Confederations were very popular in ancient Greece and during the Middle Age, but there are
not many examples of existing confederations. International organizations have a similar
structure, but have legal treaties and enforcement mechanisms, while confederations were
loose agreements with no written constitution. Conversely, federations are more common
today, and many confederations formed centuries ago evolved into federations;

2. The powers and responsibilities of the central authority vary greatly between the two. First of
all, there is no central government as such in a confederation, but rather a weak body elected by
member states, while the federal government has great power and influence over the
constituents. In a confederation, the central government has no power de facto, and it is only in
place to facilitate the decision-making process and speed up communication. Conversely, when
states come together to create a federation, they create a new nation state, with a functioning
and powerful central government. The constituents lose part of their autonomy and authority,
 and the central government acquires the ability of making decisions regarding national security,
military, foreign policy and diplomacy; and

3. The ties among states and provinces are much stronger in the case of the federation. Indeed, in
a confederation, states agree to come together for various purposes, but they are not legally
tied together and can technically back up or exit the confederation whenever they want
(depending on the type of confederation). Conversely, in a federation, there are binding legal
agreements that prevent states from leaving the union. Relations among states within a
federation are stronger as the different entities come together to create a new nation state.

Difference: Confederation and Federation | States | Political Science

The upcoming discussion will update you about the difference between confederation and federation. 

A confederation is a loose union of some sovereign states who do not surrender or shed their sovereign
powers. They carry on their national flag and currency. They get together under the umbrella of an
organisation for some specific and temporary purpose. The union is of a temporary nature. The
resolutions passed by the central organisation are addressed to the states forming the confederation.

This need not be followed by the citizens of the states. The confederating states evolve some common
defence and foreign policy or some other issues of common interest. It is not a new state. It retains its
own flag, currency and citizenship. This type of association of sovereign states was very popular in
ancient Greece. In the medieval period we find confederations like the Lambared League, the Hanseatic
League and the Rhenish League.

There is a gulf of difference between a confederation and a federation. We shall now point out these
differences.

First, a confederation is a temporary association of the sovereign states. They retain their sovereign
power even after the formation of the confederation. In a federation which is of a permanent nature,
the federating states cease to have their sovereign character on the formation of the federation. The
confederation does not create any new state. But federation is a creation of a new state.

Secondly, the resolutions passed by the central organisation of the confederation are not of the status
of law. These are academic in nature and are not enforceable in a court of law. But laws made by the
federal government are binding on all. The federal authority, the units and the citizens are all to obey
these laws.

Thirdly, a confederation does not create a new state. It is a loose union. But the federation is the
creation of a new state. In a federation the units are under the canopy of a protecting tree. That tree is
the central authority or the federal authority.
Fourthly, the degree of association in a confederation is not so deep as in a federation. Federation is a
rigid union, but a confederation is a loose union. A member-state of a confederation can break away
from the union. But a member state in the federation cannot leave the federation.

Lastly, there is double citizenship in a federation. An individual residing in a federation is the citizen of
the federal or central state and he is at the same time the citizen of the province of his domicile. Thus a
person living in the province of Virginia is a citizen of the USA and also a citizen of Virginia. A
confederation cannot have any citizen. All its citizens belong to the confederating states.

10 principles of Nazi ideology

While Nazi ideology was open to interpretation and changed over time, it held firm to a number of core
values and beliefs. The following 10 principles were a consistent feature of Nazi ideology:

1. Authoritarianism

The Nazis desired strong government and extensive state power. They believed the Nazi state could not
function effectively if it lacked the means to impose its will and enforce its policies. Decisions were to be
made by a leader with almost absolute power (a Fuhrer). All political authority and sovereignty rested
with this leader, who should be trusted by the people to make important decisions on their behalf
(Fuhrerprinzip). No political parties or organisations other than the NSDAP could be tolerated. Other
groups with political influence, such as unions or churches, would be either restricted or abolished.

2. Totalitarianism

To the Nazis, state power had few limits and extended into all aspects of German political, social and
cultural life. They believed it was the government’s duty not just to devise policy but to shape,
coordinate and regulate society for the betterment of the nation. A totalitarian government must have
the power to control the press and unions, restrict civil liberties, manage education and employ
propaganda. Liberal freedoms from government power – such as civil liberties, individual rights and
freedoms – were considered irrelevant and subordinate to the interests of the state.

3. Nationalism

Nazism was chiefly a nationalist ideology. It was concerned only with Germany and its interests:
restoring the German economy, achieving economic self-sufficiency, rebuilding its military, acquiring
territory and providing for the German people. The Nazis had little interest in forming or improving
international relationships, other than to advance German interests. They detested diplomacy and
despised multilateral groups like the League of Nations. Hitler and his followers had no intention of
honouring or abiding by existing foreign treaties or negotiating new ones, except where it might help
fulfil their own objectives.

4. Militarism
Hitler and his followers believed that re-arming and expanding Germany’s armed forces was essential
for the defence of the nation. Rearmament was carried out in defiance of the restrictions imposed by
the Treaty of Versailles. Hitler considered military strength essential for expanding the German state.
The organisation and culture of the NSDAP were fundamentally militaristic. This was evidenced by the
size and popularity of the party’s paramilitary groups: the Sturmabteilung (SA) and Schutzstaffel (SS).

5. Expansionism

Hitler and the Nazis dreamed of unifying the German-speaking Aryan peoples of Europe into a greater
German state. To achieve this, Hitler believed his regime would need to acquire lebensraum, or ‘living
space’, to accommodate the needs of the new Germany. This living space would be seized from the non-
Aryan people of eastern Europe, from countries like Czechoslovakia, Poland and Russia. The first step to
creating a greater Germany would be to achieve Anschluss: the union of Germany and Austria.

6. A ‘third way’

The horrors of World War I and the Great Depression saw many people reject existing political and
economic systems, such as parliamentary democracy and capitalism. Socialism emerged as one
alternative – but both Nazism and fascism considered themselves ‘third-way’ ideologies, or alternatives
to both democracy and socialism. Hitler was famously hostile to democracy, which he considered a weak
and indecisive form of government, too prone to interference and infiltration by destructive forces. He
also despised communism, regarding it as a Jewish invention to enslave non-Jewish races.

7. Economic sovereignty

Economic power, prosperity and self-sufficiency were priorities for the NSDAP. The Nazis sought the
creation of jobs for unemployed Germans, the restoration of national prosperity, the recovery of
industrial production and the rearming of the military. They believed the role of the state was to
manage the economy, dictating what should be produced, allocating resources and managing labour.
Unemployment would be dealt with by putting the unemployed to work for the benefit of the state. The
Nazis had no objection to the private ownership of capital, provided these capitalists were willing to
meet government priorities (and provided they were not Jewish).

8. Traditional values

Conservative traditions were a strong feature of Nazi ideology. The Nazis often painted themselves as a
new movement but they also promoted traditional values. Hitler frequently spoke of protecting long-
standing German values, including Christian beliefs and volkisch connections to the land. He often
harked back to the 19th century, when Germany was ruled by men of steel like Otto von Bismarck and
German society was relatively untroubled by disruptive influences like socialism, liberalism, democracy
and women’s rights.

9. Racial theories
Their dark obsession with race separated Hitler and the Nazis from many other fascist and nationalist
groups. The Nazis considered Aryans – those of Nordic heritage, with blonde hair and blue eyes –
Europe’s ‘master race’. According to Nazi racial theories, Aryans were physically stronger, intellectually
advanced and more culturally gifted than other European races. The Nazis considered races like Jews,
Slavs and Romany to be untermensch (‘inferior men’). The Nazis embraced the pseudo-science
of eugenics, that claimed society could be improved by adopting policies of ‘genetic hygiene’, such as
the compulsory sterilisation or euthanasia of the mentally ill or disabled.

10. Volksgemeinschaft

Translating as ‘people’s community’, Volksgemeinschaft did not originate with the Nazis. Instead, it

came from the difficult years of World War I. The principle of volksgemeinschaft was that all Germans
should unite and work together to reduce differences in class, wealth and standards of living. In reality,
the Nazis had no interest in this kind of levelling or social unity – yet volksgemeinschaft figured heavily in
NSDAP propaganda. This gave the impression that Nazism was a cohesive and unifying movement.